APISA 5 – Full Paper Draft Version – Not for Citation

Mongolia in Newly Regionalizing Asia: From Central Asian Buffer to East Asian Participator

Turtogtoh Janar Professor of Political Science National University of Mongolia [email protected]

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Introduction

So far the developmental and democratizing trends of Asia have been noted to break out from stagnant and autocratic Asia. Once developmentally and democratically thriving Asia has come about, the next rising trend is newly regionalizing Asia (Inoguchi 2005). The push of the third wave of democracy (Huntington 1991), the collapse of socialist system and the end of the Cold War caused changes in world politics entirely. In case of Asia, it has brought a new atmosphere not only to the divergence of culture and value of Asian regions but also to the political-economical and socio-cultural relation of the countries in this region. For instance, as a consequence of Soviet Union collapse, the republics under the USSR claimed their sovereignty. Specially, with countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan claiming sovereignty, the understanding of new Central Asia has appeared in a political sense. Although Mongolia is geographically situated in Central Asia, it is not a short period which economic-politically, socio-culturally, it seeks the path to new space within East Asian region. As a result of Soviet Union collapse Mongolia started to conduct its independent foreign and domestic affairs. Since then Mongolia has been considering itself as equal to the North East Asia but not new Central Asian region which is closer in its geographical setting. At first, this paper attempts to consider about reflections of Cold War and birth story of buffer country in Asia. Then the paper shows how we have been considering that North East Asian countries as our third neighbour in this newly regionalizing Asia. Mongolia, who has only two neighbours – Russia and China, has also been including the USA, South Korea and Japan into the frames of such an understanding as "the third neighbour". Last but not least, this paper attempts to demonstrate economic-political, socio- cultural attributes, which characterize Mongolian interest towards the East Asian community.

Key words: Mongolia, buffer, Central Asia, third neighbor, East Asia

Brief Introduction about Mongolia

Mongolia is a landlocked country between two of the world’s most powerful countries Russia and China, and flanked on the west by new Central Asia (Kazakhstan) and on the east by the Korean peninsula. This is a vast country of mountain ranges, the Gobi Desert, and semiarid

2/23 grassy steppes akin to the northern steppes region of China. Mongolia is physically isolated on the Chinese-Russian border and constitutes a discrete region of East Asia. It has a population of approximately 2.8 million people living in an area of 1,566,500 sq. km which is larger than Alaska. A geopolitical location gives strategically special advantage to the country whereas it causes considerable restrictions to economic advancement. Almost half of population still gains a living from herding livestock on the semiarid grasslands. However, the number of people live in rural areas has been decreasing which reflects an increasing urban population. Freedom House rated Mongolia on political rights with a 2 and on civil liberties with a 2, both on a scale of 1 to 7 (in which 1 is the most free). Freedom House considers Mongolia to be a free country (Freedom House 2009). For the moment over 140 countries have diplomatic relations with Mongolia.

The Structure of Government

The current Constitution (1992) is a democratic one. It went into effect on February 12, 1992 a month after its proclamation. It’s based on separation of power among the President, the legislature called the State Great Hural, the Government as Executive Cabinet and the Judiciary. By its state structure Mongolia is a unitary State. The territory of Mongolia is divided into administrative units-aimags (the country has 21 aimags) and an administratively separate city-capital Ulaanbaatar.

The President The president is Head of State and chairs National Security Council. Among other powers and responsibilities, the Constitution makes the President Commander-in-chief of Mongolia, and allows the President to grant pardons and reprieves. Along with the armed forces, foreign policy is also directed by the President. He represents the country abroad. The President is nominated by parties in the State Great Hural and elected by popular vote for a four-year term, with a limit of two terms. He can initiate and introduce a legislative bill into Parliament under the Constitution, not only a member of Parliament can do that. He can veto all or parts of legislation. He can pick and choose pieces of it. If the President exercises the veto, then it can only be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the State Great Hural.

3/23 Ambassadors, and some other high public officials including the Chairman of Independent Authority against Corruption of Mongolia, are all appointed by the President with the "advice and consent" of a majority of the State Great Hural. He also proposes a prime minister and can call for the government's dissolution, and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. The Cabinet is appointed by the State Great Hural in consultation with the president. The President also has the power to nominate and appoint judges, including three members as one third of the Constitutional Court of Mongolia. However, these nominations do require State Great Hural confirmation. A President must be an indigenous citizen of Mongolia later explained by Supreme Court, as one whose parents are born in and citizens of Mongolia; be at least forty-five years old; and have been a permanent resident in Mongolia for at least five years. The term of office for President is four years. It’s not that easy to serve a full two terms, only the second president N.Bagabandi have done it between 1997-2001, 2001-2005, respectively (see Table 1).

[Table 1 is about here]

State Great Hural State Great Hural of Mongolia is the legislative branch of the government, prescribed by the Constitution to represent the will of the people. It is a unicameral parliament and consists of 76 members, elected by popular vote. The Parliament meets semiannually. Parliament members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. Parties or coalitions, officially registered before the day of election, are ensured with the right to nominate to the membership of the State Great Hural. It is possible for a candidate to run for office in a general election without the backing of a political party. To run as an independent, a person must present a petition, signed by a specified number of voters (currently 801) who support his or her candidacy. Parliamentary elections have been held five times since the year of 1992’s Constitution. Table 2 shows a chronology of the State Great Hural of Mongolia, from the time of New Constitution.

[Table 2 is about here]

4/23 The Constitution of Mongolia provides that the State Great Hural may consider, at its initiative, any issue pertaining to domestic and foreign policies of the country.

Executive Government The Government, headed by the prime minister, and is the highest executive body of the state. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition, is usually elected prime minister by the State Great Hural. The prime minister is nominated by the President after discussion with the majority party in Parliament and confirmed by the Parliament. The Prime Minister is selected by majority vote in the parliament. In other words, the strongest party in the parliament provides the necessary political support for its leader to emerge as prime minister, and to select the majority of the members of his government from his party represented in the parliament. In order to form a government and choose a prime minister, a party needs a simple majority of 39 seats in the Parliament, a legislative body of 76 nation-wide representatives. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to Parliament approval. To propose the candidatures for the ministers’ positions is the Prime Minister’s constitutional power. In accordance with the Article 39, the State Great Hural shall consider the candidatures proposed by the prime minister one by one and make decisions on their appointment. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after a Parliamentary vote for dissolution.

Judiciary Mongolia’s judicial system comprises a Supreme Court, provincial courts, and a Constitutional Court. Supreme Court serves as appeals court for people and provincial courts but rarely overturns verdicts of lower courts; judges are nominated by the General Council of Courts for approval by the president. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms. The Constitutional Court has the authority to judge the constitutionality of laws enacted by Parliament.

Cold War, Super Powers, and a “Buffer”

5/23 The end of the World War II has resulted in the collapse of colonialism. This gave the opportunities to have newly founded many countries in Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America, proclaimed their independences and began to reinforce their selected regimes. Having been beginning to declare the Constitutions newly around the world is the reflection of it as well. However, as a result of the beginning of the Cold War, the “hidden” war, the world politics was divided into two antagonist extremities. Hence nations and countries became to be separated and diverged according to their ideology-political regime-military and political coalition rather than the religious-traditional-cultural or regional-geographical identities. With the end of the Cold War, this divergence which covered most of the time of second half of the XX century, generally came to its end and “the end of history” (Fukuyama 1989) of the war of ideology which was the deviation of two systems, was ceased as well. Countries of the World after the Cold War quit diverging by their ideology, politics or economy and only cultural divergence has been left (Huntington 1996). At the Yalta summit in February, 1945, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin not only dealt with how to “draw” new political map of Europe, but also made a decision on how to end the war in Asia. In order not to drag out the war between the USA and Japan, the USA inevitably needed to have the USSR as its ally. It created conditions for the USSR to conduct their own politics with “favourable” rules for themselves specifically in the later East Asian region. One condition suggested during the military cooperation of the USA and the USSR against Japan (Clubb 1971: 337-338) was strategically and geopolitically very important, which there was, de jure , a necessity to announce Outer Mongolia independent keeping its status-quo as before. The Mongolian status quo ( de facto independence) which later in October, 1945 was approved by the referendum in Mongolia and internationally guaranteed was de jure recognized as an independent country. Thus, Mongolia became a real reflection of each political interest in which the main players of the Cold War would be able to regulate the world politics and in one hand, it was a new setting to keep powers’ balance in Asia and on the other hand, it became a “buffer” country for the USSR “camp” against China towards North East Asia including Japan and USA. During the Cold War, it is obvious that the significance of the buffer country – “gasket” territory had been increasing, so that the USSR could reinforce its influence on Asia, more clearly, to have politically rewarding relations with countries such as Japan and China which had been dominating with their military, economy and culture in Asia. In spite of the fact that the Yalta summit caused the beginning of the Cold War, Mongolia, the country which was a reflection of relations between super powers – the USSR,

6/23 Japan, China as a result of a deal on a preliminary condition that the USSR make war against Japan while the summit was being held (Baabar 1996: 513), managed to approve its independence on the crossroads of global politics of super powers. Accordingly, in this region the USA and the USSR came there as main regional players alongside of the countries such as Japan and China which had been dominating in East and North East parts of Asia and determining their political – economical and military policies there. It reflected as Westphalia principles were implemented in Mongolia and became a nation-state. Up to 1990s, although Mongolia was a country with sovereignty and independence, Mongolia as being a Soviet Union “satellite” country, the matters on foreign and domestic economic policy basically were conducted under the direct instruction by the USSR. Geographically, Mongolia is located in the heart of Central Asia, between Russian Federation (bordered by 3485 km to the north) and People’s Republic of China (bordered by 4673 km to the east, west and south). Both Russia and China bordering with Mongolia are the world strongest powers one of which is with a large territory and other one is with most population. What is more, neighbouring two countries have a large and broad influence in terms of its participation on world politics, economics and finance, troops and techniques. Thus, Mongolia is striving to develop an equal and balanced cooperative relationship with the neighbouring countries. With a view toward implementing this policy Mongolia concluded a “Treaty on friendly relations and cooperation”, first with Russia in 1992 and then with China in 1994.

[Table 3 is about here]

Mongolia has declared its territory a nuclear-weapons-free zone and has obtained the support of all permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, including its two neighbours as well as the support of the international community as a whole. Thus Mongolia has been taking concrete measures to ensure its security by political and diplomatic means. In terms of foreign policy, Mongolia is taking a lot of supportive diplomatic actions directed to strengthen its status and protect its independency and sovereignty. In this frame, Mongolia gives an importance to develop active cooperation with other influential countries in the Asia-Pacific region such as USA, Japan as well as South Korea in order to create a new national security environment.

7/23 “Third” neighbours

Mongolia has been having a very good relation to Japan in the fields of politics, economy, art, culture and so on since 1990. Japan as the most immense donator for Mongolia is contributing heavily to its innovation of shift to democracy and market economy. In addition, the world’s powerful country such as the USA has started to express officially that they will have an interests relation with our country as same as both our neighbouring powers. During his official visit to Mongolia, as Bush G.W., U.S President, noted that America is proud to call Mongolia the third neighbour (‘Remarks by U.S. President G. W. Bush’, 2005). Moreover, as a country that enjoys good and stable relations with both Koreas, Mongolia will contribute to enhancing stability and peace in the North East Asia. Importance is given to the heightening of our relations in political, economic, social fields with the Republic of Korea. Particular significance is attached to the stable development of long- standing relations with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. When the President of the Republic of Korea paid an official visit in Mongolia in May, 2006, both countries reciprocally maintained their positions on “the third neighbouring country” or “direct relation of two sides”. In the note taken during this highest state visit, both heads of state expressed that they understood “the third neighbouring country” as a country which directly boarders with its relation. During the official talks in Ulaanbaatar, President Roh Moo-hyun expressed his satisfaction with the bilateral good neighbourhood and mutual trust partnership relations, which are promoted in all the social and economic spheres of the two countries. At the time, President of Mongolia, Enkhbayar N. pointed out a significance of mutually making efforts to successfully carry out the good neighbourhood and mutual trust partnership ties between Mongolia and the Republic of Korea. Mongolia, who has two big neighbours, has included the USA, the Republic of Korea and Japan into the frames of such an understanding as "the third neighbour". These countries are able to exert an important influence on Mongolia s future development. In this way, Mongolia is becoming a country of the North East Asia in terms of its political setting and foreign policy; however, geographically it is situated in the region of the Central Asia (Janar 2009). It creates conditions to have equal relations to all countries of the region, not to have conflict on politics, economy and territory, for Mongolia to reinforce its status for basic issues on regional security and furthermore, to be the initiative on it.

8/23 Mongolia’s interests towards East Asia 1

In this part, the author would like to present Mongolia’s interests towards East Asia in terms of economic, social and political aspects. Is Mongolia approaching East Asia rather than Central Asia since the end of the Cold War? What actual interest tends to be considered that Mongolia is the part of the East Asian community? Since 1990s political, economic and cultural foreign policy has been intensively directed to the countries of the North East Asian region (see more on Janar 2009: 336-338). The crucial point that Mongolia identifies itself as a part of this community is that there are not any conflicting issues within the relations with East Asian countries in terms of territory and politics. Alienated Mongolia from East Asia has been approaching this region in recent twenty years and it can be captured from and seen in the profound social relationships, constant cultural exchange, broad economic and trade scope and political, and diplomatic deliberate commitment. In recent years, the Mongolians community in East Asian countries to be increased in number. For instance, Mongolians in South Korea form the largest population of Mongolians abroad. Main regions where they live, work and study are Seoul, Busan and Incheon. By 2003, there were 20,000 Mongolians working in Korea, and five years later this number had grown by 65% to an estimated 33,000 as legally registered and illegally stayed. Most of them are migrant workers mostly employed in heavy industry, service business like restaurants, hotels, and trading companies. The friendly and cooperative relations between two countries have widely and deeply developed in all fields such as politics, economy and culture during a period of time of 20 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations in March, 1990. Korea has been actively supports Mongolia’s reform, open-door foreign policy and economic development. Two countries closely work together to maintain peace and security in the Northeast Asia. As of diplomatic ties between Korea and Mongolia, the Embassy of the ROK opened in Ulaanbaatar in June 18, 1990 and the Embassy of Mongolia opened in Seoul in February 1st of 1991, respectively. There were already 32 VIP visits to Mongolia from Korea within a decade between 1991 and 2001. In case of visits paid to the ROK from Mongolia, there were also 32 visits between 1991 and 2001 (Embassy of the Republic of Korea to Mongolia 2005).

1 Note: An earlier version of this part was presented at the 8 th East Asian Sociologists’ Conference on “Towards East Asian Community in the Age of Globalization”, October 29-31 2010.

9/23 While 33,000 Mongolians are representing Mongolia in Korea, as of 2008 about 3,500 Koreans are doing Korea in Mongolia. College and language institution students number are increasing recently because of two countries government agreement and academic institutions’ initiatives. Both Mongolians seeking to work and study in Korea are required by pass the Korean Language Proficiency Test in order to receive permission to work and study as well. This reflects in Mongolia as Korean language is becoming one of most common foreign languages like English, Russian, Chinese and German. As of 2008, there were roughly 1,700 Mongolians who came to Korea annually to pursue higher education. As reported in the Asian Workers News , some Mongolian women also came to Korea for international marriage, and their average age is about 24.9, whereas that of their husbands is 44.5, and many are more educated than their husbands (‘Asia Women Network Supporting Married Migrant Women’s HRs’, 2006: 7). Comparing to South Korea, there is a quite small community of Mongolians in Japan. As of 2008, there were 4,753 registered Mongolians residing in Japan, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Especially, international students form a large proportion of populations of Mongolians in Japan. As of 2006, 1,006 Mongolian students were studying in Japanese institutions. Since 1991 Mongolian boys have been challenging in sumo, and as of 2005 they composed 5% of all ranked sumo wrestlers as well as more than 60% of non-Japanese rikishi or sumotori (literally, Strong Man) in Japan. The UB Post – Mongolia’s Independent English Newspaper stated that three out of four famous sumo wrestlers are Mongolians, according to Japanese central statistical agency’s public opinion poll. Mongolia-born Yokozuna Hakuho, Yokozuna Asashoryu and Ozeki Harumafuji were named as the most famous sumo wrestlers of 2009 (‘Mongolians Most Famous in Japan’, 2009). Not only Mongolian sumo wrestlers but also their great fan and supporters in Japan and Mongolia have been becoming socio-cultural bridge between two countries within one regional community. Because sumo around feelings and emotions, speeches and interests are very clear only between two nations. The economic cooperation and aid extended by Japan to Mongolia has expanded rapidly since 1991, accounting for approximately one-third of total aid for Mongolia by foreign countries and international organizations. The cooperation came to be focused on the development of infrastructure to assist the gaining of economic self-sufficiency. Between 1989 and 2007, there were 7 VIP visits paid from Japan to Mongolia, including three Prime Ministers, T.Kaifu, K.Obuchi and J.Koizumi and the Crown Prince and Prince and Princess.

10/23 In case of visits paid from Mongolia to Japan between 1997 and 2009, 14 VIPs visited Japan, inclusion of two Presidents and four Prime Ministers (Source is Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 2010). North Korean legal migrant workers come to Mongolia under an inter-governmental agreement to work in light industry and infrastructure projects. In fact, before 1990’s, during the Cold War era North Korean people were represented Korean culture and society. As shown in Table 1, DPRK is one of the earliest countries who maintained diplomatic relations with Mongolia. Under the Soviet Union umbrella Mongolia recognized North Korea in 1948. However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, two countries’ relations became strained. In 1999, after eleven years of Kim Il-sung’s visit to Mongolia, North Korea closed embassy in Ulaanbaatar on the occasion of an official visit of Kim Dae-jung, the first such visit by a ROK president. With the collapse of Soviet Union, since 1990s, China has become Mongolia’s biggest trading partner and a source of foreign investment. Bilateral trade reached USD 1.13 billion by the first nine months of 2007. China offered to allow the use of its Tianjin port to give Mongolia and its goods access to trade with the Asia Pacific Region. Politically, China is likely to support Mongolia’s place in to the APEC. China’s share of world metal consumption has leaped from 10 to 25 % in the past decade. Since 2002, China has accounted for half the world’s growth in consumption of steel, copper and aluminum, almost the entire world’s growth of nickel and tin, and much of the growth of lead and zinc (Allen 2007). Many Chinese investors would like to see Mongolia become a second Chile. Mongolia is especially rich in copper, coal, and gold. In addition to mining, the tourism is also increasingly important for the Mongolian economy. Numbers of Chinese tourists visiting Mongolia have been increasing every year since 2003. Following tables (Table 4, 5, and 6) represent the country’s economic interests towards this region in case of exports and imports. Table 4 and 5 show exports and imports by selected countries. Comparing to the Central Asian five countries, East Asian (China, Japan, DPRK, ROK and Taiwan) exports and imports are huge amount of sum. Table 6 show some main export and import commodities with selected countries.

[Table 4 is about here]

[Table 5 is about here]

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[Table 6 is about here]

East Asian attitudes in Mongolia

Mongolia’s social interests towards East Asia are not limited to be come out in those countries in the region like ROK, China and Japan but also appeared in Mongolia as socially and culturally. The author would like to present some facts and figures regarding Mongolia- East Asian social relations and its appearances through some sectors. While Mongolia’s interests in East Asia have been appeared in their participation in the regional countries’ social life as above, East Asian attitudes have been becoming visible in Mongolian society as of some aspects as below. In case of Mongolia, as from 1998 to 2010, total number of 6077 Mongolians married with foreigners from 81 different countries. Of which 3991 were married with Koreans, 292 with citizens of People’s Rep. of China, 159 with Russians, 353 with Japanese, 262 with German people, 193 with US citizens while 111 with UK citizens. As shown in Figure 1, number of married people from Mongolia with the “third neighbors” or North East Asian countries (Korea-3991; Japan-353; USA-193; total-4537) is 10 times more than those with our two neighbors (PRC-292; Russia-159; both-451).

[Figure 1 is about here]

[Figure 2 is about here]

According to General Police Department of Mongolia, as of August 2010 there were total 45 criminal cases by foreigners. Of which those registered 45 crimes by foreigners, 27 suspects are from PRC, 10 from Russia as well as 8 have ROK citizenship (‘Report of General Police Department of Mongolia’, 2010). Two neighbors plus one of the “third neighbors” are majorities in cases. Academic cooperation with higher education institutions is representing social interests towards East Asian countries as well. Figure 3 shows academic cooperation between Mongolia’s top public and private universities and East Asia’s. For instance, as one of the social attributes of interests towards East Asia, those higher education institutions from the East Asian countries possess the most academic relations and cooperation with the country.

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[Figure 3 is about here]

Numbers of East Asian regional countries movies to be casted on televisions are increasing. As of observations on all 17 Mongolian private and public TV’s, on October 2010, numbers of East Asian, Mongolian, Russian and American movies and TV drama series can be compared (Please see Figure 4 and 5). Korean TV drama series are dominating with 41 percent. The other 59 percent goes for all other countries’ drama including Chinese, Japanese, Russian, American, and even Mongolian.

[Figure 4 is about here]

[Figure 5 is about here]

The above mentioned human relations aspects of life such as international marriage, educational partnership, and TV movies have considerable positive and negative influence over Mongolian public attitude towards those of East Asian countries.

Concluding Remarks

The East Asia is the most considerably influenced region by the World War II. In East Asia, Korean peninsula was divided into two, the Soviet Union became powerful in the world and PRC claimed its founding while Mongolia came under the influence of the Soviet Union as well as USA installed its troops in Japan and South Korea. Although there was turnover in the world politics after there was the Cold War, Korean peninsula has been paid considerable attention by the world since 1948. Nevertheless, global politics which is implemented in a broad scope of keeping balance of powers and therefore protecting security in regions by military-political-economical super powers who are the main players of the Cold War and the winner of the World War II, has influenced directly on contemporary East Asian countries which are in their similarities of politics, economy and socio-culture. This paper considers on how Mongolia views and realizes East Asian region and how it identifies similarities with this region. Compared to other regions in the world, there is no atmosphere resulting serious armed clash caused by racial discrimination or religious conflicts which can severely affect on the regional security in East Asia. Even there is almost

13/23 no probability to cause conflict among native residents and non- native residents and/or conflict resulted from culture or language. The changes in the environment surrounding Mongolia and the future development trend since the end of the Cold War make it imperative that Mongolia consider its future development and security issues within the framework of the Asia-Pacific region, including North-East Asia (Institute of Strategic Studies 1998: 17). Currently Mongolia has a good relation with those countries which are connected by their interests and situated in the North East Asia. In particular, the scope of political, social and economic relation with China, South Korea and Japan, political and social relation with North Korea, and socio-economic and trade relations with Taiwan and Singapore is being expanded significantly. Although Mongolia is geographically situated in the center of Asia, economic, cultural, scientific, technological and humanitarian interests of the country and its future perspectives are being determined with tight connection to East and North East Asian societies, the countries situated in east part of Asia. The country’s buffer position between Russia and China remained geographically, however, its open foreign policy brings us even third neighbors, politically and economically, in East Asia. It is explained to have a mutual interrelation which includes an opportunity to own a stable position in every step of culture, politics for peace building and the progressive initiative of regional security.

References

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14/23 ‘Asia Women Network Supporting Married Migrant Women’s HRs’, Asian Workers News (10 December 2006), p. 7, Available: http://www.sopra21.org/awn/eng_pdf/216.pdf [10 Nov 2011]. Baabar, B. (1996): Horidugaar zuunii Mongol: nuudel suudal, garz olz (Twentieth century Mongolia), Mongolia. Clubb, E. O. (1971): China and Russia; “The Great Game”. New York: Columbia University Press. Constitution of Mongolia , (adopted by the People’s Great Hural in 1992), Ulaanbaatar. Embassy of the Republic of Korea to Mongolia (2005): Mongolia Bilateral Relations , [Online], Available: http://mng.mofat.go.kr/eng/as/mng/bilateral/political/index.jsp [01 Oct 2011]. Freedom House (2009): Freedom in the World 2009: Country and Related Territory Reports, [Online], Available: http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2009 [30 Sep 2010]. Fukuyama, F. (1989): ‘The End of History’, In The National Interest, Vol. 16, Nr. 04 General Police Department of Mongolia (2010): ‘Report of General Police Department of Mongolia’, Niislel Times, 30 September, Nr 191, 192. Huntington, S. P. (1991): ‘Democracy’s Third Wave’, In The Journal of Democracy, Vol. 02, Nr. 02. Huntington, S. P. (1996): The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order , Simon & Schuster. Inoguchi, T. (2005): ‘Envisioning the ACPR in the New Century’, Political Science in Asia, Vol. 01, Nr. 01. Institute of Strategic Studies (1998): Mongolian Defense White Paper 1997-1998 . Ulaanbaatar. Janar, T. (2009): ‘A Basis of Mongolian Defense Policy and Armed Forces for Self- defense’, In Caforio, G. (ed.) Advances in Military Sociology: Essays in Honor of Charles C.Moskos, Part B . UK-North America-Japan-India-Malaysia-China: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 327-342. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (2010): Japan-Mongolia Relations, [Online], Available: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/mongolia/index.html [30 Sep 2010]. Mongolia Immigration Agency (2010): ‘Interview with Chairman of the Mongolia Immigration Agency’, Daily News, 16 September, Nr 220.

15/23 ‘Mongolians Most Famous in Japan’, The UB Post – Mongolia’s Independent English Newspaper (21 August 2009). National Statistical Office of Mongolia (2011): Monthly Bulletin of Statistics: October, Ulaanbaatar. ‘Remarks by U.S. President G. W. Bush’, (2005): Conference Hall Government House Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, [Online], Available: www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/11/20051121.html [23 Nov 2005].

Tables and Figures

Table 1. Elected percentages

Name of Terms of Percentage of Number of Party Background President Office Vote Candidates P.Ochirbat 1993-1997 57.78% 2 Democratic Coalition N.Bagabandi 1997-2001 60.81% 3 MPRP N.Bagabandi 2001-2005 58.13% 3 MPRP N.Enkhbayar 2005-2009 53.44% 4 MPRP

16/23 Ts.Elbegdorj 2009-current 51.21% 2 Democratic Party

Table 2. A Chronology of the State Great Hural of Mongolia (Since 1992 Constitution up to present)

State Great Term MPRP Other Parties’ Seats Electoral System Hural Seats (Mainly DC or DP) First 1992 – 1996 71 5 Multi-mandate majoritarian system: Block Vote Second 1996 – 2000 25 51 Single-mandate majoritarian system: First-Past-the Post Third 2000 – 2004 72 4 Single-mandate majoritarian system: First-Past-the Post Fourth 2004 – 2008 37 39 Single-mandate majoritarian system: First-Past-the Post Fifth 2008 – present 45 31 Multi-mandate majoritarian system: Block Vote Sixth 2012 ? ? Mixed (48:28) ?

Table 3. Maintaining diplomatic relations with Mongolia

Countries Date Russian Federation 1921.11.05 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 1948.10.15 People’s Republic of China 1949.10.16 Japan 1972.02.24 United States of America 1987.01.27 Republic of Korea 1990.03.26 Republic of Kazakhstan 1992.01.22 Republic of Uzbekistan 1992.01.25 Кyrgyz Republic 1992.04.22 Turkmenistan 1992.04.23 Republic of Tajikistan 1992.04.24 Note: source is Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Mongolia (2010), but table is made by the author.

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Table 4. Exports, by selected countries, as of 2008-2010, and by the first 10 months of 2011 /Thous.USD/

Region Countries 2008 2009 2010 2011 (I-X) Total 2 534 466.4 1 885 385.1 2 908 502.2 3 788 647.9 East Asia China 1635890.6 65% 1393906.7 74% 2466265.5 85% 3430 477.6 90% Japan 27589.0 2% 4564.2 2% 2669.7 0.1% 3529.7 0.1% DPRK 38.2 - 25.5 2.2 ROK 29892.0 2% 15458.1 1% 30519.9 1% 33078.4 0.9% Taiwan 51.8 94.0 182.0 10.0 Central Kazakhstan 1205.2 3220.2 1513.6 2165.3 Asia Kirgizstan 1561.5 97.8 184.2 430.3 Tajikistan 24.7 58.8 - - Turkmenistan - 6.6 13.4 30.8 Uzbekistan 136.7 120.8 352.8 87.0 Russian Federation 86318.0 3% 68204.7 4% 82747.9 2.8% 77529.3 2% United States of America 114232.6 5% 13892.0 1% 6018.2 0.2% 4433.1 0.1% Source: National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 2011

Table 5. Imports, by selected countries, as of 2008-2010, and by the first 10 months of 2011 /Thous.USD/

Region Countries 2008 2009 2010 2011 (I-X) Total 3 244 540.9 2 137 673.5 3 200 053.3 5 352 359.0 East Asia China 898732.4 28% 538582.6 25% 970976.0 30% 1694867.4 32% Japan 238526.7 8% 97053.5 5% 196488.0 6% 384447.6 7% DPRK 21.9 47.1 798.5 0.02% 669.5 0.01% ROK 194818.4 6% 155102.2 7% 181781.9 5.7% 292784.3 5.5% Taiwan 7221.0 3768.4 5238.1 0.2% 7060.9 0.1% Central Kazakhstan 25623.3 1% 16775.5 1% 8339.4 0.3% 13203.8 0.2% Asia Kirgizstan 1498.8 1804.1 1904.5 0.06% 1325.3 0.02% Tajikistan 3.5 3.6 0.1 8.3 Turkmenistan - - - - Uzbekistan 89.2 211.8 67.8 307.8

18/23 Russian Federation 1242275.2 38% 772815.3 36% 1046695.2 33% 1299111.7 24% United States of America 84115.2 3% 103743.6 5% 158915.3 5% 420414.5 7% Source: National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 2011

Table 6. Exports and Imports, by some commodities

Countries Main commodities Exports Imports USA Fluor spar ores and concentrate, Combed goat Cars, Trucks down Russia Fluor spar ores and concentrate Flour, Petrol, Diesel fuel ROK Molybdenium ores and concentrate Public transport means, Cars, Trucks China Copper concentrate, Molybdenium ores and Rice, Trucks concentrate, Combed goat down, Sheep wool Japan Molybdenium ores and concentrate, Combed goat Cars, Trucks down Source: National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 2011

Figure 1. International Marriage (between 1998 and 2010)

19/23 Note: source is Mongolia Immigration Agency, 2010.

Figure 2. Crimes committed by foreigners (as of first eight months of 2010)

Note: source is General Police Department, 2010.

Figure 3. Higher Education Institutional Academic Cooperation

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Note : Data is collected by the author and his TA’s. Source is universities’ websites and inquiry from universities’ international office.

Figure 4. East Asian TV drama series and movies a week /Mongolian, Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Russian and American/

Note: Observed in October, 2010

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Figure 5. East Asian TV drama series and movies a week, by TVs

Note: Observed in October, 2010 Turtogtoh Janar (Ph.D. from National University of Mongolia) is Professor of Political Science and Secretary General, Academic Council, School of Social Sciences, National University of Mongolia. He is also former visiting research fellow at the Institute of Korean Political Studies, Seoul National University. Editor, Contemporary Political Society , Member, the Executive Committee of the Asian Consortium for Political Research, Member, the Korean Political Science Association. He specializes in Mongolian politics and political development, East Asian politics, and contemporary Korean political history and changes. His latest publications include: “Genesis and Development of Contemporary Korean National Assembly” in Political Science YIII – Journal of National University of Mongolia, 350 (62), May 2011, Political science analysis on Constitution (Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Printing, 2010), “A Basis of Mongolian Defense Policy and Armed Forces for Self-defense” in Giuseppe Caforio (ed.) Advances in Military Sociology: Essays in Honor of Charles C. Moskos: Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development (Emerald Group

22/23 Publishing Limited, 2009), and “Daily Lifestyle and Political Attitudes of Ordinary Mongolians” in Takashi Inoguchi (ed.) Human Beliefs and Values in Incredible Asia (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2008). He can be contacted at: [email protected]

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