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Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341 2021 Received: October 6, 2020, Accepted: December 16, de 2020 DOI: 10.17129/botsci.2672Ivanova et al. / BotanicalOn Sciences line first: 99(2):February 321-341. 15, 2021 2021

Ethnobotany / Etnobotánica

Singing the nature - ethnobotanical knowledge in bulgarian folk SongS canto con la naturaleza: conocimiento etnobotánico en cancioneS populareS búlgaraS

1 2 1 1 teodora ivanova *, valentina ganeva-raicheva , Yulia boSSeva , and deSSiSlava dimitrova

1 Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev St., , . 2 Institute of and Folklore Studies with Ethnographic Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev St., Sofia, Bulgaria. *Author for correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract Background: Bulgarian poetic folklore reflects an agrarian culture deeply connected with land and nature. However, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) transmitted through Bulgarian folklore is scarcely assessed. Questions: What are the dimensions of the TEK related to diversity (native and introduced) that appear in Bulgarian folk songs and what is their potential as transmitters of ТЕК? Data description: The lyrics of 10,113 Bulgarian folk songs were excerpted from major academic collections and a set of unpublished songs. Study site and dates: Current study covers songs that have been documented since mid-19th century onwards in the present and former Bulgar- ian territories and in areas that have been inhabited by ethnic Bulgarians abroad. Methods: Common plant names and descriptions of and landscapes were used to detect botanical affiliations of the denoted plants. We focused on frequencies of plant representations and their functions associated with cultural, agricultural and food-processing practices. Results: A total of 146 plant taxa from 109 genera were mentioned in 47.3 % of the studied songs. Over 60 % of the most frequently mentioned taxa were while neophytes were represented by seven taxa, denoting everyday and spiritual importance of nature. Conclusions: Bulgarian folk songs presented wide range of nature-related information typically reported for ethnic groups outside Europe. Quantification of TEK preserved in documented poetic folklore and further assessment of performance of nature-rich folklore would allow development additional tools for evaluation of cultural significance of species, landscapes and ecosystems as well as for development of educa- tional and inspirational materials. Keywords: , ecosystem services, folklore, symbolic plants. Resumen Antecedentes: El folclore poético búlgaro refleja una cultura agraria profundamente conectada con la tierra y la naturaleza. Sin embargo, el conocimiento ecológico tradicional (TEK) transmitido a través del folclore búlgaro es incipiente. Preguntas: ¿Cuáles son las dimensiones del TEK relacionadas con la diversidad de plantas (nativas e introducidas) que aparecen en las cancio- nes populares búlgaras y cuál es su potencial como transmisores de ТЕК? Descripción de datos: La letra de 10,113 canciones populares búlgaras se extrajo de las principales colecciones académicas y de una serie de canciones inéditas. Lugar de estudio y fechas: Se estudiaron canciones documentadas desde mediados del siglo XIX en los territorios búlgaros actuales y anteri- ores y áreas habitadas por búlgaros en el extranjero. Métodos: Se utilizaron nombres comunes y descripciones de plantas y paisajes para detectar afiliaciones botánicas. Nos centramos en las fre- cuencias y sus funciones asociadas con las prácticas culturales, agrícolas y de procesamiento de alimentos. Resultados: 146 taxones de 109 géneros se mencionaron en 47.3 % de los cantos estudiados. Más del 60 % de los taxones registrados eran arqueófitos y siete taxones fueron neófitos, lo que denota la importancia cotidiana y espiritual de la naturaleza. Conclusiones: Las canciones populares búlgaras presentaron mucha información de la naturaleza sobre los grupos étnicos fuera de Europa. El TEK del folclore documentado y la evaluación del folclore rico en naturaleza permitirá el desarrollo de herramientas para evaluar la importancia cultural de las especies, los paisajes y los ecosistemas, así como para el desarrollo de materiales educativos inspiradores. Palabras clave: Balcanes, servicios ecosistémicos, folclore, plantas simbólicas.

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321 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs

Culture plays an essential role for shaping and explaining Bulgarian musical heritage has attracted consider- human-nature interrelations, hence it is a reservoir of tra- able attention throughout the years and for many people ditional ecological knowledge (TEK) that has been trans- around the world it is the first gateway to Bulgarian cul- ferred over the generations. Preserved folklore heritage ture. The transformations in function and performance was found to contribute to the current insights in nature and even the political contextualization of Bulgarian folk conservation and education (Mac Coitir 2016, Pandey & songs after the World War II were thoroughly researched Pandey 2016, Dudareva & Goeva 2017, Schirpke et al. (Kaufman 2001, Kaufman & Peycheva 2004, Peycheva 2018). Additionally, the representation of folk traditions 2015, Rice 2017). However, the TEK preserved in vari- is a popular trend that appeals to broader public and at- ous forms of the Bulgarian folklore remains unexplored tracts interest to folklore festivals and events in Europe from biological perspective. Older ethnographic studies and beyond (Ganeva-Raycheva 2013, Wilks & Quinn (Iliev 1892, 1893, 1919, Stranski 1929) discussed briefly 2016, Chen & Tao 2017, Lange 2018). Still, the conti- the symbolism and, partially, the semantic role of several nous devaluation, arrested diachronic (from adults to plant species mentioned in the Bulgarian folklore, but did youngsters) and synchronic (among same age perform- not discuss their representation in the different folklore ers) transmission have hindered the natural transfer of forms. Ginchev (1890) recorded over 125 plants and plant in industrialized contexts (Quave products used in folk medicine making reference to some et al. 2012, Hernández-Morcillo et al. 2014, Shukla et al. folk songs as a proof of the authenticity of the collected 2017). In the more-and-more urbanizing societies world- knowledge. Later ethnobotanists working in Bulgaria fo- wide the traditional ways of handing down of knowledge cused predominantly on TEK on medicinal and wild ed- is rather questionable. On the other hand, the access to ible plants but mainly through field studies (Stranski 1929, knowledge that is foreign to certain community, avail- Kitanov 1953, Stoyanov & Kitanov 1960, Petkov 1986, ability of scientific-based data and modern opportunities Ivancheva & Stantcheva 2000, Nedelcheva & Dogan of sharing information allow further development and 2011, Nedelcheva 2013). Recent reports showed shrink- even co-creation of nature-related knowledge based on age of TEK on a global scale and Bulgaria is not an excep- traditions (Leonti 2011, Hernándes-Morcillo et al. 2014, tion (Nedelcheva & Dogan 2011, Georgiev 2013, Aswani Díaz et al. 2018). New dynamic realities demand diverse et al. 2018). approaches to educational and awareness interventions Several ethnographic compendium works described that could contribute to learning (Kim et the strong organic link of Bulgarians with nature that is al. 2017, Burton & Riley 2018, Ramet et al. 2018, Be- reflected in folk songs, legends, fairy tales, riddles, say- nyei et al. 2020). Thus, sourcing of reliable, scientifically ings (Georgiev 1976, Vakarelski 1977, Georgieva 1993, sound data for the development of such tools would rely, Georgiev 2013). Nevertheless, current assessments and probably inevitably, on the alredy documented TEK and mapping of (cultural) ecosystem services in the country modern transmission options like social media and live have provided contraversing evidences about the overall streaming. scores for cultural heritage (from very high for the Black Over the recent years, the reassessment of historical Sea Coast to lowest for the Central Mts., both pop- data sources has revealed preserved pockets of TEK that ular recreational sites and included in Natura 2000 net- provide valuable information for its persistence, erosion work) that were attributed also to the “missing perception and transformation (Nedelcheva et al. 2011, Svanberg et and understanding of the importance of ecosystems as a al. 2011, Dénes et al. 2012, Kalle & Sõukand 2012, Svan- whole” (Vladimirov & Petrova 2017, Nedkov et al. 2018, berg & Łuczaj 2014, Kujawska et al. 2017). However, Gocheva et al. 2019). and healing practices have remained the The objective of the current study was to explore the main focus and little attention has given to arts, rituals and diversity of wild and cultivated plants that appear in Bul- beliefs as a source of ethnobotanical knowledge (Thisel- garian folk songs and to reveal the link between their ton-Dyer 1889, Watts 2007, Łuczaj 2009, 2012, Mekbib biological characteristics and the role they play in the tra- 2009, Nedelcheva & Dogan 2011, Benítez et al. 2018, ditional songs. The study focuses on an important, yet un- Tolstaia 2018, Ahmed et al. 2019). Historical ethnobotany considered facet of folk songs - the poetic representation explores mostly written sources but very few of these in- of native and non-native plant diversity and the potential clude preserved cultural heritage (Silva et al. 2014, Her- of folk songs as carriers of TEK in the broader context of rero & Cardaño 2015). folklore as a systemic culture.

322 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021

Materials and methods ondary descriptions and by the mentioning of character- istic species. Information about agricultural/horticultural Bulgaria is located in the centre of the Balkan Peninsula, practices and food production was recorded, if present. in South-East Europe, on an area of 110,879 km2. The Functional-semantic analysis of plant diversity in songs country is in the transitional zone between temperate and related to rituals and everyday life was performed in order Mediterranean climatic zones. Bulgaria is topologically to understand the place of plants in the system of folklore diverse with altitudes ranging from sea level to nearly knowledge. The roles of plants and their utilitarian and/or 3,000 m. Bulgarian vascular comprises 3,840 spe- cultural functions were asserted in the context of the ritual cies of and 60 species, affiliated to or other cultural practices described in the songs. 886 genera and 153 families (Biserkov et al. 2015). About 51.2 % of the territory is being cultivated, 42.67 % is cov- Results ered with forests, and 4.9 % are urban areas (Adams & Lükewille 2010). Plant-denoting references were recorded in nearly half of Present study covers folk songs documented in the the surveyed song lyrics (47.3 %, 4,788). Often more than current Bulgarian territory and in areas of present-day one plant was mentioned within a single song and in a , Romania, , North Macedonia, Moldova, quarter of the researched songs (1,200) more than three and Ukraine inhabited by ethnic Bulgarians. Lyrics were plant taxa were present. A total of 146 plant taxa from 109 excerpted in electronic searchable format (MS Access da- genera, and 55 families were identified (Figures 1, 2, Ap- tabase) from major academic collections published from pendix 1). the mid-19th century onwards: Arnaudov et al. (1961-1963 Native flora was presented with 93 taxa, followed by - Balgarsko narodno tvorchestvo in 12 volumes), Kaloya- 40 archaeophytes and 7 neophytes. The majority of the nov (1986), Kaloyanov (1992), Mollov (2006-2017). The mentioned plants were wild (83 taxa), 53 were cultivat- region (South-East Bulgaria, bordering with Tur- ed (crops and/or garden) plants and 11 were either wild key) was under-represented in the publications mentioned or cultivated native ornamental and -bearing plants above, thus we used also a set of unpublished songs, gath- (i.e., peony, iris, strawberry, cherry plums, etc.). At fam- ered in the 1980s in Sakar Mt. and stored in the archive ily level Rosaceae was most frequently mentioned with of the Institute of Ethnology and Folklore Studies at the 1,093 citations of 16 taxa (Figure 1, Table 1). Members Ethnographic Museum at the Bulgarian Academy of Sci- of Rosaceae were found nearly 1.5 and 4-times more fre- ences. A total of 10,113 lyrics were searched in order to quently than those of Poaceae and Vitaceae families. The identify mentions of common plant names in different high incidence of references to Poaceae (757) was mainly Bulgarian dialects. Common plant names and descriptions attributable to Triticum sp. (263), the major food crop in of plants and landscapes were used to detect and discern, the region, followed by Secale cereale (199), Oryza sativa when possible, the botanical affiliations of the denoted (105), Panicum miliaceum (86), Hordeum vulgare (55), plants. We used glossaries and botanical lists of Bulgarian Avena sativa (28) and Zea mays (16). Grape (279 plant common names from the late 19th and early 20th cen- mentions) were mentioned both in narratives involving turies (Kozarov 1925, Urumov 1926, Gerov 1895-1904, agricultural and forest habitats. Ahtarov et al. 1939). We have taken into account only Only 15 common names remained unresolved (NOID) the mentioning of the species, regardless of form or de- due to the absence of clues to the plant features or habi- rivative. Mentions of plant-related parts, products or items tat characteristics in the song lyrics. For instance, ruzha, with no reference to species were not considered. Plant which is known as a reference to a variety of large red denominations were related at least to the genus rank, and, or yellow ornamental like roses, popies, Mexican when common name and/or details mentioned in the lyr- marigolds. The Tagetes species (T. recta and T. patula) ics allowed it, to the species rank and even to certain crop are known under a variety of collective names in Bulgar- varieties and landraces. The Plant List (2013) was used ian - funda, turta, kamshitsa, kadiyka, karshikapka, zhalta as taxonomic references for currently accepted scientific ruzha (yellow ruzha), however, only kamshitsa and ruzha names. Euro+MedPlantBase (2011) was used as reference were found mentioned in the songs. for origin and distribution of the taxa found in the lyrics. Plants in the folk songs were described sparingly, fo- The data on habitat/landscape depictions and/or ecosys- cusing more on the interrelation between humans and tem services were evaluated through their direct and sec- nature, cultural and social aspects of human life than on

323 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs

Figure 1. The 20 plant families with the highest incidence of taxa references in Bulgarian folk songs. intentional addressing the and/or morphology of - Заспала ли си, черешо?* certain species. Most of the plant-related mentions con- - Не съм заспала, ягодо, veyed a symbolic meaning (e.g., cosmic order, heteroge- чакам си либе трандафил; neity of landscape, Arbor mundi - posessing features both той е отишел на гости of evergreen and orchard ), but they also cast a у кума, у босилека, set of images (e.g., a beautiful maiden - Abies alba, Popu- у кумичката камшичка, lus sp., a handsome lad - Pinus sp., Acer sp.) or featured да едът, холан, да пият. depictions of different aspects of rural livelihood (e.g., Та що им беше софрата: tending gardens, harvesting fields, hanging a cradle on a синята сифа**- софрата, tree, etc.). Symbolic functions of plants were related to а червената (сифа**)- четата; true-to-fact information about the species: e.g., Vitis vinif- червен им божур- виното, era and Hedera helix with their climbing were con- желтото лале- ракия. sistently found to represent relations among two persons Комар им с гайда свиреше, that often overcome the distance between the worlds of Теменужката играе, the living and the dead; phenological stages of plants as Сминчеца й са смееше: a metaphor for year seasons - flowering of Chrysanthe- -Теменужке ле мънинка, mums signifying autumn; flowering of almond and sour къко са леко подфърляш! cherry signifying beginning of the spring. Теменужката говори: The plants (trees, , vines, herbs and grasses) “Ти си и голям и висок, were elements of the narrative scenery or were personi- доде та слънце огрее, fied as interlocutors or protagonists, sometimes replacing като та слънце препече - the human characters in the story. In the song lyrics with никой та веке не бере! the highest number of plant references seven plants were personified as protagonists (the bride, her interlocutor, the “Are you already asleep, Sweet cherry?” groom, etc.) and another three complemented the scenery “No, I am not asleep, Strawberry! of the post-wedding rituals, i.e., reffering to the colour of I’m waiting for my sweetheart – the Rose. the drinks, the -shaped tables and the guest place- He went to visit ment along the table looking similar to the alternate flower His best man, the Basil arrangement along the stem: And his wife the Marigold.

324 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021

To eat and drink together. chaeophytes) were rendered in greater detail (concerning What was happening there? references to species) with a more diverse range of func- The blue Sifa** was the table tionalities while foreign species were cited only as import- The red Sifas** were the company. ed products. Black pepper and coffee plant were described The red Peony – their wine poorly and/or falsely, e.g., black pepper was imagined as The yellow Tulip – their brandy an arable crop. A Mosquito was playing on a bagpipe Various grain crops mentioned in the folk songs illus- The Violet was dancing trated very well the broad spectrum of plant-human inter- The Sminchec** was jesting on her: actions. Grains were in the foundation of rural landscape “Hey little Violet, images portraying seasonality of the peasant livelihoods, You are throwing yourself lightly!” wealth and prosperity as a result of bountiful harvests. The Violet was answering: They also symbolised fertility, well-being and abundance, “You are large and tall. indicating heavy work on the field and stock-breeding. When the sun scorches you For example, wheat was represented as a precious crop No one wants to pluck you anymore! anticipating harvest (incl. cultivated by Christian saints or by God himself), common food and feed plant, ritual * Plant names are highlighted in bold font. This folk song is grains spilled in front of wedding processions as a charm from Yambol region, documented in 1911 by Bulgarian diаspora of fertility and last but not least as a commodity traded in Russian Empire (currently Ukraine). English translation - au- at varying prices. This latter representation reflected the thors’ free translation from Bulgarian): economic situation at the time when songs were created. ** - NOID (Sifa - Convolvulus tricolor L. or Mirabilis jalapa However, а clear perception of disparity can be observed L.; Sminchec – Xeranthemum annuum L., Antennaria dioica with regard to grain crops - T. aestivum, Z. mays and O. (L.) Gaertn. or Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench). sativa (both as food and feed) were associated with wealth and even luxury, while Hordeum vulgare, Avena sativa Separate plant parts (, branches, , flowers) and Panicum miliaceum were mentioned as crops or food were mostly used figuratively (similes and metaphors). indicative of poverty and low social status. Avena sativa Figurative connotations in the song lyrics pointed out a was even further denounced by being excluded from ritual variety of plant morpho-physiological traits. For example, food in several mythic songs. basil convex were used to describe eyelids, pine While grains were main descriptors of the agricultural and fir trunks - slender human body (male and female, open fields, trees and shrubs from Rosaceae family oc- respectively, corresponding to the grammatical gender of cupied more intimate close space near the home, in the the Bulgarian common names). The allegorical plant de- garden/orchard and rarely represented noticeable places pictions were detailed, demonstrating a very close obser- in the wild (e.g., solitary Prunus avium trees in forest vation of the natural world, for instance, giving stinging habitats). Rosaceae taxa were found valued both for the nettle to someone as an expressiom of resentment to them nutritive qualities of their fruits and for the ritual and/or or shedding of apple blossom over a young maiden symbolic connotations of the whole plant and/or parts of as a symbol of her stepping into adulthood. Metaphori- it (Table 1). In the current study we found examples refer- cal references to colours, i.e. olives or cherries instead of ring to , morphology and biology, phenologi- black (eyes), apples instead of red (cheeks), violet instead cal cycles of the representatives of this family. The beauty, of blue (sky) were also widely employed. Additional ex- fecundity and elegance of Rosaceae trees, along with the amples could be found as Supplementary material (S1). alluring sweet taste and crispiness of the cultivated and Irrespective of the higher taxonomic diversity of wild wild fruits, were mentioned in a variety of utilitarian situ- plants in folk songs, crops were mentioned twice more ations (as eating/snacking, orchard tending or harvesting) frequently (32 and 68 %, respectively). Over 60 % of the and/or figurative meanings (literary figures for marital- most frequently mentioned taxa (over 100 mentions) were sexual symbols, courtship, etc.). crop archaeophytes, led by apple, wheat, grape , rye, Food plants, apart from Rosaceae and Poaceae, were far and sour cherry. They were referenced as food or as sym- less represented in the Bulgarian folk songs. Legumes and bolic/ritual plants, while sweet basil and boxwood - only leafy vegetables were linked to mythical creatures and Bib- as ritual ones. Locally-grown crops (indigenous and ar- lical narratives (Cicer arietinum, Allium sp.), ritual food

325 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs

Table 1. Functions of the Rosaceae taxa in Bulgarian folk songs.

Taxon Part mentioned Function Number of mentions

Crataegus monogyna Jacq. tree, fruit timber, food plant, landscape 11 element Cydonia oblonga Mill. tree, fruit fruit crop, comparative (woman) 109 Fragaria sp. fruit food plant, comparative 3 (woman) Malus domestica Borkh. tree, flower, fruit fruit crop, comparative (woman, 295 red-skin color) Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. tree symbolic (Arbor mundi) 3 Prunus armeniaca L. fruit comparative (woman) 1 Prunus avium (L.) L. tree, flower, fruit fruit crop, symbolic (Arbor 211 mundi), comparative (woman, dark-eye color) Prunus cerasus L. tree, flower, fruit fruit crop, symbolic (Arbor 155 mundi), comparative (woman, dark-eye color) Prunus domestica L. tree, fruit food plant, landscape element 3 Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb tree, kernel fruit crop, comparative (eye 5 form) Prunus spinosa L. honey-bearing plant, ritual plant, 6 magic plant, landscape element

Pyrus communis L. tree, flower, fruit fruit crop, symbolic (Arbor 61 mundi), landscape element

Rosa canina L. shrub, fruit food plant, landscape element 2 Rosa sp. shrub, flower ornamental, landscape element 165 Rubus caesius L. fruit, thorny stem comparative (dark color, 19 woman), obstacle on a road

Rubus idaeus L. fruit food plant, comparative 39 (woman)

preparation (Phaseolus vulgaris, Urtica dioica, Vicia faba) One of the leading positions of Lamiaceae was due and, rarely, to everyday scenarios (Lens culinaris, Rumex mostly to one species - Ocimum basilicum (256 men- acetosa, Allium cepa, Allium sativum). Vegetables origi- tions), an , with an unknown time frame of nating from the Americas were mentioned metaphorically, its introduction in the Balkans. The major traditional use in storylines not related to food, or were mentioned as lux- of this species in Bulgaria, as an indispensable part of dec- ury goods. Capsicum annuum, Solanum lycopersicon and orations for burial and memorial rites, does not surface in Solanum tuberosum were cited 9, 1 and 0 times, respec- the lyrics of folk songs, most likely because such rituals tively. Interestingly, folk songs did not reflect a broad range were never accompanied by singing. Ocimum basilicum, of wild edible plants that were historically and/or currently portrayed in Bulgarian folk sogs, had mainly symbolic known from Bulgaria (Nedelcheva 2013, Ivanova et al. roles in ritual/religious or romantic storylines. Sweet basil 2018a, b). Wild edible plants were represented only by two was associated with and attributed to the Christian God, edible greens (Urtica dioica and Rumex acetosa) and few and the Ruler on Earth. In the folk songs the fragrance wild (raspberry, strawberry, dewberry). of sweet basil was considered ‘the scent of the Christian

326 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 soul’ contrasted to ‘the aroma of the Muslim soul’, which taxa like Chrysanthemum indicum, Dahlia sp., Tanacetum ‘smelled of boiled/dry elder’ (Sambucus ebulus), present- balsamita and Tagetes sp. The latter, together with other ing these plants as cultural markers. Basil was also a prin- Neotropical plants (Zea mays, Capsicum annum, Dahlia cipal element of the kitka (nosegay), which both maidens sp., Phaseolus vulgaris and Solanum lycopersicum), was and lads wore as a symbolic decoration. Thus, O. basi- highly praised, and related mostly to festive occasions. licum dominated among ornamental plants, especially in In terms of generalized plant-related mentions, forests rituals and in mythical/religious scenes described in the (730 mentions) and agricultural landscapes (i.e., field - 605, folk songs, and that are common for other Balkan and meadows - 383) appeared similarly valued and revered: Mediterranean countries as well (Simoons 1998, Pieroni the former appear in heroic and haydushki (rebel) songs et al. 2012). Sweet basil alone or with other ornamental and the latter are present mainly in ritual and labour/ev- species was often accompanied by descriptions of garden- eryday songs. The overarching image of the forest (mostly ing practices, e.g., garden creation and tending, flower in mountains) as a shelter ensuring protection against en- care and picking, which exhausted the concept of a home emies is central to haydushki (rebel) songs. These eventful garden as rendered in Bulgarian poetic folklore. Last but and mostly historical storylines were emotionally charged not least, a specific use of sweet basil in Bulgarian folk with the heroism of the battles prior the Liberation from songs was for its function as an insect repellent. Ottoman rule (1878) and of the subsequent wars at the be- Although Lamiaceae is one of the families richest in ginning of the 20th century. Hence, folk songs organically species in Bulgaria, and many of its representatives had combined specific details of everyday life with features of been well known as traditionally-used medicinal, aro- the surrounding environment. matic and spice plants among Bulgarians (Ivancheva & In the songs in relation to working activities (e.g., agri­ Stantcheva 2000), only Satureja, Thymus and Melissa culture, trade, household activities, etc.), family-liveli- were mentioned in folk songs alongside O. basilicum. It is hood, historical events and rebel life, tree species are used worth mentioning that aromatic plants (e.g., O. basilicum, as references to timber, shelter, clues to water sources, Thymus sp., Geranium macrorrhizum) were found to ex- shadow and comfort. Forests, however, considered in their hibit special verbal abilities, i.e., they appear as talkative metaphorical projection, give strength to the rebels and protagonists, which implies an intrinsic perception of the reinforce their illegal status, especially in the haydushki plants’ volatiles as a communication tool. (rebel) songs, where a forest stands for the unknown, the The members of Asteraceae family were appreciated distant, the wild and menacing. for various reasons. The genus Artemisia occured most frequently (202 mentions). Artemisia species were present Discussion as an element of landscapes (sceneries) (i.e., ruderaliza- tion of abandoned fields and gardens), but they were also Malus domestica, Triticum aestivum and Vitis vinifera described as medicinal and magical plants. The symbolic, were most mentioned in the studied songs being common ritual and decorative significance of Artemisia is evi- crops and food plants at the times Bulgarian folk songs denced by its presence as a regular element of a maiden’s were created. The manner in which these three species are kitka together with other plants. This was specifically being praised could be easily explained with the predomi- valid for the songs from Northeastern Bulgaria where Ar- nantly agrarian livelihoods in the Pre-modern era, as well temisia was frequently mentioned as remarkable for the as with the similarities related to pre-Christian and Chris- local landscape which corresponds to the steppic vegeta- tian symbolism and major crops in this part of Europe. tion typical for that part of the country. Helichrysum are- The apple, wheat and grape vine were frequently cited in narium (zhult smil or smin) was also identified as part of the folklore of other European cultures, however, com- the kitka for its highly valued yellow colour, which sym- parative studies are limited (Iliev 1892, Georgiev 1976, bolises the sun. Tanacetum vulgare was mentioned rarely Kolosova 2005, Seskauskaite & Gliwa 2010, Herrero & (10) with a reference to its magical, decorative and protec- Cardaño 2015, Vukmanović 2016, Samardžija 2017). In tive functions. It was believed to ward off evil forces and such sense we could recognize these crops as cultural ill-meant intentions and therefore was grown near the front keystone species, according to the concept of Garibaldi gate to guard the house. This practice still persists in rural & Turner (2004), of European, however, historical impor- gardens around Bulgaria (Stareva 2016). Other ornamen- tance. The apple along with fifteen other wild and culti- tal Asteraceae plants referred to in songs were introduced vated Rosaceae species appear in Bulgarian folk songs

327 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs

Figure 2. The 20 most prevalent plant genera in Bulgarian folk songs. in variety of meanings and functions and is involved in a and consumption (1,171) also points to the spread and sig- broad range of (still) popular social and cultural contexts nificance of this crop among Bulgarians, which still per- in Bulgaria (Georgieva 1993, Baeva 2012). However, only meates local traditions nowadays (Rashkova 2013, Vukov essential-oil bearing Rosa damascena Mill. is viewed as 2013). In contrast, indications for the substantial role of hallmark plant of Bulgaria due to the influencial role of Bulgaria in rice production in Southeastern Europe from the country in rose oil production worldwide in the last 15th till 20th century were not found in the studied songs. two centuries (Widrlechner 1981, Kovacheva et al. 2010). The severe infectious diseases outbreaks (mainly malaria) Multi-purpose and modern applications of the “Bulgarian and poor working environment related to rice cultivation rose” and high manual work input related to its cultivation were brought as explanation why rice, as a crop, remained were also found to contribute to the process of its heritiza- unreflected in the Bulgarian culture Schoeller( 2020). tion (Loulanski & Loulanski 2014). Latter is not valid for The introduction of American crops was also involved Triticum aestivum, recently produced industrially in highly in most positive fashion. While plant-based food was de- mechanized manner. Interestingly, when lyrics of the 100 scribed sparsingly and rooted to the pre-Columbian plant -wide favorite Bulgarian folk songs are considered diversity, known to Bulgarians, neophytes like corn, pep- (Bulgarian National radio 2015) the apple still holds the pers as well as some ornamentals (Tagetes sp., Dahlia sp.) first place of the most frequently mentioned plant species were presented as symbolic plants in religious-themed and followed by the sweet cherry (data not shown). Hence, marital songs. Capsicum annuum, utilized widely even a careful collation of ethnographic and recent anthropo- nowadays in various Bulgarian rituals, was most frequent- logical sources dealing with nature perception (incl. the ly mentioned (Georgieva 1993). Typically red colored C. animal world, landscapes) is needed before putting certain annuum fruits were cited in wedding ritual songs. How- plant species in the centre point for any industrialized so- ever, we also found C. annuum mentioned as red pepper ciety, if practical at all. powder in lyrics describing a practice of its forging with Clearly socio-economic factors played important role grinded red tiles. The later was related to a curious be- in selection of plants cited in Bulgarian folk songs but lief about how forging this precious spice is calling down positive and inspiring emotions were contributing to the plague (Georgieva 1993). Yellow-colored ornamentals and “cultural filter” that delineated their appraisal. Allusions to corn brought from the Americas were found to share sun- the symbolic role of the grape vine as a spiritual mediator, related symbolisim ascribed to archeophytes like Triticum due to its climbing habit, appear as often as references on sp. and Calendula officinalis. Especially, yellow-orange the purely utilitarian importance of grape vine as a crop, Tagetes sp. flowers were highly valued in some Bulgarian details of its cultivation and processing practices, includ- ritual practices as they symbolize human with blond/gin- ing the tools and vessels employed. The frequent refer- ger hair or with hat. In contrast to American traditions that ence to vineyards (242) and to wine and spirits production associate marigolds with death (Neher 1968) in Bulgarian

328 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 folk songs marigolds express the lively, youthful energy of and Premodernity. Mountains and forests were frequently a child or young woman. praised in the Revival poetry and eventually acquired a The very accurate plant representation and considerable political (state) connotation. Some of these patriotic (folk) richness of wild and cultivated taxa found in Bulgarian folk songs have retained their significance and are often- per song infers their potential for development of educational formed in a romantic and/or political agenda, similarly and inspirational materials focused on nature and sustain- to the pre-Liberation period at the end of the 19th century. ability. The number of taxa we recorded in Bulgarian folk This emotional bondage of Bulgarians with forests/moun- songs (146) was nearly twice the number of taxa previ- tains might explain the intensity and extent of civil pro- ously registered in the Bulgarian folklore (including songs, tests against the destruction of forests for the construction fairy tales, legends and sayings) (Iliev 1892, 1893, 1919). of ski and sea resorts near to and within protected areas Hence, it is probable that other Bulgarian folklore forms (incl. UNESCO Heritage site National Park – one of may contain undocumented TEK that has been overlooked the mountains most often extolled in folk songs relevant to by anthropological/ethnographical studies. The plant refer- plant/nature habitats), which had triggered notable grass- ences in the currently studied Bulgarian folk songs were environmental initiatives like forthenature.org. The about three times more than those reported by Herrero & organised rallies pressing for are Cardaño (2015) from a territory similar in size in South inevitably accompanied by nature-praising (folk) songs. A Europe (Castilla y León, Spain), implying a stronger sen- famous exponent of this trend is the ballad named “Hubava sitivity and affiliation of Bulgarians to nature also known si, moya goro!” (You are beautiful, my forest), a song from as biophilia (Wilson 1984). Similar pervasive connection 1875 based on a lyrical text by the famous Bulgarian poet with nature was usually reported for ethnic groups outside Lyuben Karavelov, but later on was folklorised. Nowadays, Europe or was relyed through non-poetic folklore forms it is the anthem of Bulgarian environmentalist movements. (Balehegn 2016, Molnár 2017). Strong involvement with The song compares the freshness of the forest with man’s nature and especialy plants presented in Bulgarian folk youth and exhibits a degree of love, respect and veneration songs showed that Bulgarians perceived their natural envi- for the forest, similar to those expressed in the Bulgarian ronment vividly and in great detail. Thus, current failiures folk songs analysed in this paper. It culminates in in effective implementation of nature protection legislation in the country should be sought more in political decisions ‘Whoever casts a look upon you, lives in sorrow ever- and other factors rather in misperception of Bulgarians after, about ecosystems (Gocheva et al. 2019). Craving in vain to breathe his last breath under your Bulgarian folk songs are frequently performed on vari- shadows. ous occasions, such as concerts and festivals held locally And as for the one called to abandon you, and abroad. They are presented also by foreigners, thus He won’t be able to forget you for the rest of his life.’ gaining wider publicity over a range of media outlets. (authors’ free translation from Bulgarian). Hence, performance frequencies of folk songs rich in nature related information, like Bulgarian, would be prospective The powerful stewardship ethics encompassed in this song indicator for assesment of cultural ecosystem services si- resonates with the philosophy of many environmental jus- miraly to crowdsoursed imagery (Luck et al. 2009, Gliozzo tice movements worldwide and the related protest songs et al. 2016, Oteros-Rozas et al. 2018). Yet, further testing that use to voice their protests against of the relevance of such approach is needed. Detailed in- environmental desecration on their territories (Ramnarine terpretation (textual/contextual) of their lyrics would assist 2009, Lin 2011, Baranovitch 2015). In their despair and the transfer of TEK preserved in (Bulgarian) folklore and pain, caused by the destruction of their beloved lands, en- would enlarge its audiences. Combined with captivating vironmental protesters search for strength and support in vocal and instrumental performances these texts could be the roots of their musical heritage which speaks not only powerful tool to educate and inspire modern audiences. about the beauty of the land, but also about place-based The innate plant-human connection was represented not and culturally-relevant meanings of environmental issues. only in the images of certain plants but also of those of In conclusion assessment of TEK in folk songs, tales, forests and mountains, which had become notorious both legends, etc. and comparative intercultural studies are as landscape elements and as shelter for the hayduti (reb- needed not only to preserve ethnobotanical data. Further els) against the Ottoman rulers in the Late Middle Ages documentation and digitalization of folklore would allow

329 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs future exploration and comparative studies would contrib- Baeva V. 2012. The Thread of Life. Between the Fertility ute to elaboration of new options to transmmit valuable Belt and the Holy Girdle of the Virgin. Sofia: Bulgarian knowledge locally and globally in the frame of the grow- Academy of Sciences Publishing. ISBN: 978-954-322- ing cultural homogenization. Bulgarian folk songs pre- 485-2 sented wide range of nature-related information that re- Balehegn M. 2016. Ecological and social wisdom in flected profound connection between plants and humans. camel praise poetry sung by Afar nomads of Ethiopia. Thus, further explorations are needed to rectify reliable Journal of 36: 457-472. DOI: https://doi. and quantifiable data from previously documented poetic org/10.2993/0278-0771-36.2.457 folklore so to be used for assessment of cultural signifi- Baranovitch N. 2015. Ecological degradation and en- cance of species, landscapes and ecosystems. dangered ethnicities: China’s minority environmental discourses as manifested in popular songs. The Jour- Acknowledgements nal of Asian Studies 75: 181-205. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1017/S0021911815001576 This study is supported under project DN10/1/2016 “The Benyei P, Aceituno-Mata L, Calvet-Mir L, Tardío J, Pardo- Garden: Site of Biocultural Diversity and Interdisciplin- de-Santayana M, García-del-Amo D, Rivera-Ferre ary Junction” funded by the Bulgarian National Science M, Molina-Simón M, Gras-Mas A, Perdomo-Molina Fund. The authors hereby express their gratitude to Eng. A, Guadilla-Sáez S, Reyes-García V. 2020. of Plamen Dimitrov (orchidaceae.bg) for his kind help in the change: reversing the erosion of traditional agroeco- preparation of the databases. logical knowledge through a citizen science school program in Catalonia, Spain. Ecology and Society Supplementary material 25:19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11471-250219 Benítez G, March-Salas M, Villa-Kamel A, Cháves- Supplementary material S1, examples of Bulgarian folk Jiménez U, Cariñanos P. 2018.The genus songs presenting various plant taxa. Plant common names L.(Solanaceae) in and Spain – ethnobotanical in bold font. Supplemental data for this article can be ac- perspective at the interface of medical and illicit uses. cessed here: https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.2672 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 219: 133-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.03.007 Literature cited Biserkov V, Gussev C, Popov V, Hibaum G, Roussako- va V, Pandurski I, Uzunov Y, Dimitrov M, Tzonev R, Adams M, Lükewille A. 2010. The European Environ- Tsoneva S. 2015. Red Data Book of the Republic of ment - state and outlook 2010. Copenhagen: European Bulgaria.Volume 3. Natural habitats. Sofia: Institute Environment Agency. ISBN: 978-92-9213-114-2. of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research & Bulgarian Ahmed MM, Das RM, Borthakur SK. 2019. Ethnobo- Ministry of Environment and Waters. tanical study of plants used in Muslim (Pangal/Meitei Burton R J, Riley M. 2018. Traditional ecological knowl- Pangal) community folklore (folk-songs and folk- edge from the internet? the case of hay meadows in Eu- proverbs) in Manipur, India. International Journal of rope. Land Use Policy 70: 334-346. DOI: https://doi. Plant Science and Ecology 5:1-10. org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.10.014 Ahtarov B, Davidov B, Yavashev A, eds. 1939. Materials Chen H, Tao W. 2017. The revival and restructuring of a for the Bulgarian Botanical Glossary. Sofia: Bulgarian traditional folk festival: Cultural landscape and memo- Academy of Sciences Royal Court Printing House. ry in Guangzhou, South China. Sustainability 9: 1767. The Plant list. 2013. Version 1.1. Published on the Internet. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su9101767 http://www.theplantlist.org/ (accessed January 1, 2020). Dénes A, Papp N, Babai D, Czúcz B, Molnár Z. 2012. Wild Arnaudov M, Burin I, Vakarelski H, Dinekov P, Osinin plants used for food by Hungarian ethnic groups living D, eds. 1961-1963. Bulgarian Folklore in Twelve Vol- in the Carpathian Basin. Acta Societatis Botanicorum umes. Sofia: Bulgarski pisatel. Poloniae 81: 381-396. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5586/ Aswani S, Lemahieu A, Sauer W. 2018. Global trends of asbp.2012.040 local ecological knowledge and future implications. Díaz S, Pascual U, Stenseke M, Martín-López B, Watson PLoSONE 13: e0195440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/ RT, Molnár Z, Hill R, Chan KMA, Baste IA, Brauman journal.pone.0195440 KA, Polasky S, Church A, Lonsdale M, Larigauderie

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Associate editor: Pedro Luis Valverde Author contributions: TI, writing analysis, manuscript preparation; VG-R, data collection and collation, manuscriprt preparation; YB, data analysis, manuscript preparation; DD, writing analysis, manu- script editing.

334 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 5 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 4 2 2 10 15 26 15 12 93 198 Total 1 1 2 1 1 2 12 18 10 70 189 Msc. 4 3 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 2 7 2 12 Ritual 1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 5 Mythic 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 Labour 1 1 Song type rical Histo- 1 1 Heroic 1 1 shki (rebel) Haydu- 2 1 1 3 1 1 4 2 1 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i i i a a a a a a a a n n Origin c c c c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w c/w c/w c/w Setting Mugwort Common marigold Indian chrysanthemum Creeping thistle Dahlia Dwarf everlast Marigold Costmary Coltsfoot Common tansy Common zinnia Common hyacinth Common ivy Common holly Periwinkle Hemlock Onion Garlic Allium Plumed cockscomb Snowdrop European elder Guelder rose Common name Maple

. . L (L.) . . . L L L Scop .

L. L . . L L. L. L . . (L.) . L L L . L . L. . sp . sp . sp sp sp. sp. Artemisia Calendula officinalis Chrysanthemum indicum Cirsium arvense Dahlia Helichrysum arenarium Helichrysum arenarium Moench Tagetes Tagetes Tanacetum balsamita Tanacetum Tussilago farfara Tussilago vulgare Tanacetum Zinnia elegans Hyacinthus orientalis Hedera helix Ilex aquifolium Vinca Vinca Conium maculatum Allium cepa Allium sativum Allium Celosia argentea Celosia argentea Galanthus Sambucus ebulus Viburnum opulus Viburnum Taxon Acer sp. Plant taxa mentioned in Bulgarian folk songs. Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asparagaceae Araliaceae Aquifoliaceae Apocynaceae Apiaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Adoxaceae Adoxaceae Family Aceraceae Appendix 1.

335 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs 3 4 1 1 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 7 1 6 2 2 1 3 44 49 13 37 158 Total 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 2 31 40 12 34 138 Msc. 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 11 Ritual 1 6 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 Mythic 1 1 1 7 1 2 2 1 1 Labour 1 1 1 Song type rical Histo- 1 1 1 Heroic 2 1 shki (rebel) Haydu- 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i a a a a a a a n n i/a Origin c c c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w Setting Common name Honey clover Lentil Melilot sweet Yellow clover Common bean Black locust Red clover Common broom/ Spanish broom Clover Tree heather Tree Cutleaf teasel Faba bean Watermelon Pumpkin European cornel Carnation Carnation Hemp Common box/ boxwood Common comfrey Common alder Hornbeam Silver birch Common hazel Field mugwort White mugwort L . L . L . (L.) L . L . L . (Thunb. ) (L.) Gaertn . Medik . Roth Turra L . L . sp . Taxon Melilotus albus Lens culinaris Medik . Melilotus Melilotus officinalis Pall . Phaseolus vulgaris L . Robinia pseudoacacia Trifolium pratense Trifolium scoparium/ junceum L ./ . Dipsacus laciniatus Trifolium sp . Trifolium Erica arborea L . Erica arborea Vicia faba Vicia Citrullus lanatus Matsum . & Nakai Cucurbita sp . Cornus mas Dianthus caryophyllus Dianthus sp . Cannabis sativa L . Buxus sempervirens L . Buxus sempervirens officinale Carpinus sp . Betula pendula Corylus avellana Artemisia alba Artemisia campestris L . Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Dipsacaceae Fabaceae Ericaceae Fabaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Cornaceae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae Cannabaceae Buxaceae Boraginaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Family

336 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 3 4 3 1 8 1 1 3 1 3 7 6 1 9 1 1 2 1 1 20 83 15 69 92 14 256 Total 2 1 2 1 1 5 7 15 62 12 53 81 185 Msc. 1 2 1 1 1 5 1 2 4 9 1 1 2 1 36 Ritual 1 1 1 1 7 1 2 1 6 1 4 3 2 1 2 1 Mythic 2 1 2 9 8 1 1 1 Labour 1 1 3 1 1 2 Song type rical Histo- 1 Heroic 1 2 1 1 3 shki (rebel) Haydu- 3 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 14 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i a a a a a a a i/a Origin c c c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w w w w c/w c/w c/w Setting Pomegranate Common flax Butcher’s-broom Madonna lily Tulip Lemon balm Bay tree Sweet basil Winter savory Winter Savory Thyme Common walnut Saffron German iris Iris Great yellow gentian Bigroot geranium Marsh gentian Gentian Turkey oak Turkey European beech Sessile oak Oak Narrow-leaved everlasting-pea Chickpea Tuberous pea/ Tuberous spring vetchling Common name L . L . L . L . L . L . Bernh . . Taxon Punica granatum L . Linum usitatissimum L . Ruscus aculeatus Lilium candidum L . Tulipa sp . Tulipa Melissa officinalis Laurus nobilis L . Ocimum basilicum L . Satureja hortensis L . Satureja Satureja sp . Satureja Thymus sp . Juglans regia L . Juglans regia Crocus sp . Crocus Iris × germanica L . Iris sp . Gentiana lutea L . Geranium macrorrhizum Gentiana pneumonanthe Gentiana sp . Quercus cerris L . Quercus Fagus sylvatica Quercus petraea (Matt.) Quercus Liebl Quercus sp . Quercus Lathyrus sylvestris L . Cicer arietinum Lathyrus tuberosus/vernus Lathyrus tuberosus/vernus L./(L.) Lythraceae Linaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Lamiaceae Lauraceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Juglandaceae Iridaceae Iridaceae Iridaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fagaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Family

337 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs 1 5 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 28 55 86 16 25 14 17 84 22 105 199 263 121 Total 4 1 11 25 50 91 62 15 80 21 193 171 108 Msc. 1 2 1 7 4 1 1 4 1 2 1 5 1 31 10 Ritual 1 3 2 6 7 1 1 1 11 Mythic 3 7 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 23 Labour 3 3 8 1 1 1 1 Song type rical Histo- 1 4 Heroic 4 9 1 3 1 shki (rebel) Haydu- 2 3 5 1 6 1 3 4 2 1 1 6 2 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i a a a a a a a a a n i/a Origin c c c c c c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w ip c/w c/w c/w Setting Common sorrel Oat Barley Rice Common millet Rye Feather grass Wheat Corn Old World Old World sycamore Black pepper Pine European silver fir Common poppy Sesame Balkan peony Poppy Peony Common ash Manna ash Olive Common lilac Common fig White mulberry Mulberry False hellebore Cotton Common name L . L . L . L . L . L . L . Mill . sp . Rumex acetosa Avena sativa Avena Hordeum vulgare L . vulgare Hordeum Oryza sativa L . Panicum miliaceum Secale cereale Secale cereale Stipa sp . Triticum sp . Triticum Zea mays L . Platanus orientalis Piper nigrum L . Pinus sp . Abies alba Papaver rhoeas L . Papaver rhoeas Sesamum indicum L . Paeonia peregrina Mill . Paeonia peregrina Papaver sp . Paeonia Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus ornus L . Olea europaea L . Olea europaea Syringa vulgaris L . Ficus carica Morus alba L . Morus sp . Veratrum sp . Veratrum Gossypium sp . Taxon Family Polygonaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Platanaceae Piperaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Papaveraceae Pedaliaceae Paeoniaceae Papaveraceae Paeoniaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Oleaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Melanthiaceae Malvaceae

338 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 1 1 3 3 1 3 5 6 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 11 61 19 39 18 211 109 295 155 165 Total 8 1 3 4 1 1 97 53 15 37 16 260 194 150 135 Msc. 1 8 9 1 6 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 2 1 Ritual 2 5 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 Mythic 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 1 4 1 Labour 1 1 1 1 1 1 Song type rical Histo- 2 Heroic 3 1 4 shki (rebel) Haydu- 1 1 1 1 5 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 13 11 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i a a a a a a a Origin c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w w w c/w c/w c/w c/w c/w Setting Lady’s bedstraw Lady’s Common hawthorn Common madder Quince Strawberry Apple European crab apple Apricot Sweet cherry Sour cherry Plum Almond Blackthorn European pear Pear Damask rose Dog rose Rose European dewberry Raspberry Jerusalem thorn Snowdrop anemone Globeflower Common knotgrass Primrose Common name Mill . L . Mill . L . (Dieck) Galium verum L . Crataegus monogyna Jacq . Rubia tinctorum Cydonia oblonga Fragaria sp . Malus domestica Borkh . Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill . Prunus armeniaca L . Prunus avium (L.) L . Prunus cerasus L . Prunus domestica L . Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb Prunus spinosa L. Pyrus communis L . Pyrus sp. Rosa × damascena f . trigintipetala R.Keller Rosa canina L . Rosa sp. Rubus caesius L . Rubus idaeus L . Paliurus spina-cristi Anemone sylvestris Trollius europaeus L . europaeus Trollius Polygonum aviculare L . Polygonum aviculare Primula sp . Taxon Rubiaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rhamnaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Family Polygonaceae Primulaceae

339 Ethnobotany of Bulgarian folk songs 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 7 9 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 12 10 50 49 78 279 Total 1 1 7 8 6 8 1 1 2 1 1 42 43 71 248 Msc. 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 4 2 1 1 13 Ritual 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 Mythic 1 3 1 1 1 Labour 1 Song type rical Histo- 1 1 Heroic shki (rebel) Haydu- 1 4 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 hood liveli- Family i i i i i i i i i i i i a a n n Origin c c c c c c c w w w w w w w w w w w w w w ip ip c/w Setting Gorchiv lapad Kuma Ovtcharska perenuga Kifire Keferichno darvo Gorotsvet Gergevo tsvete Gergevo Breshnel Grapevine Grapevine cv. Grapevine cv. Kadan parmak Grapevine cv. Grapevine cv. Karagevrek Violet Stinging nettle Garden nasturtium Chilli/pepper Tomato Еggplant Orange mullein Poplar White willow Common aspen Willow Lemon Orange Burning bush Arabian coffee Common name L . L . L . L . cv . Kadan cv . L . sp . NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID Vitis vinifera Vitis Vitis vinifera Vitis parmak Vitis vinifera Vitis Karagevrek Viola sp . Viola Urtica dioica Tropaeolum majus L . Tropaeolum Capsicum annum L . Solanum lycopersicum Solanum melongena L . Verbascum phlomoides L . Verbascum Populus sp . Salix alba Populus tremula L . Populus tremula Salix Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Dictamnus albus L . Coffea arabica Taxon Family NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID Vitaceae Vitaceae Vitaceae Violaceae Violaceae Urticaceae Tropaeolaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Scrophulariaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Salicaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae

340 Ivanova et al. / Botanical Sciences 99(2): 321-341. 2021 1 1 1 1 2 1 9 Total 4,077 1 3 Msc. 3,255 1 1 287 Ritual 1 144 Mythic 1 129 Labour Song type 39 rical Histo- 1 16 Heroic 1 40 shki (rebel) Haydu- 1 1 1 3 167 hood liveli- Family total Grand Origin c w w w c/w c/w Setting Common name Vidrovo durvo Vidrovo Sminova kitka Sminchec Smilna kitka Sifa Ruzha zhulta Ruzha NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID Taxon NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID NOID Family NOID Setting: in cultivation/crop (c); wild (w); imported food product (ip) Origin: indigenous species (i); archaeophyte (a); (n)

341