Notes

INTRODUCTION

I. Personal encounter of author, passing through Del Rio, Texas, in June 1995. 2. Sander L. Gilman and Steven T. Katz, Anti-Semitism in Times ofCrisis (New York: New York University Press, 1991), vii. For definitions and discussions of the term '', see Bernard Lewis, Semites and Anti-Semites (New York: Norton, 1986),21 f., 81 f; Meyer Weinberg, Because They Were (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), xii; Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism (London: Thames Mandrin, 1992), xv ff; and Helen Fein, ed., The Persisting Question (Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1987). 3. Amos Funkenstein, Perceptions ofJewish History (Berkeley: University of California . Press, 1993), 326, cites Old Testament exhortations which he says amount to a call for genocide. 4. Abram Leon, The . A Marxist Interpretation (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1974).

CHAPTER 1

I. James Parkes, Judaism and Christianity (London, 1948), 167, as quoted in Malcolm Hay, and the Jews (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961), 11. 2. Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews, 46, 227, n.5. 3. Joel Carmichael, The Satanizing of The Jews (New York: Fromm, 1992),3,7. 4. Sander L. Gilman and Steven T. Katz, eds, Anti-Semitism in Times of Crisis (New York and London: New York University Press, 1991), 30. 41. 5. Edward Flannery, The Anguish of the Jews (New York: Paulist Press, 1985).7-27. 6. John Gager, The Origins of Anti-Semitism (New York: Oxford University Press). 43,82. 7. Benzion Netanyahu. The Origins ofthe in Fifteenth Century Spain (New York: Random House, 1995). 22. 8. Claude Lanzmann, Shoah. An Oral History of (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985) 99-100. 9. Elaine Pagels. The Origin of Satan (New York: Random House, 1995), 103-5. 10. Friedrich Heer, God's First Love (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1970),23; Paula Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ (New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 1988), 120 f. II. Edward A Synan, The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages (New York: Macmillan, 1967) 152 f. 12. Barnet Litvinoff, The Burning Bush (London: Fontana/Collins, 1989), 17 f. 13. Franklin H. Littell, The CrucifIXion ofthe Jews (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. 1986),28 ff. 14. Norman F. Cantor, The Sacred Chain (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), 155, 110; Kenneth R. Stow, Alienated Minority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1992),21-4, is more balanced. 15. Cantor, op. cit., 109. 245 246 Paths to Genocide: AntisernitLtm in Westem History

16. Robert L. Wilken. John ChryJostom and The Jews (Berke.ley and : University of California Press, 1983), 116, 124. 17. Malcolm Hay, Europe and the Jews (Boston: Beacon Press, 19(1),30-2. 18. Heer, op. cit., 73, citing Allgusline's Adversus JudiJeos. 19. Irving Agus, Tile Heroic Age 0/ Franco·German Jewry (New York: Yeshiva University Press. 1969) Canlor, op. cit .• 108, emphasizes the disabilities under waich Jews lived. 20. Slavery was accepted and practised widely unlil recently. Alleged Jewisb involvement in tile slave trade is a factor In African~American antisemitism today, but it had no part in the formation ofantisemilism orin its earlier history. See David Brion Davis, 'The Slave Trade and the jews'. The New York Review ofBooks XLI. 21 (December 22,1994). 21. Gregory of Tours. The History oflhe Frard:s (Oxford at the Clarendon Press, t 927), Volume It 176-7; Volume n, 176-9; 250-1, 302-3, 329. 22. Lilvinoff, op. cit.. 36 f. 23. 8alo W. Baron, Ii Social and Religious Hisloryof the Jews (Volume IV, : 'The Jewish Publication Society of A medea, 1957),44. 24, Agus,op. cit., 186,341,36,60 fr., 41. 25. Stow, op. <:il., 33 Fr. 26. This was the Theodosian Code of 438. Flannery. op. cit., 56 f. 27. Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of Ihe Jews, Volume IX (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965).60 f., 27. 28. Stow, op. cir., 213 f. 29. 5alo W. Baron. A Social alld Religious Hisfory o/the Jews. Volume XI (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 138; Ag!ls, op. cit., 151-5. 30. Trachtenberg,op, cit, 190; Agus, Ope cit., 145. 31. Baron,op. cit., Volume rx, 137,72. 32. See Allan Harris CUller. The Jew /;IS All}' of the Muslim. Medieval Roots ofModem Ami-Semilism (Notre Dame, Indiana; University of NOIre Dame Press, 1986). 33. Compare Leon Pollakov, The Hisloryo/AmiSemitism, Volume I (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974) 42; Arno Mayer, Why did the Heavens nof Darken? (New York: Pantheon, 1988), 226-33; Robert Chamn, European Jewry and theJirsf Crusade (Berkeley: UniVersity of California Press, 1987),. passim; Alfred Haverkamp, MedieW11 Germany 1056-1273 (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992), 124; and Reer, Gp. cit., 66. 34. Quoted in Baron, op. cit. (Volume IV), 102. 35. Trachlenberg, "p. cit" 167; Chazal'l, op. cit" 66, 82. 36. Baron,op.. dr. (Volume IV), 13.5-7, 141 f.,and 147-9 minimizes Ihe immediate impact of the Cmsades while emphasizing fheir psychological legacy; Chazsn. op, cit., minimizes both their irumediate and long-term effects while emphasizing the prolec!ive role of the Church; Haverkamp, Gp. cit" 125,218. emphasizes Ihe benefits of imperial protccl.ion for Jews; see also Stow, op. cir" 102 ff., 115. 37.. Baron,op. cit, IV, 125 f., .130; Poliakov, op. cit., I, 48. 38. Heer.op. cit, 68, 39. Hay, op. cit .. , 57; Reer. op. cit., 67. 40. As in Robert Chazan, ed., Church Slale and Jew in the MiddleAges (New York: Behrman House. 1980). 103: Hay, 0[', cU., 44 f. 41. Chazan,op, cit., 105; Hay, op. cit., 49,51 ff.; Haverkamp. op. cit., 195; Meer,op. elt., 67; Baron, op .. cir. IV, 120, 122 f. 42. Collections of 'Miracles of the Virgin' became an influential form of popular Illeralure. R. W, Southern, Tile Making offhe Middle Ages (New Haven and London: Notes 247

Yale University Press, 1965),246. On Bernard, the Virgin, and Chartres see Hans Jantzen, High Gothic, London: Constable, 1962. 43. Baron,op. cit. XI, 126-8. 44. Gavin I. Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (cited hereafter as Antisemitism) (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 113-16; and the same author's History, , and Antisemitism (cited hereafter as History) (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 156. 45. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 131 ff., 202. 46. Ibid., 207; Baron, op. cit. IV, 122 f. 47. See Alan Dundes, ed., The Blood Libel Legend. A Casebook in Anti-Semitic Folklore (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991); Jacob R. Marcus, The Jew in the Medieval World. A Source Book: 315-1791 (New York: Atheneum, 1969); and Encyclopedia Judaica (New York, 1971), 4: 1120-31. 48. Pinchas E. Lapide, Three Popes and the Jews (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1967), 67,69. 49. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 235, 283; Lapide, op. cit., 67. William's death, caused by a cataleptic seizure, occurred five years before Thomas arrived at the priory of Norwich cathedral. 50. Marcus, op. cit., 122, quoting Thomas of Monmouth's The Life and Miracles ofSaint William of Norwich. 51. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 307. 52. H.E. Butier, ed., The Chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelond concerning the acts of Samson, Abbot of the Monastery of St Edmunds (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1949), 16. 53. In 1758 the Holy See once more denounced the legend of ritual murder, and condemned the cult of canonized children - but excepted the two most popular child saints. Heer, op. cit., 72. 54. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 242. 55. Ibid, 237-62. 56. Baron, op. cit. IV, 135; Trachtenberg, op. cit., 124-9, 134; Langmuir, Antisemitism, 329. 57. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 277 f.; Haverkamp, op. cit., 321 f. 58. Baron, op. cit. IX, 144; Langmuir, Antisemitism, 265. 59. F1annery,op. cit., 102, 126. 60. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 265, 307. 61. Trachtenberg, op. cit., 248 n.44, 132-42, 140-55, 44-54; Baron, op. cit., Vol. XI, 136. 62. Langmuir, History, 249-51, 258 fr., 263, 274, 305; Antisemitism. 270 f., 307 f. 63. Trachtenberg,op. cit., 114. 64. Langmuir, History, 305; Antisemitism, 308, 327 f.

CHAPTER 2

1. Innocent III, Regesta 16.30, PL 216:824, as cited in Jeremy Cohen. The Friars and the Jews. The Evolution of Medieval Anti-Judaism (Ithaca and London: Press, 1982), 249. 2. Robert Chazan. ed., Church State and Jew in the Middle Ages (New York: Behrman House. 1980), 171-7. 248 Paths 10 Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

3. Kenneth R Stow, Alitmafed MiMrity, 247 ff; Edward /1\, Synan. The Popes and Ille Jews in the Middle Ages, 104; Leon Polialmv, Tile HislOry of Ami-Semi/ism Volume t 64. 4. Chazan, op. cir., 179 f. Salo W. Bilton, A Social and Religious History of tlu! Jews (Volume IX), 29, 31 f. 5. Alfred Haverkamp, Medieval Germtl1ly 1056-1273, 68. 6. Jeremy Cohen, The Friars and the Jews, 246. 1, Encyclopedia ofReligion, Volume IV (New Yorlo:: Macmillan. 19117), 418-20. 8. Norman F. Cantor. The Sacred Clwin, 79 f. 9. (1971), Volume VII, 47. 10. Friedrich Hee!, God's First Love. 37-9, I I. Ibid .• 70. 12. Cohen, op. cit, 13. 13. Ibid., 21. 14, Ibid., 14; Heiko Oberman, The Impact oftilt! Reformation (Grand Rapids, Ml: \V,o.. Eet'dman. 1994), 133 f, 15. What follows is based on Langmuir, History. Religiolt, andAntisemilism. 139, 156, 160,177,119, 199f" 214, and 218-21, 16. 011 attacks on the see Kenneth R. Stow, Alienated Minority, 251-9; Cohen, op. cit., 66, 73; and S810 W. Baron,A Social atuiReligious HisloryoftJIe Jew$. Volume XI,148, 17. Malcolm Hay, Europe and the JIJW.f (Boston: Beacon Press), III if.; Faliako ... , op. cit., 68-73; Trachtenberg, op. cit, 177-80; Baron, op. cit, XI. 60-76. ! 8. Chazan,op. cll., 181-3; Baron, op. cir., IX, 65. 70, i.48; Haverkamp, op. dl., 322, 350. 19, ellazan,op. cit., 123-6; 233-.8; Synan, ap. cil.• ! 12. 20, Quoted in Poliakov, GP. cil., 6!; cf. SYllan, op. cit, ! 14 f. 21. Jacob R. Marclls, Tlte Jew in (he Medieval World. A Saurce Book: 3/5-1791 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 151 [ 22, Bamet Litvinoff, The Burning Bush, 72; MarCllS, op. cil. 43; 8.aron, op. cit., XI, 162 f. 23, On expUlsions of Jews see Stow, op. cit., 281-308; and documents ill ChllZlln. op. cit" passim. 24. Baron, ()p. cit., XI, 1M. 198,272-5, 115-20. 25. Baron,op, cit, IX, 200. 26. H.E. Butler, ed" Tile Chronicle of Jocelill of Brakeland com::ernil1g the aelS of Salllson, Abbot of Ihe Monastery of Sf Edmund (london: Thomas Nelson and Sons ltd, 1949),45 [ n Baron, op. cil., XI, 209 f, 28. As in ibid., 217, 29. Ibid,. 218-25, 30. Baron,op. cit.,. XI, 148, 173, 3!. Ibid., 89, 231, 32. Salo W. Baron, A Social alld Religious History of/lie JeW$(Volume XIII. New York: Columbia University press, 1969),22 f. 33. What follows relies 011 Benzion Netanyahu, The Origills oftlte Inqui.ition in Fifteenth Celltury S,)(litl (New York: Random House, 1995), See, in parlicular pages 1052-5, 1068, 1084 t, 207 f. 34. Ibid., 982-3. 990-1, 1053, 35. Edward Peters, lnquisitielll (Berke.!ey: University of California Press, 1989), 81-6, 88-90, 99-! 03; Abba Ehan, My Pt!ople (New York: Random House, 1984), 184-97; Baron,op. cit" XIU, 26-31; Nelanyahu, op. cit., 1020, 1026~7, 29, Notes 249

36. Henry Kamen, Inquisition and Society in Spain (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 13-17. 37. Cantor, op. cit., 187. 38. Netanyahu, op. cit., lOSS, 1063-4, 1068. 39. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age ofPhilip II (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1975), Volume II, 825. 40. Baron,op. cit., IX, 135 ff., 192 f., 169. 41. Baron,op. cit., XI, 75. 42. Louis Wirth, The Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928), 30; Baron, op. cit., XI, 88, 96. 43. Langmuir, Antisemitism, 307. 44. Trachtenberg,op. cit., 32 ff.

CHAPTER 3

I. Salo W. Baron,A Social and Religious History ofthe Jews (Volume XIII) 204 f., 160. 2. Ibid., 182-91. 3. Ibid., 222; Steven Ozment, The Age ofReform 1250-1550 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980),303. 4. Heiko Oberman, The Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Age of Renaissance and Reformation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 24-31; 120. 5. Ibid., 40, 43. 6. Ibid., 38. 7. As in Baron, op. cit., XIII, 162. 8. Ibid., 189,40; Oberman, op. cit., 58, n.76. 9. Jeremy Cohen, 'Traditional Prejudice and Religious Reform: The Theological and Historical Foundations of Luther's anti-Judaism', in Gilman and Katz, eds, Anti• Semitism in Times of Crisis, 81-102. 10. R. Po-chi a Hsia, 'Jews as Magicians in Reformation Germany', in Gilman and Katz, eds, op. cit., 126 ff.; 116. II. Oberman, op. cit., 71. 12. Luther's Collected Works, Vol. 47 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971), 137-305, 135; cf. Encyclopaedia Judaica, XI, 586, and Baron, op. cit., XIII, 216; John Weiss, Ideology of Death. Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996),23. 13. Mark U. Edwards Jr, 'Toward an Understanding of Luther's Attacks on the Jews', in Philip F. Gallagher, ed., Christians, Jews, and Other Worlds (Lanham, New York, and London: University Press of America, 1988), 1 f. 14. Weiss, op. cit., 24. IS. Baron,op. cit. XIII, 247 f., 251-5. 16. Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume XI, 586. 17. Baron,op. cit., Volume XIII, 256. 18. Ibid., 267 f. 19. For example, Johannes Wallmann, 'The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th Century', Lutheran Quarterly (Spring, 1987), 78, 85-7; cf. Baron, op. cit., XIV, 189 f. 20. R. Po-Chi a Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder. Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 131-5; Oberman, op. cit., 13 f. 21. Sa10 W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of ti,e Jews, Volume XIV, 18 f. 22. Ibid., 26. 250 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

23. Ibid., 142. 24. Ibid., 45, 47-9. 25. Ibid., 10-12, 15 f. 26. Henry Kamen, Inquisition and Society in Spain in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 126. 27. Friedrich Heer, God's First Love, 111-13,389. 28. Baron,op. cit., Vol. XIV, 220 f. 29. Baron,op. cit., Vol. XIV, 147. 30. Ibid., 153, 170, 175 f. 31. Ibid., 184, 187. 32. Baron,op. cit., Vol. XIV, 189 f., 193. 33. Ozment, op. cit., 427 f; Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), Volume II, 235; Baron, op. cit., Vol. XIII, 287. 34. ' ... and if Father and Son are identical and both have the same will, then certainly that iniquity which Jesus himself had forgiven, was condoned'. As in Baron, op. cit., Vol. XIII, 290 f. 35. Ibid., 290 f. 36. Baron, op. cit., Vol. XIV, 221. 37. R. Po-Chia Hsia, 3 f. 38. Ibid. 42. 39. Oberman,op. cit., 35; cf. R. Po-Chia Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder, 136 ff. 40. Oberman, op. cit., 36 f. 128. 41. R. Po-Chia Hsia, The Myth of Ritual Murder, 133. 42. Ibid., 47. 43. Ibid., 228-30, 203. 44. Hajo Holbom,A History ofModern Germany. The Reformation. (New York: Knopf, 1961),84 f; 78. 45. Christopher R. Friedrichs, 'Politics or ? The Fettmilch Uprising in German and ' , Central European History XIX 2 (June 1986), 186-228; Baron, op. cit., Vol. XIV, 196 f. 46. Friedrichs, op. cit., 190-4, 218 f., 226. 47. German towns might be totally autonomous, as were the commercial towns of the Hansa League; they might be subject to the local territorial prince; or they might be subject only to the more distant authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. Those in the latter category proudly styled themselves 'imperial free cities'.

CHAPTER 4

1. Jonathan , European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism 1550-1750, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. 2. Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History afthe Jews (Volume XIV), 231-3. 3. Jonathan Israel, 'Central European Jewry during the Thirty Years' War', Central European History XVI: I (1983),29. 4. Baron ap. cit., XIV, 236 f., 266-9, 237, 252 f., 262, 292 f. 5. Ibid., 294. 6. Israel, Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 248. 7. Adam Zamoyski, The Polish Way. A Thousand Year History of the Poles and their Culture, (London: John Murray, 1989),40. Noles 251

8. Nonnan Davies, God's Playground. A History of Poland (Volume I), (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 369 r., 206. 9. Perry Anderson, Lineages ofthe Absolutist State (London: Verso, 1979), 286 f; Davies, op. cit., 413 r., 418, 321 f.; and Nonnan Davies, Heart of Europe. A Short History of Poland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984),345-8. 10. Ibid., 87-9. II. Bernard D. Weinryb, The Jews ofPoland (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1982), 131; Zamoyski, op. cit., 124. 12. Weinryb,op. cit., 130. Zamoyski, op. cit., 89-91; Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume XVI, 76. 13. Zamoyski,op. cit., 201. 14. Baron,op. cit., XVI, 84 f., 89 f., 91, 98,106,162. 15. Chi men Abramsky, Madej Jachimczyk, and Antony Polonsky, eds, The Jews in Poland (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 1-63; Zamoyski, op. cit., 36 f.; Weinryb, op. cit., Chapters 6 and 7. 16. Baron, op. cit., XVI, 115 f. 17. Davies, God's Playground, 77-80; Weinryb, op. cit., 33 rf. 18. Davies, God's Playground, 130 f.; 201. 19. Weinryb op. cit., 65ff., 71-8; Zamoyski, op. cit., 106, 130. 20. Baron,op. cit., XVI, 109-11; Weinryb, op. cit., 46-8, 131-52. 21. Ibid., 36-8. 22. Zamoyski,op. cit., 106. 23. Davies, God's Playground, Vol. 1,293. 24. Ibid., 288-90; Anderson, op. cit., 291 f. 25. Hillel Levine, Economic Origins ofAntisemitism. Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991),53,61-4; Davies, God's Playground, 441-4. 26. Baron, op. cit., Vol. XVI, 268. 27. Levine,op. cit., 12, 145, 147 f., 151 r., 234 r. 28. Weinryb,op. cit., 186; Davies, God's Playground, 444; Baron, op. cit., Vol. XVI, 191,265-78. 29. Ibid., 270 f. 30. Ronald Modras, The and Antisemitism. Poland, 1933-1939 (Langhorne, PA: Harwood, 1994),6-8,31 f. 31. Weinryb,op. cit., 130 f., 154. 32. Howard Aster and Peter J. Potichnyj, Jewish-Ukrainian Relations: Two Solitudes (Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press, 1987),23. 33. Michael Hrushevsky, A History of Ukraine (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1970; reprint of the 1941 edition published by Yale University Press), 171. 34. Aster and Potichnyj, op. cit., 23. 35. Rudnytsky, op. cit., 55, 59 f. 36. W.P. Cresson, Tile Cossacks. Their History and Country (New York: Brentano's, 1919),67-9. 37. Orest Subtelny, Ukraine. A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 107 f., 124; Weinryb, op. cit., 116, 186. 38. Weinryb,op. cit., 193-8. Israel, op. cit., 165, and Subtelny, op. cit., 575, n. 3, provide much lower estimates. 39. Baron,op. cit., Vol. XVI, 306. 40. Hrushevsky, 01'. cit., 177 ff., 245, 281,443 f. 41. Davies, God's Playground, 463, 465, 468, 200. 42. Davies, God's Playground, 444, as invoked by Subtelny, op. cit., 124. 252 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

43. Baron,op. cit. Vol. XVI, 297-9. 44. Weinryb,op. cit., 186. 45. Baron,op. cit., Vol. XVI, 101; Levine, op. cit., 185, 187, 190, 159. 46. Ibid., 162; Weinryb, op. cit., 205. 47. Ibid., 160, 173. 48. Ibid., 172~. 49. Norman F. Cantor, The Sacred Chain. The History of the Jews (New York: HarperCo\lins, 1994), 184. 50. Aster and Potichnyj, op. cit., 24. 51. Weinryb,op. cit., 187,203; Rudnytsky, op. cit., 55, 59 f. 52. Weinryb,op. cit., 112. 53. Levine,op. cit., 32, nAI. 54. Davies, God's Playground, 320. 55. On the life of the shtetl see Maurice Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem, New York: Schocken Books, 1965 [1943], and Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, Life is With People. The Culture of the Shtetl, New York: Schocken Books, 1962 [1952].

CHAPTERS

I. Leon Poliakov, The History ofAnti-Semitism. Volume III, From Voltaire to Wagner (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975), 109; 121. 2. Paul R. Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, eds, The Jew in the Modern World. A Documentary History (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 10. 3. Leon Poliakov, The History ofAnti-Semitism, Volume I, From Roman Times to the Court Jews (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974),97. 4. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. III, 35; and Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 33. 5. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. III, 35-7. 6. According to Poliakov, nothing in the Bill constituted a material threat to any economic interest. Ibid. See also Robert Liberles, 'The Jews and Their Bill: Jewish Motivations in the Controversy of 1753', Jewish History 2.2 (Fall 1987), 29-36; Todd M. Endelman, The Jews ofGeorgian England, 24-6; 89-91; 59-64; and David S. Katz, Jews in the History of England, 240-83. 7. Salo W. Baron, 'Newer Approaches to Jewish Emancipation,' Diogenes, (Spring 1960),65. 8. Paul Lawrence Rose, Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 80. 9. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, eds, op. cit.,27-34; David Sorkin, The Transfonnation ofGennan Jewry, 1780-1840 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 23 ff.; Vicki Caron, Between France and Germany. The Jews of Alsace-Lorraine, 1871-1918 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988),2 ff.; Barnet Litvinoff, The Burning Bush, 120 ff. 10. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 30-3, 37. II. Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction. Anti-Semitism, 1700-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980),52 f; 223 f. 12. In France, this more judaico was abolished in 1846. Caron, op. cit., 7. 13. But cf. Paul Breines, Tough Jews. Political Fantasies and the Moral Dilemma of American Jewry, New York: Basic Books, 1990. 14. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz. op. cit., 42 f. Notes 253

15. Arthur Hertzberg, The French Enlightenment and the Jews (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1968),4,7. 16. Edward Flannery, The Anguish of the Jews, especially Chapter 8, and p. 174. 17. Poliakov, op. cit., Vol. m, 92; cf. Litvinoff, op. cit., 110. 18. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol.llI, 90 f. The book is Henri Labroue, Voltaire antijuif, Paris, 1942. 19. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. III, 89. 20. For example, Litvinoff, op. cit., 110 f. 21. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. Ill, 92. 22. Richard S. Levy defines antisemitism to include commitment to act against Jews, and concludes that Voltaire, therefore, ought not to be considered an antisemite, despite his verbal attacks on Jews. Antisemitism in the Modem World. An Anthology ofTexts (Lexington, MA and Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991),5 and 38. 23. Voltaire's Politics. The Poet as Realist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959), 353 f. 24. Ibid., 209. 25. Ecraser means to squash or crush, as one would a loathsome bug. 26. Hertzberg, op. cit., 303 f., quoting from the article on Abraham in Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary. 27. Arnold Ages, 'Voltaire. That Intolerant Apostle of Tolerance' • Midstream (January 1995), 10 f. 28. Fritz Stern, ed., The Varieties of History. From Voltaire to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 14. 35 ff; Karl Lowith, Meaning in History (Chicago: Phoenix Books, 1964), Chapter V, 'Voltaire'; and Katz. op. cit .• 34-47. 29. Lowith.op. cit., 106-110. 30. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 256; Katz, op. cit., 46 f. 31. As in Poliakov op. cit., Vol. 1lI, 164 f. 32. See John Gross, Shylock. A Legend and Its Legacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992; and Bryan Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew' in English Literature and Society, Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, 1993. 33. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. 1,239 f. 34. Poliakov,op. cit., Vol. Ill, 56. 35. Serge Stavisky was a French financier involved in a major financial scandal in the mid-1930s. 36. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 103. 37. The issue had been decided earlier and more quickly for the smaller and more affluent communities of Sephardic Jews concentrated largely in Bordeaux and Bayonne. 38. Hertzberg.op. cit.• 119; 131 f., 137.330 ff., 249. 39. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz. op. cit., 45, 46, n. I. 40. Caron, op. cit.• 9 f. Zionists, who believed one could be fully a Jew only in the land of Israel, retained the pejorative term 'Galut'. 41. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 104 f. 42. Hertzberg. op. cit., 336. 43. Berr Isaac Berr. 'Letter of a Citizen to his Fellow Jews', as in Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz,op. cit., 107-10. 44. Paula Hyman, The Emancipation ofthe Jews ofAlsace: Acculturation and Tradition in the Nineteenth CellIury, New Haven. Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991. 45. Poliakov,op. cit.• Vol. Ill, 228. 46. Franz Kobler, Napoleon and the Jews (New York: Schocken Books, 1976),213 f.; Litvinoff,op. cit., 136; Poliakov, op. cit., Volume III, 249. 254 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

47. PoliaKov, "p. cll., Volume III, 278 f. 4!t Ibid" 226. 49. Rose. Gp. cil., 95, emphasizes the sinister implications ofKanl's critique of Judaism. 50. Kallt, TIU! War ojFacullies, as in H.H. Ben-Sasson. ed., A Hislo.ry OJlhe Jewish People, 746; Pollako.", op. cil., m. 178 ff. S1. Katz,op. cit., 70. 52. William Wordsworth, as quoted in Kenneth Clark, Civilisation (london: SBC lind John Murray, 1971.), 296,

CHAPTER 6

I. Ru.th Gay, Tile Jews of Germany. A Historical Portrait (New Haven and London: Yale UniversilY Press, 1992), ! 14, 131; Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz. The Jew in the Modern World. 127 f. 2. Uon Poliakov, The History 0/ Ami·Semilism Volume HI, From Voltaire 10 Wagner (London: Roucledge & Kegan Paul, 1975),237.. 3. Ibid., 240 f. 4. Paul Lawrence Rose, Revolutionary Amisemifism in Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press. ! 990), 108. 5. Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruct/on, 57; Mendes-Plohr and Reinnarz. op. cit., 257; Poliakov. op. cit., 511, n. 46., and Rose. ap. cit., 118-24. 6. Quoted in Rose, ap. cir .• 120, 7. Picntc also implied that it was both possible and necessary to e1l,Irlict oneself Irom one's clIlllIral context Anthony J. La VOPCll. 'Th.e Revelalory Momelll: Fichte and the French Revolution', Central European Hislory, Volume 22. No.2, June. 1989. 14 L 8. Poliakov,op. cit .• 287. 9. Rase,op. cit" 127. 10. Poliakov, op. cif.. 383-91. II. The classic accou.nt is George L. Masse, The Crisis o/Oerman Ideology, Intellectual OrigblN of the Third Reich {New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1964}. 12. Katz,op. cit., 77. 13. JO:>I Hermllnd. Old Dreams ofiJ. New Reich: Volkisil Utopias and Natjonal Socialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992). 14. Ibid., xiii-x vi. 15. Poliakov,op. cit., 380 ff; and Hermand, op. cir., xiv and 13. 16. Ruth Gay, op. cit., I !.t 17, Poliakov,op. cit., 241. 18. Mendes~Flohr and Reillharz, op. cit., 129. 19. Poliakov,op. cit., 243 f. 20, Leonore Sterling, 'Ami-Jewish Riols in Germany in 1819: A Displacement of Social Protest,' HislOrica Jwiaica 12 (1950), 105-42, and Katz, OJ). cit" 102. 21. Katz, OJ). cit., 103 f. 22. William O. McCagg. Jr,.A flistory o/Habsburg Jews, 1670-1918 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 57-60. g I. 23. Only biological was lacking .. James F. Harris, The People Speak! Anti• Stm.itism and Emancipatio.1l in Ninefeenth,Cen.rury Bavaria (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994),226 f. 24. Ibid,,4. 25. Although its full emancipation was not achieved unlil 1858, England's Jewish minority had lived under few legal restriClions. Notes 255

26. Charles Lane, 'The Tainted Sources of "The Bell Curve''', The New York Review of Books XLI, 20 (I December 1994), 14-19, critiques a recent attempt to re-Iegitimize racial categories of analysis. 27. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1980), 234. 28. Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Superstition (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965), 5,2022. 29. Poliakov,op. cit., 135. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., 139 f. 32. On the Aryan myth see Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 42-6; 59-62; 104-7. 33. Katz,op. cit., 133 ff. 34. The Principles of Political Economy, in Barzun, op. cit., 218. 35. In a letter of 1846 Jacob Burckhardt wrote: 'We may all perish, but I at least want to discover the interest for which I am to perish, namely the old culture of Europe.' Alexander Dru, ed., Burckhardt. The Civilization ofthe Renaissance in Italy and Other Selections (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966),301 f. 36. Michael D. Biddiss, ed., Gobineau. Selected Political Writings, (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), 13-18. The first volume of the Essay appeared in 1853. cf. Barzun, op. cit., 51. 37. See the Dedication 'To His Majesty George V, King of Hanover', in The Inequality of the Human Races (London, 1915), xiv f; I f.; Biddiss, op. cit., 91; Barzun, op. cit., 60; and Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 53. 38. Gobineau,op. cit., 58 f.; cf. Biddiss, op. cit., 77 f. 39. 'The warlike Rechabites of the Arabian desert, the peaceful Portuguese, French, German and Polish Jews - they all look alike.' Gobineau, op. cit., 122 f.; cf. Biddiss, op. cit., 102 f. 40. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 56 f. 41. Cf. Masse, Toward the Final Solution, 10,29,68 f. 42. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1966), 182. 43. Ibid., 167-74; 177-81, 286. 44. When China refused to accept such opium shipments, the British bombarded their coastal installations, thus precipitating the so-called Opium Wars of the 1840s. 45. William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe. A Sociological Study, New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1915 (first published 1899). 46. Ripley,op. cit., 395 f. Karl Kautsky cited research showing that while only 13 per cent of Jews had 'Jewish noses', 31 per cent of Bavarian Catholics had them. Are the Jews a Race? (New York: International Publishers, 1926),92,73 f. 47. Ripley,op. cit., 379, 382 f., 394 f., and 387-9. 48. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 84 f. 49. This was soon to be illustrated by Franz Boas and his struggles against the anthro• pological establishment in the United States. 50. Kautsky, op. cit., 64 f., 66, 68-75. 51. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 93.

CHAPTER 7

I. Shulamit Volkov, The Rise of Popular Antimodernism in Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 30. 256 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

2. Ibid.. 119. J. 00 the artisans' desertion €.If liberalism, see ibid., 223. 4. ibid., 254 f" and 274-77. S. Reinhard RUrup, 'Bmancipation and Crisis - The "Jewish Question" in Germany 1850-1890'. Leo Baeek Institute Yearbook (1975). 14. 6. Peter Pulzer. The Rise ojPolilical Anti-Semitism in Gemlony and Auslria (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, (988) xxi f. 7. Werner E, Mosse, Jews in the German £CoMmy. The Germtm·Jewish Economic Elite 1820-19J$ (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987),399. 8. Monika Richan, ed., Jewish U!e in: Germany (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).4. 9. Mosse,op. cit,. 32 r., 68, 84-6, 258 f.. 273, 322. 333 r., 373, 402!f. 10. Richarz, up. cil,. 5 ff. 11. Ibid.• 9-14. 12. Ruth Gay, The Jews a/Germany (New Haven and LQodon: Yale University Press, 1992), 113 f, 189(. 13. Pulzer,op. cil., 84 f., quoting Otto Glagau, thejoumalisl who popularized the notion ora 'Jewish Question'. 14. Uriel Tal, Christions and Jews in Germall), (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), 169, citing Albrecht Rltschl on the superiority of Lutheranism over Calholicism. 15. Ibid., 168. 142, 16. Ibid,. 155,282. n Ibid .. 171. 163, 114,87 r., 95 f. 18. Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruclicm, 261 f. 19. Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Man' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 71 ff,. 44, 51 ff,,6s. 20. As in Richard S. Levy, ed., Antisemitism in Ihe Modem World (ciled herellfter as Amisemitism) (Lexington; D.C. Heath. 1991.), 7~91: Tal, op. cit" 259 r., 263; Zimmermann,op. cit., 76. 21. As in Pulzer, op, cit" 49. 22, Zimmermann. op. cir., 109 f. 23. Tal. op. eif" I3U.• 137. 24. Paul W. Massing, Rehearsal for DemUClioll (New York: Harper &; Brothers, 1949).43. 25, Richard S. Levy, The DOWn/all of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Gennany(cited hereafter as Downfall) (New Haven &. LooOOn; Yale University Press. 1975), 134. 26. Adolf SI&:ker. 'Ollr Demands on Modem Jewry', as in Levy, Antisemitism, 59-61; Katz, op. cit., 264, 27. As in Levy, Amisemtlism, 61,66. 28. Tal, op. cit., 2S0-It 29. Massing, op. cit., 53-5 re. 30. Katz,op. 265-9. 31. Tal, op. cit., 265. 32. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, The Jew in the Modem World. 273 f. 3::1. As in Levy. Alllisemitism. 69-73, 34, Tal, op, cit., 105 f. 35, Jack Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), II f.; Steven E. Aschheim, 'Caftan and. Cravat: The Os/jude as Ii Cultural Symbol ill the Development of German Anti-Semitism', in Seymour Drescher, David Sabean. Notes 257

and Allan Sharlin, eds, Political Symbolism in Modern Europe (New Brunswick, N.J. and London: Transaction Books, 1982), 81, 85 f. 36. Hans LiebeschUtz, 'Treitschke and Mommsen on Jewry and Judaism', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook (1962), 153-82; 175-9. 37. As in Pulzer, op. cit., 112. 38. Wertheimer, op. cit., 26, 32-5, 71-3. 39. Tal,op. cit., 128-32. 40. Levy, Downfall, 127-9. 41. Massing,op. cit., 206. 42. Robert S. Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews (London: Associated University Presses, 1982),350; Pulzer, op. cit., xxii f., 252-{)3. 43. As in Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 266-8. 44. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 266 f.; Wistrich, op. cit., 27. 45. Katz,op. cit., 173; cf. Wistrich, op. cit., 349. 46. Bruce Mazlish, The Meaning of Karl Marx (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984),70-7. 47. Rose,op. cit., 30 I, n. 18, 304; Wistrich, op. cit., 30; Gertrude Himmelfarb, 'The "Real" Marx', Commentary 79: 4 (1985) 37-43; Paul Johnson, 'The Oldest Poison', The Times Literary Supplement, April 19, 1991,5 f. 48. Massing, op. cit., 180; Levy, Downfall, 176. 49. Massing,op. cit., 179. 50. Ibid., 187f. 51. Albert S. Lindemann, A History of European Socialism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983), 134 f. 52. His most widely read work remains The Class Struggle (1892), which offered a general statement of the SPD's articles of belief. 53. Pulzer, op. cit., 291; Wistrich, op. cit., 128 f. 54. Massing, op. cit., 197; Wistrich, op. cit., 202. 55. Levy, Downfall, 177; Massing, op. cit., 274. 56. Levy, Downfall, 178. 57. George L. Mosse, 'German Socialists and the Jewish Question', Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 16 (1971): 123-51. 58. Beyond Good and Evil (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 187. 59. Wilhelm was approached to sponsor a Jewish state under German protection. Ernst Pawel, The Labyrinth of Exile (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989),357-90, esp. 368 f. 60. Geoffrey G. Field, Evangelist of Race (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981),248-52 ff.; 34, \02. 61. Rose,op. cit., 363, 365, 374, 378. 62. So argues Jacob Katz, The Darker Side of Genius (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1986),45, 125 f. 63. Marc A. Weiner, Richard Wagner and the Anti-Semitic Imagination (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995). 64. Field, op. cit., 84, 126-31, 154 f., 169. 65. Ibid., 187 f., 222. 66. Ibid., 180-3. 67. Tal, op. cit., 270 f., 275, 278, 288 f. 68. Field, op. cit., 189-99. 69. Ibid., 154 f., 223, 245. 70. Ibid., 25, 75, 311. 71. Ibid., 238, 240 f., 244. 258 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

72. Ibid .• 248-52 ff. 73. As in ibid.• 220. 74. Ibid .• 18, 316. 75. Ibid., 277,436 ff; George Mosse, Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism (New York: Harper Colophon Books. 1980). 107 f. 76. lehuda Reinharz, Fatherland or Promised Land (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975), 77 f. 77. Pawel,op. cit., 32l. 78. Levy, Downfall. 145-65. 79. Tal,op. cit., 302, 305; Tal states that racial theories were still not accepted by the majority of Germans before 1914. 80. Eva G. Reichmann. Hostages ofCivilisation (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1970),236. 81. Carole Fink, 'The Murder of Walther Rathenau', Judaism 44: 3(1995),265. 82. Pulzer,op. cit., 10. 83. Ibid., 14. 84. For example in M.L. Rozenblit, The Jews of Vienna. 1867-1914 Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983. and IvarOxaal. M. Pollak, and Gerhard Botz, eds, Jews. Antisemitism and Culture in Vienna, London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1987. 85. Carl Schorske, Fin-De-Siecle Vienna. Politics and Culture (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), 116-19. 86. Pulzer,op. cit., 130. 87. Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 285. 88. Richard S. Geehr, Karl Lueger. Mayor of Fin de Siecle Vienna (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 16. 89. Schorske, op. cit., 129. 90. Ibid., 144. 91. Katz, op. cit., 287 f. 92. Pulzer,op. cit., 200. 93. Stefan Zweig, The World of Yesterday (New York: Viking, 1943),25,63. 94. Katz, op. cit., 290 f. 95. Heer,op. cit., 148.

CHAPTER 8

1. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, The Jew in the Modem World, 339-43. 2. Heinz-Dietrich Lowe, The Tsars and the Jews (Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1993),3,6,8,90-3,96,421. 3. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 309; Litvinoff. The Burning Bush, 224 f. 4. The Jews in Russia: Some Notes , translated by Harold Schefski (Princeton: Kingston Press, 1986). 5. Alexander Orbach, 'The Modern Character of Nineteenth-Century Russian Antisemitism', in S. Gilman and S. Katz, eds, Anti-Semitism in Times of Crisis, 191,195. 6. For example, see Robert S. Wistrich, Antisemitism. The Longest Hatred (London: Thames Mandrin, 1992). 7. For example, Albert S. Lindemann, The Jew Accused. Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 8. Orbach,op. cit., 197-206. 9. Lindemann,op. cit., 137. Notes 259

10. Ibid., 141. II. Richard L. Rubenstein, The Age of Triage. Fear and Hope in an Overcrowded World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983), 139. 12. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 329, n. I. 13. Ernst Pawel, The Labyrinth ofExile (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989),490; Lindemann, op. cit., 154. 14. Lindemann,op. cit. 164. 15. Shlomo Lambroza, 'The of 1903-1906', in John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, eds, Pogroms. Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 241; Orlando Figes review of the above in the Times Literary Supplement (June 5, 1992), II. 16. Lindemann, op. cit. 180, f. 17. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 332 f. 18. Lindemann,op. cit., 174 ff. 19. See the studies in Klier and Lambroza, op. cit. 20. Orbach, op. cit., 192. 21. Yoram Gorlizki, reviewing Klier and Lambroza, op. cit., in Journal of European Studies, Vol. 23 (December 1993),480 f. 22. Orlando Figes, review in the Times Literary Supplement,S June 1992, II. 23. Richard Pipes, New York Review ofBooks , II August 1994,57. 24. Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews, (New York: Mentor Books, 1968), 548. 25. H. Ben-Sasson, ed., A History of the Jewish People, 884; Litvinoff, op. cit., 225. 26. Rubenstein,op. cit., 143, stresses the role of structural factors such as demography in the activation of antisemitic ideas. 27. Eugen Weber, France, Fin de Siecle (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), \31; Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 119 f. Sixty percent of French Jewry was concentrated in Paris. 28. Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 131. 29. Heer, God's First Love, 161. 30. Charlotte Klein, 'Damascus to Kiev: Civilta Cattolica on Ritual Murder', in Alan Dundes, ed., The Blood Libel Legend (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991). 31. Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, The Teaching of Charles Fourier (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 165, 124 and n. 144; Katz, op. cit., 122. 32. See Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, eds., op. cit., 274--6; and Katz, op. cit., 124-8. 33. Quoted in Stephen Wilson, Ideology and Experience (London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1982),334; cf. G. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 153 f. 34. Ernst Nolte, Three Faces ofFascism (New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1966),50 f.; Weber, op. cit., 132; Pawel, op. cit., 163. 35. L~on Poliakov, The History ofAnti-Semitism Volume IV, (Oxford University Press, 1985),40; Pawel, op. cit., 163. 36. Quoted in Wilson. op. cit., 457, 477. 37. Poliakov.op. cit., IV, 42; Wilson, op. cit., 324. 38. Nolte, op. cit., 51 f. 39. Wilson,op. cit., 324. 40. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 27~8. 41. Lindemann argues strongly to the contrary. Op. cit., 74, 81-6; 91, 95, liS, 157; but cf. Busi, The Pope ofAntisemitism, 3, 179. 42. Katz,op. cit., 297-9. 43. Busi,op. cit., 4. 260 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

44. Wilson,op. cit., lIS, 119; cf. Lindemann, op. cit., 115 f., 125 f. 45. Wilson,op. cit., 119 f. 46. Nancy Fitch, 'Mass Culture, Mass Parliamentary Politics, and Modem Anti-Semitism: The Dreyfus Affair in Rural France,' American Historical Review 97: 1 (February 1992), 55-95. 47. Ibid., 65. 48. Ibid., 67. 49. Ibid., 73, 78. 50. Wilson,op. cit., 737 f. 51. Ibid., 156 f. 52. So Wilson characterizes French antisemites; op. cit., 683. 53. Ibid., 156 f., 681 f. 54. Lindemann,op. cit., 125. 55. Wilson, op. cit. 56. Katz,op. cit., 298, 300; Heer, op. cit., 151 57. Norman Cantor, The Sacred Chain, 347. 58. Michael R. Marrus, The Holocaust in History (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1987),102. 59. Eugen Weber, France, Fin de Siecle, 133-6. 60. Carl E. Schorske, Fin-De-Siecle Vienna (New York: Vintage Books, 1981),151. 61. Pawel,op. cit., 53. 62. Diary entry, as quoted in Pawel, op. cit., 76. 63. Ibid., 156. 64. Ibid., 182. 65. Ibid., 206. 66. Ibid., 206 f. 67. Jacques Kornberg, Theodore Herzl. From Assimilation to (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993). 68. Pawel,op. cit., 156, 182-200,212. 69. Quoted in Schorske, op. cit., 155. 70. Pawel, op. cit., 172; Schorske, op. cit., 156. 71. Diary entry, 1898, as in Pawel, op. cit., 209. cf. Schorske, op. cit., 162. 72. Pawel,op. cit., 214 f., 265-9. 73. Ibid., 265, 267. 74. As in ibid., 411 f. Pawel adds that this 'would make a fitting addition to the monument on Mount Herzl in '. 75. Schorske,op. cit., 171-3. 76. Pawel,op. cit., 308, 378, 388,401. 77. Ibid., 495-501. 78. Poliakov,op. cit., IV, 54 f.; Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 299, n. I. 79. Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz, op. cit., 298 f. 80. Norman Cohn, Warrant For Genocide (London: Penguin, 1970), 13. 81. See Han Halevi, A History of the Jews. Ancient and Modern (London: Zed Books, 1987), 150-9. 82. Tom Segev, The Seventh Million (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), analyses the relationship between the memory of the Holocaust and the identity, ideology, and politics of the modern state of Israel. 83. Oscar Handlin, as in Jonathan D. Sarna, •Anti-Semitism and American History', Commentary, Volume 71, No.3 (March, 1981),42. 84. Jonathan D. Sarna, 'Jewish Immigration to North America', Jewish Journal of Sociology, 18:1 1976,31-41. Notes 261

85. John Higham, 'Ideological Anti-Semitism in the Gilded Age' in Send These To Me. Jews and Other Immigrants in Urban America (New York: Atheneum, 1975), 116. 86. Frederic Cop\e Jaher, A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994),9, 16,246,249. 87. John Higham, op. cit., 120. 88. Louise A. Mayo, The Ambivalent Image (Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1988), analysed a wide range of publications with positive as well as negative stereotypes of Jews in them, and concluded that this ambivalence reflected contradictions in the goal of building an open society while still excluding aliens. 89. Naomi W. Cohen, 'Antisemitism in the Gilded Age: the Jewish View', in Naomi W. Cohen, ed., Essential Papers on Jewish-Christian Relations: Images and Reality (New York: New York University Press, 1990). 90. Jaher,op. cit., 89, 101. 91. Ibid., 121. 92. Grant had ordered all Jews out of these territories within twenty-four hours. 'Until the internment of Japanese-Americans in 1942, no comparable treatment would be meted out to any ethnic bloc of United States citizens.' Howard M. Sachar,A History ofthe Jews in America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992),79. Jaher, op. cit., 199, calls the order 'the severest attempted official violation ... ofthe rights of Jews' in the history of the US. 93. Higham,op. cit, 146. 94. Michael N. Dobkowski, The Tarnished Dream. The Basis ofAmerican Anti-Semitism (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979),6,235,238; Leonard Dinnerstein, Uneasy at Home (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 261. 95. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994),60,66. 96. Ibid., 58. 97. Leonard Dinnerstein, The Leo Frank Case (Athens, GA: Brown Thrasher Books, University of Georgia Press, 1987), xiii-xiv; 71. 98. Albert S. Lindemann, The Jew Accused (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991),232. 99. Ibid., 81 f. 100. Such restrictions remained in force until the late 1940s. Dinnerstein, Antisemitism . in America, 84 ff. 101. Ibid., 105, 115 ff., 129, 132. 102. Dinnerstein, Uneasy at Home, 178 ff., 183; Antisemitism in America, 131, 150-4; Deborah Lipstadt, Beyond Belief(New York: Free Press, 1986), 127; David Wyman, The Abandonment ofthe Jews (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 9-15, 57,107,116,190, 275-327,337. 103. Irving Abella, 'Anti-Semitism', The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2nd edition (Edmonton: Hurtig, 1988),85. 104. See the essays in Alan Davies, ed., Antisemitism in Canada (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1992). 105. Pierre Anctil emphasizes positive aspects of Catholicism in life; in Davies, op. cit., 135-8. 106. David Rome, 'Early Anti-Semitism: The Imprint of Drumont', Canadian Jewish Archives 35 (1985). 107. Michael Brown, Jew or Juif? (Philadelphia: Jewish Publiction Society, 1987), 129 f.,135. 108. Michael Brown, in Davies, op. cit., 48-50; but cf. Gerald Tulchinsky, Taking Root, (Toronto: Lester, 1992), 147. 262 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

109. Cited in Davies, op. cit., 50. 110. Anctil,op. cit., 157-9, minimizes antisemitism in Quebec; Martin Robin, Shades of Right (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992),88-95 and 121-4, offers a different view. Ill. Canadian Jewish Studies (Volume II, 1994),79. 112. Esther Delisle, The Traitor and the Jew (Montreal: Robert Davies, 1993), 190, 156. 113. Ibid., 138. 114. Abella,op. cit., 85 f. 115. Tulchinsky, 'Goldwin Smith', in Davies, op. cit., 75 f., 84; and Tulchinsky, Taking Root, 231-8. I 16. Abella, op. cit., 85 f. I 17. Cyri I H. Levitt and William Shaffir, The Riot at Christie Pits (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1987). 118. Major C.H. Douglas. See John L. Finlay, Social Credit. The English Origins (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1972). 119. Finlay,op. cit, 103 f., 58. 120. Howard Palmer, 'Politics, Religion and Antisemitism in Alberta', in Davies, op. cit., 179; 181 f. 121. Irving Abella and Harold Troper, None Is Too Many (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1982), x. 122. Ibid., 88; David Matas, Justice Delayed. Nazi War Criminals in Canada (Toronto: Summerhill Press, 1987).

CHAPTER 9

I. George L. Mosse, addressing a conference in New York in 1975, as quoted in Yehuda Bauer, 'Trends in Holocaust Research', Yad Vashem Studies, XII (1977), 13 f. 2. 'Traditions, tendencies, ideas, myths - none of these made Hitler murder the Jews.' Milton Himmelfarb, 'No Hitler, No Holocaust', Commentary 77 (March 1984),37. 3. Shulamit Volkov, 'The Written Word and the Spoken Word: On the Gap Between Pre-1914 and Nazi Anti-Semitism', in Francois Furet, ed., Unanswered Questions (New York: Schocken Books, 1989),33-53; and Shulamit Volkov, 'Antisemitism as a Cultural Code', Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook (1978), 25-46. 4. Donald L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 199 f. 5. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), emphasizes the political function of antisemitism rather than its ideology. 6. See Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society. Enforcing Racial Policy 1933-1945, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. 7. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism (New York: Harper, 1978), 168. 8. Ibid., 191-202. 9. Ibid.,203f. 10. George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology. Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964),299. II. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, 207, 226 f; The Crisis of German Ideology, 296, 308. Notes 263

12. Eva G. Reichmann, Hostages of Civilisation (London: Gollancz, 1950), argued that until World War I relations between Jews and gentiles in Germany had been improving steadily. 13. David Bankier, The Germans and the Final Solution (London: Blackwell, 1992), 153-6. 14. John Weiss, Ideology ofDeath. Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996),199,389,287. 15. Ibid., 270 f; 286. 16. Daniel J. Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (New York: Knopf, 1996),77, 85. Bankier, op. cit., 155 also believes that there was a consensus on the need to rid Germany of its Jews, but not necessarily in the nineteenth century. 17. So began what until recently was the most widely read work on the Holocaust, Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975), xxxv. 18. On the 'intentionalist' and 'functionalist' debates see Christopher Browning, Fateful Months (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985),8-20, and 'Beyond 'Intentionalism' and 'Functionalism': The Decision for the Final Solution Reconsidered', in The Path to Genocide, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 19. Karl Schleunes, The Twisted Road to Auschwitz, Urbl\lla, Illinois: University of Indiana Press, 1970. 20. Dawidowicz,op. cit., 4 f., 150, 163 f. 21. Ibid., 164. 'Verrecken' is a particularly vile death. 22. Mein Kampf, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971),51-65. 23. Ibid., 42, 56, 63 f. 24. Eberhard Jackel, Hitler's World View (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981),64. 25. Jackel,op. cit., 15 f., George L. Mosse, The Crisis ofGerman Ideology, 295-8; 300-2; Toward the Final Solution, 202 ff. 26. As in Jackel, op. cit., 48. 27. Ibid., 94-6, 99, 102 f. 28. Detlev J.K. Peukert, The Weimar Republic (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993) 222 ff; 258-62. 29. Arno J. Mayer, Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? The 'Final Solution' in History (New York: Pantheon, 1988), 126,201,203. 30. Mayer,op. cit., 212; Dawidowicz, op. cit., 124. 31. Stefan Korbonski, The Jews and the Poles in World War /I (Hippocrene, 1989); Richard C. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939-1944 (The University Press of Kentucky, 1985). In fact, the proportion of Jews in the Bolshevik leadership was significantly lower than in the populations from which that leadership was drawn. Weiss, Ideology of Death, 214. 32. Between fifty- and a hundred thousand Jews died in the pogroms of the Russian Civil War (1918-1920). Fewer than 10 per cent of these deaths were attributable to the Red Army. Letter of Richard Pipes, The New York Review of Books, II August 1994,57. 33. Mayer, op. cit., 57-60. 34. A.J.P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War (1961). 35. Philippe Burrin, Hitler and the Jews. The Genesis ofthe Holocaust (London: Edward Arnold, 1994), 51. 36. Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship (New York: Praeger, 1970),365-9; Michael H. Kater, 'Everyday Anti-Semitism in Prewar Nazi Germany' Yad Vashem Studies XVI (1984). 264 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

37. Speech of January 30,1939, quoted in Dawidowiczop. cit., 106; Jackel, op. cit., 106, 161,64. 38. Dawidowicz, op. cit., 162. 39. Ibid., 124-8. 40. See Orner Bartov, Hitler's Anny (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), and Daniel J. Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners. 41. Dawidowicz, op.cit., 123f. 42. Yehuda Bauer, History of the Holocaust (New York: Franklin Watts, 1982),206. 43. Goldhagen,op. cit., 164-78; 182. 44. 22 August 1939 speech, quoted in Browning, Fateful Months,S. 45. Browning, The Path to Genocide, 120. 46. Bauer, op. cit., 201; Dawidowicz, op. cit., 130. 47. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967),262. 48. Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wippermann, The Racial State. Gennany 1933-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 49. Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit., 46, 49. 50. Ibid., 66 ff. 51. Ingo Mueller, Hitler's Justice. The Courts ofthe Third Reich (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 14 f. 52. Ibid., 72 f. 53. See ibid., 80 f. for examples. 54. Robert Lifton, The Nazi Doctors (New York: Basic Books, 1986). 55. On the medicalization of the 'Jewish Question', see Michael Kater, Doctors Under Hitler (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 177-9. 56. Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene. Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 194-8. 57. Lifton,op. cit., 314. 58. Proctor,op. cit., 65. 59. On antisemitism and the expulsion of Jews from medical faculties, see Kater, op. cit., Chapter 6, and 139 ff. 60. Proctor,op. cit., 145. 61. Ibid., 153, 161 f. 62. Hitler advocated the 'removal' of eight hundred thousand of the weakest members of the population as a means of increasing national strength. Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit., 142. 63. Ibid., 142-4. 64. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide. From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 151. 65. Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit., 148-53. 66. Tom Segev, Soldiers of Evil. The Commandants of the Nazi Concentration Camps (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1987),207. 67. Proctor, op. cit., 188-93,212. 68. Dawidowicz, op. cit., 134. 69. Daniel J. Kevles, llI the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses ofHuman Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), describes the development of the scientific study of heredity and its connection with the eugenics movement, race prejudice, and antisemitism. 70. Charles G. Roland, Courage Under Siege. Starvation, Disease, and Death in the Ghetto (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 71. Bauer,op. cit., 172, 170, 171; Proctor, op. cit., 202. Notes 265

72. See ClaudiB. Koonz, 'Germcide and Eugenics: 1111:: Language of Power' , in Peter Hayes, ed., Lessons and 4gacies (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1991). 73. Proctor, 01'. cit., 207-9 .. 74. Ibid., 53-5, 58 f., 55-94. 75. Ibid" 97 ff., 166-n 76. Ibid .., 178 fr., 185-93. 17. Allan A. Ryan, Jr, Quiel Neighbors: Prosecllting Na'li War Criminals in America (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984). 78. Gitta Sereny, Illto that Darknt'Ss. Atl Examination of Conscience (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1974).349 ff, 79, Rudolf Hness, Commandant of Au.schwit'l. 111e Ai~tobiography of Rudolf Hoes:; (London: Pan Books, 1961),66 f.. 86,28 t, 38. 80. Ibid" 27 f. 81. Ibid" 55,47, 8l, 164 f. 82, Ibid., 26. 141, 102, 104. 83. Ibid., 199,201,144, 170 f.; Martin BroSZ8t, illtroouclion to the revised German edition of Hoess's autobiography, Kommando/'lt in Auschwitz (Stutlgart: Deutsche Verlags• Anstal!, 196 I), 19. 84. Hoess,op. ett" 175, 172, !74. 85. Ibid., 14.5. 86. ibid. 200. 205. 87. Brosz!!!, op. cit" 14 f. 88. Goldhagen.op. cit., 379-93, i.nsists that it was entirely their antisemitic convictions that moved Germans to kill Jews. 89. Hannah Arendt, EiclmuulIl in Jerusalem. A Report 011 the Banality alEvil (New York: The Viking Press, 1965).29 f., 33; Leni Yahi!, The Holocaust (New York; Oxford University Press, 1(90), 104 f. 90. Arendt, op.. cit., 41-4 ff; Dawidowicz, op. cit., 104 f; 91. Arendt, op. cit., 67. 92. Ibid•• 48,! 14, 116. Theoon!inuing dispute about Eichmann's nature 'reflects IheJanlJs~ faced character Orllle Nazi regime, which could dress the most destruClive of man's irralional drives in the guise of routine activities'. Yallll. op. cit, 104. 93, 'It was liS though in those las! minutes he was summing up the lesson that t!Jilllong course in human wickedness ha.d taught us - the lesson of the fearsome, word· and• thought.defying banality of evil.' Arendt. op. cit" 252. 94. Yahil,op. cit., 104. Shiraz Dossa, 'Hannah Arendt on Eichmann: The Public, the Private, and Evil', Review of Politics 46,2 (April, 1984). 163-82. defends Arendt against the charges that arose illihe aftermath of her book. 95. Arendt, op, cir, 31 ff; 49,55, and 252.

EPILOGUE

I. As on Ihe frontispiece of Zygmunt Bauman, Modemlt}' ana ,lie Hoiocaus! (Ithaca, New York: Cornel! University Press, 1989). 2, G, Kren and L. Rappaport, The Holocaust and 111(' Crisis of Human Behavior (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1980).,70. 3. Eichmann ill Jerusalem (Revised and enlarged edition, New York: Viking, 1964),216, 4. Emil Fackellheim, 'The Holocaust and Philosophy', Indepel1denl Journal of Philosoph,,!, 5/6 (1988), 63-9. 5. Bauman, ap. cit., x: 212. 266 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

6. Ibid., 9, 13, IS, 17 f.; but compare Hans Mommsen, 'The Realization of the Unthinkable: the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" in the Third Reich' , in The Policies o/Genocide. 7. The Holocaust in Historical Context (Volume I, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 396. 8. Bauman, op. cit., 31 f.; Gordon, op. cit, 296-316; but compare the works by Daniel J. Goldhagen, John Weiss, and David Bankier. 9. Gordon, op. cit., 74, 89 f., 186 f. 10. Daniell. Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (New York: Knopf, 1996),593 f.. n.53. II. Bauman,op. cit., 16. f.; 35. 12. Katz, op. cit., 399 f. 13. Ibid, 35, 125 f., 184. 14. Goldhagen, op. cit., 439 f. IS. Ian Kershaw, 'The Persecution of the Jews and German Popular Opinion'. Leo Baeck Institute Year Book XXVI (1981),280 f. 16. Christopher Simpson, The Splendid Blond Beast (New York: Grove Press, 1993), 57,61,64 f., 68. 17. Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (London: Tavistock, 1974). 18. Bauman, op. cit., 160. 19. Robert Tombs, Observer, 16 February 1992,58. Select Bibliography

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Abelard, Peter, 20-1 nationalities policy, 170 Aberhart, William ('Bible Bill'), 211 emperor as focus of loyalty, 177 Acts, book of, 4 and Adolf Hitler, 177-8 aesceticism, and origins of antisemitism, 32-3 Aesthetics of race theory, 136-9 Bacon, Sir Francis, 95 Agobard of Lyons, bishop, 13 badge of identity Agrarian League, 158 medieval 'Jew badge', 29-30 Albigensian Crusade, 29 Poland, 85-6 Alexander I, Czar, 180-1 Burres, Maurice, 196-208 Alexander II, Czar, 181, 182, 203 Bauman, Zygmunt, Modernity and the Alexander III, Czar, 182 Holocaust, 239-44 Almog, Shmuel, viii Bavaria, 62, 129 Alphonso X, King, 42 Bayreuth Circle, 136, 163, 164-5; see also Alsace, 41, 74, 110-12, 189 Richard Wagner antichrist, 50 Bebel, August: 162 Antisemites' Petition, 152 Beilis, Mendel, 185 antisemitism (anti-Semitism) Belzec (death camp), 222 definition, viii, xi, 253 n. 22 ben Israel, Menassah, 95-6, 97 and historical context, 240 Berlin, Jewish population, 172 in German nationalism, 158-9 Bernanos, Georges, 196 as cause of Holocaust, 212-13, 215-16 Bernard, St. in Nazi social policy. 224-5 intervention on Jewish behalf. 21 origin of word, 151 Veneration of Mary, 21-2 physicians and medicalization of, 227-8 Bernardino da Feltre, 32 political antisemitism, xiii, xiv, 127, 129, Berr, Berr Isaac, 110-11 130, 143, 150-1, 157-9, 169, 173-4; Bismarck, OUo von, 152-3, 154 see also Christian Social Pary, Karl Black Death, 37, 41, 42, 48, 70 Lueger, Wilhelm Marr, Georg blood Schonerer, Tivoli Programme element ofrace, 142 apartheid, 64 Christian sacrament, 26, 28 Apion (ancient Alexandrian writer), I magic, 25 Arabic civilization in medieval Spain, 41-2 'blood libel', xiii, 24...Q, 67, 82, 89,186,189, Aragon, 45-6 191 Arcand, Adrien, 209 Bodin, Jean, 96 arenda, 84-6 Boleslaus the Pious, King, 81 Arendt, Hannah, 236-7 Bologna, 78 Armenian genocide, 223 bolshevisll.l, 187,207,219,220,222; see also Armenians, 86 communism Arndt, Ernst Moritz, 124-5 Braudel, Fernand, 47 artisans, 143-4, 147, 148,171,175 Budapest, Jewish popUlation, 172 aryan, 131, 133, 135, 141, 165-6, 191,216 Bukovina, Jewish popUlation, 172 assimilation, 110-11, 114, 137, 166, 168, 180, BUild (Jewish Workers' Movement), 181 198,200,204 Burckhardt, Jacob, 255 n. 35 Association for defense against antisemitism, Burschellscha!tell, 124 168 Augustine, St. Calvin, John, 63-5 persecution of Jews, 8, 9, 10 Calvinism, 63-5 advocates lewish survival, 34, 35...Q, 37 Canada, xiv, 205, 208-11 political theory, 94 capitalism and capitalists, 147, 154, 159...QO, Auschwitz, 222, 226, 233-4 161, 163, 171, 174, 181, 189-90, 196, Austria, 91, 99 203-4,228. Austria-Hungary Carlsbad Decrees, 127 liberalism and capitalism 171 Casimir III, the Great, King, 80

277 278 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

Castile, 29, 42. 45 Darwin. Charles. 132. 141. 166. 167 Catholic Reformation. 60--2; see also Counter• Davies. Alan. x Reformation Dawidowicz. Lucy S .• 263 n. 17 Catholics. see under Church Fathers, Crusades, Dearborn Independent, The, 207 Dominicans. Fourth Lateran Council. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Franciscans. Jesuits. monasticism. papacy Citizen. 108. 109 celibacy. 33 'deicide'. I. 2. 3-6.17, 191.208.209,210 Centre Party (Germany). 145 and 'blood libel'. 25 Centra[verein (German Citizens of Jewish and 'Satanic' Jews. 27. 29 Faith). 168-9 degeneration. 134. 136. 141, 148, 151. 164.209, Chamberlain. Houston Stewart. 163-7.230 229 Charlemagne. 11-12 department stores. Jewish owned, 148 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. 63 devil Chehnno (death camp) •. 222 Jews identified with. I. 5 Chmielnicki, Bogdan, 87-90 Jews allies or agents of, xiii, 2, 25--6 Chmielnicki rebellion. 87-90 Jews' satanic image, 50 'chosen people' idea Jews' satanic powers. 113,203 Christians replace Jews. 3. 7-8 Diderot, Denis, 93 source of European arrogance. 105-6 Dinnerstein, Leonard, x 'Christ-killers'. xi. xiii; see also 'deicide' disperson (diaspora) of the Jews Christian Social Party (Austrian). 170. 171. 177 as punishment. xi. 8, 110; see also Ga[ut Chrysostom. St. John. 9-10 Dohm. Christian Wilhelm von Church Fathers. xi. xii. 2-3. 8-10.15.24 On the Civil Improvement of the Jews, civilization. 134. 135. 138. 140. 191.239.244 98-100. 102 Clement VI. Pope. 37 Dominican order. 30-1. 32. 33. 34 Clermont-Tonnerre. Count of. 109 Inquisition, 46 Cohen. Jeremy. ix Poland. 80 Colonial League (Germany). 158 Dreyfus. Captain Alfred. 179. 192-4.200 communism (see also bolshevism). 213. 216. Dreyfus Affair. 178. 192-4. 196-7. 199.200. 219.220.222.228 208 Constantine (Roman Emperor). conversion to Droysen. Gustav. 168 Christianity. 8 Drulnont. Edouard-Adolphe. La France juive. Confederation. German. 123. 127 190-2,196.198.203.208-9 Congress of Vienna. 118. 123, 127-8 Dilhring, Eugen. The Jewisil Question. 154. 198 conservatism. 117. 120. 129. 148-9. 155-9 Conservative Purty (Germany). 156-8 Eastern Jews (Os/jllden), 91. 256 n. 35 wllslilulill pro jlldaeis. 17-18.29 Eck.Johann.66 conversion of Jews. 42-3; see a[so 'New economic role of Jews. xi-xii. xiii. xiv ChristiallS . Roman Empire. 2. II cllnversos. 43-7. 61-2. Middle Ages. 11-13. 15-17 Corpus Christi (feast). and 'blood libel'. 26 Crusades. 12 Cossacks. 75. 83. 86-9. 92 usury. 13. 16-17.30 Coughlin. Father Charles E .• 207. 211 exploited by rulers. 38-9 Council of Four Lands. 90 seventeenth- and eighteenth centuries. 72-3. Council of Nicaea. 9. 28 77.82-3.86.100-1 Council of Wroclaw. 85 nineteenth-century Germany. 146-8 Counter-Reformation (see Catholic Edict of Tolerance, 99 Reformation). 60. 80 Edward I, King. 37 Court Jews. 77-8 Eichmann. Adolf, 235-7. 238-9. 265 n. 92 Cromwell. Oliver. 76. 95--6 Ei/lSatlgruppen. 222-3 Crusades. xi. 12 elites. in Weimar and Nazi Germany. 218-20 anti-Jewish violence. 13. 18-20 emancipation of Jews. xiii, 97-8. 108-14. 118. economic role of Jews. 12 120-1.126. 127. 128. 130. 139. 144. heretics. 14.22-3.24 147-8, ISO. 160. 189.200.220 turning point in . 20. Ellcyclopedia.43 246 n. 36 Engels. Friedrich. 161-2 Index 279

England nineteenth century, 188-204 expulsion of Jews, 34, 37-8,40--1 see also emancipation, Dreyfus, Drumont, Peasant Revolt, 51 Herzl, Napoleon readmission of Jews, 76, 95-6 Franciscan order conditions for Jews, 254 n. 25 growth,3\ 'Jew Bill', 96, 252 n. 6 anti-Jewish attitudes and ideas of. 32, 34-5 'Jew badge', 29 revival of monastic vocation, 32-3 Jews in literature. 96. 253 n. 32 . Francisco de Toledo, 62 Enlightenment, 93-8, 101-2, 105-7. 132. 193 Frank, Leo Erasmus. 54 Frank Affair, 206-7 Eucharist. 28 Frankfurt am Main. 58, 59, 68 and 'blood libel'. 26 and Fettmilch Uprising, 68-70 . criticism of, 93 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor eugenics, 224. 229 bans 'blood libel', 24 euthanasia acquits Jews of 'blood libel', 36 and the 'Final Solution', 226, 228-9, 231 Frederick II ('the Great'), King, 220 and antisemitism, 320 Frederick William III, King Eusebius. Bishop, 9 issues Edict of Emancipation, 120 expulsion of Jews, xii, 37, 40--1, 46-7, 53, 55, freemasonry. 113. 189 62,78,83, 195 French Revolution, 108-14, 117. 118, 122-3, 131. 196 famine friars Middle Ages, 14,50 agents of antisemitism, 30-4 twentieth century Ukraine. 523 attacks on the Talmud. 35 fascism, 126, 220 and expulsion of Jews, 37-8 Ferdinand, King, 45-6, 47 see also Dominican and Franciscan orders Fettmilch. Vinzent 'functionalist' interpretation of Final Solution, Fettmilch Uprising, 68-70 216 feudalism and religious practice, 14 Gager, John, ix political/religious ideology. 14-15 Galicia, 172; see also poverty exclusion of Jews. 15-16 Galu/, 110,253 n. 40 decline, 39 Gay, Peter, 103 persistence, 47-8, 70, 71, 72-3,109 General Charter of Jewish Liberties (Poland), peasant risings, 51, 52 81,85 abolition, 114 George V, King, 255 n. 37 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 123. 126 Germany Final Solution, xv, 212-13,215,216,221, in Thirty Years War, 74, 75 223-4,225 medieval, 24, 29, 36,43 and 'euthanasia' programme, 229 Reformation and Martin Luther, 52-70 and social thought, 226 Jewish settlement in sixteenth century, 59 and Adolf Eichmann, 236 persecution of heretics, 24 and modernity, 239-40 Peasants' War, 51 see also Holocaust race theory and racism, 136, 139-40 Fein, Helen, viii Jewish population, 146, 147 financiers, 72, 73, 77,82-3,86,146-7, 190 Jews in German economy, 146-8. see aloW money-lending ghettos, 42, 48, 49, 61, 68, 95, 221. 229-30 First World War. 220 Gobineau. Count Arthur de, 133-7, 138, Flannery, Edward H., ix 139-40,164,165,230 joe/or judaicus, 25 Goebbels, Paul Joseph, 221 Ford, Henry, 203, 207, 211 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 124 Fourier, Charles, 190 Goldhagen, Daniell., x Fourth Lateran Council, 28, 29, 85 goyim,91 France Goring, Hermann, 223-4 expulsion of Jews, 41 Grand Sanhedrin, 112-13 readmission of Jews, 76, 190 Grant. Madison, 206 emancipation of Jews, xiii Grant, General Ulysses S., 206 280 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

Gregoire, Abbe Henri, 109, 110 image of 'the Jew' Gregory I ('the Great'), Pope, 17 Middle Ages, 2, 25-{), 49-50 Gregory IX, Pope sixteenth century, 65 suppression of Talmud, 35 eighteenth century, 107, 137 defence of Jews, 36 nineteenth century. 190-1 Groulx, Abbe Lionel, 209-10 United States, 261 n. 88 guilds, 81-2, 83, 143-4, 157 immigration laws, 211, 231 'gypped' 'jewed' compared to, 107 imperialism and race, 138-40 industrialism and industrialization, xiii, 143-5, Habsburg Monarchy, xiii, 170 14S-9, 152, 154, 175, lSI, 187-8,205-6, Haeckel, Ernst, Riddle of the Universe, 167 209 Harnack, Adolf von, 166 'Infamous Decree', 113 Hay, Malcolm, viii-ix Innocent III, Pope, 27, 28-9,31 Heer, Friedrich, ix Innocent IV, Pope, 24, 36 Hegel, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm, 114, 115, 122 Inquisition, papal, 30, 35, 60, 61 'Hep! Hep!' riots, 127-8 Inquisition, Spanish. 43, 45-{) Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 122 'Intentionalist' interpretation of the Final heresy and heretics Solution, 216 and Crusades, 14-15, 19 Intelligentsia, Russian. 181 and money-lending, 17 'International Jewish conspiracy', 202-3 and 'blood libel', 22-3, 26 Isabella, Queen, 45-7 persecution of, 24 Islam, 56, 106 and perseuction of Jews, 28-9, 30, 33,46,66 Israel the Talmud a~ heresy, 3S ancient, i, xi Herzl, Theodor, 179, 197-204 modem, 204 Heydrich, Reinhard, 218, 223-4 Italy. 77, 81,130-1,231 Himmler. Heinrich, 218, 223 Hindenburg.Paulvon,220 jacquerie, see under peasant risings Hirsch, Baron Maurice de, 202 Jaher, Frederic Cople, x Hitler, Adolf, xv Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 124-5 and medieval 'blood libel', 26 Japan, viii and fifteenth century Spanish race theory, 46 Jerusalem, 3, 7, 8, 9, 110 and Houston Stuart Chamberlain. 167 Jesuits, 61-2, 80, 86, 89. 194 and Dr Karl Lueger, 175, 176 'Jewish' character, 1-2,49-50,98-9, 100-1. 'charisma' of, 215 107, 108-9, I 35-{), 137, 152,252 n. 13 world view, foreign policy, and antisemitism, Jewish occupations, 2, 12,73-4,76-7,87, 110, 216-18 112,173,135,146-8,181-2 promises destruction of Jewry, 221 'Jewish' physical attributes. I. 25, 50, 137, 191. Holocaust, viii, xiv, I, 4. 260 n. 82 255 n. 46 a~ 'revolt against modernity', 213 Jewish popUlation see ellso Final Solution Roman Empire, 2 Hoess, Rudolf (commandant of Auschwitz), Middle Ages. 12 233-5 nineteenth century Germany, 146 Holy Roman Empire. 47, 58-9,67-8,73,75, Berlin, Vienna, and Budapest 172 127 John. Gospel of, 5 Jews a~ 'serfs' of, 38 'Jewish Question', xiii and towns, 250 n. 47 defined in nineteenth century, 150-1 host desecration, 26, 27.36, 65-{), 82, 89, 142, and Zionism, 197 208 medicalized,226-7 Hugh of Lincoln, 23 see (l/so Final Solution humanism Joachim II, Elector of Brandenburg. 58 Christian. 53-5 Joseph II, Emperor, 99. 120 judaism attacked as, 149 Josel of Rosheim. 63-4 and liberalism, 188-9 judiciary. Nazi Germany. 225-{) Hundred Years' War. 41. 51. 52 Hungary, 221; see a/so Austria-Hungary Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Eugenics, 229 Kant, Immanuel. 114-15 Index 281

Katz. Jacob. ix Matthew Paris. 23-4 Katz. Steven T .• 240. 242 Maurras. Charles. 196. 208 Kautsky. Karl. 162 Muximilian II. Emperor. 63 kehillot.81-2 'May Laws'. 182. 184 King. William Lyon Mackenzie. 211 medical profession. medicine. 226-8 . 184-5. 202 Mein Kampf. 235. 263 n.22-3 Karakow. University of. 78 Mendelssohn. Moses. 98. 100 kretchme. 84. 91 mercantilism. 76. 79. 97 . 221. 240. 243 Metternich. Clemens von. 127 Krushevan. Pavolachi. 185 Michelet. Jules. 189 Ku Klux Klan. 207 middle class. 143. 153.157. 161. 179.181.215. 220 land-owning migrations of Jews. xiv. 187. 189.206 Jewish exclusion from. 15-16.38 Milgram, Stanley. 243 Langmuir. Gavin I.. ix militarism, 148-9, 158.219 League of Antisemites. 152 modernity. 213. 219. 220. 239. 241. 241-2 living space (Lebensraum). 215. 220 modernization. 145. 148. 169. 195 Le Devoir. 210 Mommsen. Theodor. 155-6. 168 Lenz. Fritz. 230-1 monasticism Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim. 106-8 and psychology of antisemitism, 32-3 Lewis. Bernard. viii see also friars. Dominican and Franciscan Liberal Party of Germany. 145. 149. 153 orders liberalism. xiii. 118. 119-20. 125. 129. 134. money-lending 141.143. 144-5.149.150.162.168.169. Middle Ages, 12. 16-17 171-2.173. 189. 198.200.201.204 stigma, 17 Iilllpieza de sangre. 44-5. 46.131 Jewish role. 27, 65, 72 Lincoln. Abraham. 206 grievance during French Revolution, 109, Lindbergh. Charles. 207 110 Lindemann. Albert S .• x. 243 occupation. 111-12, /13 Lithuania. see Poland see also financiers Locke. John. 94. 97. 102 Montreal. 209 Louis IX. king. 41 Moslems (Muslims), 29, 41-2, 61-2,82 Louix XIV. king. 41 Mosse. George L.. x Louis. XVI. king. 120 Mosse. Rudolf, 148 Loyola. SI. Ignatius. 61 Lublin. Union of. 78 Napoleon Bonaparte, /12-14. 118, 122 Lueger. Dr Karl. 173-6. 208 National Social Christian Party (Canada). 209 Luke. Gospel of. 4 National Socialism Luther. Martin. xii. 52. 57-8. 64 ideology. 213-14 That Jesus Christ Was Bllm a Jell'. 57 and German elites, 218-20 On the Jews and Their Lies. 57 judiciary, 225-6 Lutheranism and Lutherans. 63. 64-5. 74. 80. medical profession, 226-8 149-50 propaganda, 215-16 policies, 220. 221-2. 224-5 magic and sorcery National Socialist League of Physicians, 227 Jews as practitioners of. 25. 26. 35. 55.65-7. nationalism. xiii. 72. 118, 121-6, 130, 139 113 in Germany, 158-9. 163, 166 Majdanek (death camp). 222 Habsburg Austria, 170-1 Manetho. Egyptian priest. I Russia. 183 Mark. Gospel of. 4. 6 and Zionism, 201 Marr. Wilhelm. 151-2 and National Socialism, 214 IIIl1rrCIlZOS. 43. 45-6; see also New Christians. natural rights. 94. 97 C(l/Iversos Navy League (Germany), 158 Marx. Karl. 159-61. 162. 163 Nazis Mary. Virgin medieval ideas about Jews. 26, 29 and antisemitism. 21-2. 80 Martin Luther. 57-8 Muuhew. Gospel of. 4. 6. 19 Thirty Years War, 75 282 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

Nazis contd Pius V, Pope, 61 Court Jews, 77 Pius IX, Pope. 134 blood theory, 142 Pobedonostsev, Constantin, 188 Protestantism, 145 pogroms Heinrich von Treitschke, 156 Crusades, 13. 18-20 Houston Stuart Chamberlain, 167 Spain, 42-3 Adrien Arcand, 209 Black Death plague. 37,48 Netanyahu, Benzion, ix, 46 Fettmilch Uprising. 68-70 New Christians, 43, 46; see also con versos, Chmielnicki pogroms. 87-90 marranos 'Hep! Hep!' riots, 127-8 New Testament, and origins of antisemitism, xi. Russia. 162, 181-6 3-7 Kristallnacht. Germany, 221, 240. 243 Nicholas I. Czar. 181 Poland. xiii, 1.71.78-92. \09, 179.203.214. Nicholas II. Czar, 202 218.221-3.229-30.231,236 Nichola.~ II, Pope. 17.24 Poliakov. Uon. viii Nietzsche, Friedrich. 163 poverty Nordau. Max. 141 during Crusades. 14 North America, xiv Jews in Russia. 181. 184.400 Nuremberg Laws, 218. 224, 229-30, 224 monastic, 32, 34 Galicia, 172 Odessa, 1905 pogrom, 185 Atlanta. 207 Old Regime, 109. 115. 118-19, 120. 127 print-technology. 65. 66-7 Old Testament. 2, 7, 35, 54,105,115,189 progress. belief in. 167.241 opium wars, 255 n.44 Protestantism and Protestants. 55-7. 60. 145, Oppenheim, Abraham, 146 149-50. 158. 166 Oppenheimer, Josef SUss. 77-8 The Protocols o/the Elders o/Zion. 202-3. 207. Osiander, Andreas, 66 211. 220 Proudhon. Pierre-Joseph, 190 Padua, 78 Prussia, 72. 76, 91, 98.120-1.123.126--7. Pale of Settlement. xiv, 91, 180-3 152-3,157 Palestine, 188, 197.200.202,203,204.210 publishing. Jews in, 147-8. 166. 173 Panama scandal. 199-200 Pan-German League, 136. 158 Pulzer. Peter. ix Pan-Germans (Habsburg Austria), 173 Panslavism. 183 Quebec, 208-10 papacy Crusades. 18-20 race. racial theory. 125-6, 130-42. 162. 165. papal protection of Jews. 17-18 166--7.209.214-15 'blood libel', 24 legislation and foreign policy. 218-19. 242-3 political and economic power, 27 domestic social policy, 218-19. 224-5. 228 suppression of Talmud, 35-6 United States Immigration Restriction Acts. denies Jews spread plague, 37 231 denounces ritual murder charge. 247 n. 53 racial hygiene. 229-31 Parkes, James, viii. 242 raison d'etat. 76. 79 Paul III. Pope, 61 reconquista, 41, 44 Paul. SI. (Apostle), 7-8.131-2 Reformation. xii. 52-70. 71, 76 Peasant risings. 51. 52, 58,64, 87-8. 89, 91, 92 religion. and nationalism. xiii peasants, 71. 78, 83-8. 156. 171, 191.203.220; ideology, 34-5 see cll.w serfs 'religiosity'. 34-5 persecution, xiii; see under pogroms. nazism, Renan. Ernest. 133, 189 , Final Solution Reuchlin, Johannes, 53 Peter the Venerable. 22 revolutions of 1848.128-9. 151 Phagan. Mary, 207 'ritual murder' charge Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 58 first instance. 22-3 Philip VI, King. 41 and 'blood libel', 24-6. 42 plli/osoplles. 93. 94, 101, 104, 106 later instances, 36, 65-6, 67. 89. 186 Pilate, Pontius. 3, 5 denounced by papacy, 247 n. 53 Index 283

Ripley. William Z .• The Races of Europe. 140 Spain Roman Empire Jewish civilization. 41-2 Jews in. 2 expUlsion of Jews. 41. 46-7. 53 Christianity as state religion of. 8-9 see also Inquisition. conversos. marranos. fall of. xi. xii. 8 reconquista Romania. 178.221 Stangl. Franz Paul. commandant of Treblinka, Romanticism. 120. 122. 126 232-3 Roosevelt. Franklin D .• 208 Stavisky. Serge. 108 Rothschilds. 202. 204 stereotypes. anti-Jewish Rose. Paul Lawrence. x ghetto origins of. 49-50. 65. 107. 137, 194. Rudolph II. Emperor, 62, 63 205 Ruhs,Friedrich,125 see also image Ruether, Rosemary, ix sterilization, 231 Russia, 90, 162, 178, 179-88.213,220,222, S({lcker, Adolf. 153-4 225 Streicher. Julius, 5. 234 Russian Civil War, 187 Stuyvesant. Peter. 205 Russian Orthodox Church. 180, 187 Switzerland, 129

SS (Schutwaffe/). 218. 222. 236 Tacitus. Cornelius, 2 SI. Edmunds Talmud, 9. 24. 36. 49 expUlsion of Jews. 40 Christian hatred. 35. 36 Sardinia. kingdom of. 130 medieval burning. 35 Satan, xiii; see devil during Protestant Reformation. 53 Taylor. A.J.P .• 221, 240 Saxony, 58 Theodosian Code, 246 n. 26 'scapegoat' theory. viii Thirty Years' War. 72-3. 75 Schedel. Harmann, 66-7 Thomas of Monmouth. 23 SchOnerer, Georg Ritter von, 173-5, 177 Tietz. Hermann. 148 Scholem. Gershom. 238 'Tivoli Programme'. 156-7 Schweitzer, Albert, 167 Toland. John. Reasons/or Naturalizaing the Second World War, 221 Jews. 96-7 segregation. 48-9; see also ghettos Toledo. 43. 45 sejm. 79. 90 Toronto. 210 semitic languages. 133 Torquemada. Tomas de. 45 serfs and serfdom. 10. 1 1.14,15-16.71,78. Toussenel, Alphonse. 190 84-5.86-7.9199, 120-1.203 Trachtenberg. Joshua. ix Jews as 'serfs', 36. 38. 40. 48 Treblinka (death camp). 222. 232 Servetus, Michael, 64 Treitschke, Heinrich von, 154-5 sexuality. 33 Trent Shirer. William L.. 240 Council of,28 Shop Clerks Union (German). 158 'blood libel' of. 32 shopkeepers. 144. 156.171. 175 .~/ltetl. 91. 179. 181.203,204,209,252 n. 55 Ukraine. 78, 86-90.92.220. 223 Sigismund I. King. 82 Uniate Church (Ukrainian Catholic), 86. 87 slavery and race. 137-8,246 n. 20 United States, xiv. 204-8 slavophile ideology. 183 Urban II, Pope. 18, 19 Smith. Goldwin. 210. 211 Ullstein. Leopold, 148 Sobibor (death camp), 222 usury. 16-17. 27. 30; see also financiers. Social Credit Party (Canada), 211 money-lending Social Democratic Party (Germany), 145, 157. 159.161.162 Venice. 49 socialism and socialists. 14. 158-63. 176. 190 Vichy. 196 Society of Jesus, see Jesuits Vienna, xiv. 170, 172. 174-5. 176. 179. 198, Sombart. Werner. 77 203,217 Sonemann. Leopold. 148 see also Congress of Vienna South Afdca. 64 Virchow. Rudolf. 141,168 Soviet Union. viii. 219. 220. 221-2 Virey. Jean-Joseph. 132 284 Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History

Visigoths, 41, 45 Westphalia, Peace of, 75 Vogelsang, Karl von, 175, 177 Wilhelm II, Emperor, 163 Volk, Volkish thought, 125--6, 145, 158, 166, William of Norwich, 22-3 171 Wist rich, Robert S., viii in national socialism, 213-14, 220 working class, 143, 145, 153, 157, 161, 162-3, in law, 225-6 170,171, 184, 191 Voltaire, 102-6 World Zionist Congress, 201, 202 WUrttemberg, Duchy of, 59, 77 Wagner, Richard, 125, 136, 163-4 WUrzburg, 127-8 Wannsee Conference, 222, 236 Warsaw ghetto, 229-30 Zionism, xiv, 168, 179, 188, 197-204 Weimar republic, 212, 219, 225, 228 Zola, Emile, 193, 196 Weiss, John, x Zweig, Stefan, 175-6 well-poisoning, 37 Zyklon B, poison gas, 222