CEU eTD Collection INTERPLAY OF NATIONAL AND LOCAL IDENTITIES In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts A CASE STUDY OF SLOVENIAN-CROATIAN Advisor: Professor Szabolcs Pogonyi Professor Advisor: Nationalism Studies Program Central European University European Central BORDERLAND Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted Anja Šter 2011 By CEU eTD Collection 1 CEU eTD Collection Acknowledgements 2 CEU eTD Collection 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.1 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.3 4.2 4.1 2.2 2.1 PEDX1______83 APPENDIX 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY______78 CONCLUSION______75 6.5.7 6.5.6 6.5.5 6.5.4 6.5.3 6.5.2 6.5.1 THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH______49 5.3.2 5.3.1 5.2.2 5.2.1 33 ANALYSIS MEDIA – DISCOURSE FROM ABOVE POLITICS NATIONALISTIC ___24 KOLPAUPPER IN THE VALLEY CROATIAN BORDERLAND SLOVENIAN ______18 NATIONHOOD AND EVERYDAY ETHNICITY ______9 BORDERS INTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ______4 INTRODUCTION PEDX2______85 APPENDIX 2 NLSSO NEVES______57 ______ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS 55 ______THE STRUCTURE OF INTERVIEWS 53 __ METHODOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 52 ______LIMITS RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESIS 50 ______STRUCTUREOF THE RESEARCH THE AND SAMPLE THE 47 ANALYSIS FINDINGS______44 ______TOWARDS ANAGREEMENT 37 SLOVENIAN BLOCKADE OF CROATIAN ______NEGOTIATIONS WITH EU 35 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS______28 ______GEOGRAPHIC DETERMINANTS 26 ______A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 24 BORDERLAND THE IN THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE______16 ______IDENTITY ATBORDERS THE 13 BORDERLANDS INCOMPARATIVE ______PERSPECTIVE EERHFNIG ______72 ______RESEARCH FINDINGS 69 ______EVERYDAY LIFE AND POLITICS 66 ______POLITICS IN THEBORDERLAND: THEEVENTS OF 1991 63 THEEFFECT ______OF THE 'NEW'BORDER – THEN AND NOW 62 ______RELIGION IN THEBORDERLAND LINGUISTIC PRACTICES 60 AND REGIONAL IDENTIFICATIONS______57 INTER-ETHNIC MIXING______46 ANALYSIS ______OF CROATIAN MEDIA ANALYSIS OF SLOVENIAN MEDIA 41 ANALYSIS ______OF CROATIAN MEDIA 37 ANALYSIS ______OF SLOVENIAN MEDIA ______44 ______3 CEU eTD Collection the river Kolpa, rememberscard.” how she once went an identity was located. Today border fieldsgo without whereknow toour the we cannot out for a walk withouteven argue, “before wedidn't border scarce activity. Croatian Slovenian the along Aslocals taking her identitychanged theirshopping habits, and visitingeven relatives across borderthe has become a people interactions have diminished, people'. 'border cross-border and Social economic the of lives everyday modified surveillance border of increase The inhabitants. their and borderlands the for conditions the changed significantly borders international into republics the between boundaries internal permeable and soft once of transformation the indisputable, Croatia and Slovenia regarding the exact position of the state border. onwhereinterpretations border should the be drawnhas ledtoa series of between disputes due incompatibilities in border to great setthe beento never Inability clearly drawn. has Slovenia and Croatia between border the republics, of the borders internal the to attention Yugoslavia onlyexternalborders of Federationthe payingwere defined much without border has come to the forefront of the countries' neighboring policies. As in former Republicof Federal Yugoslavia, theirof question defining the independence, their declared 1 1 A statement A by who side Lisac, lives on the statement of Slovenian Ivanka in the the border She Fara. remembers divided us.” border the then and same, the all wewere “before as border ofinternational emergence the before period INTRODUCTION 1 Ivanka Lisac from Fara, a small settlement in the Slovenian side of the border along border sideof the in Slovenian the settlement Fara, asmall from Ivanka Lisac Even where the location of the borderline between Slovenia Sinceand 1991 whenCroatia Slovenia and Croatia, was the successor states of the former Socialist 4 CEU eTD Collection 3 Upper Kolpa Valley inthe of people national (self)identifications and of ethnic focuses understandings on the national identifications of peoplethe living along the border. nationhood promoted by the two nation-states is often very distant from the understandings of propagate nationhoodidentity. and border to group official Nevertheless,the discourse on state the (ab)use andCroatia in elites Slovenia nation, state the to legitimacy give borders identity”. “a national construct As to elites in of political served asatool theattempts alsohas but communities border of theboth countries everyday and practices between situation the police. border them her passport, they left. Most of the interviewed people expressed dissatisfaction with the return herself,policemen.home she hadto accompanied bythetwo Only she showed when 2 However,into bythestate. imposed fixed the fit these maybecome categorizations categories notin centers. do border state samewayasdotheidentifications politicians in the Theirthe interactionsin people intensewith cross-border UpperKolpathe Valley perceivethe not do of conflict, populations onboth sides of respectivethe borderland. and of cooperation interactions, cross-border affected regime border new howthe question the on concentrates study the Therefore, people'. 'border of identifications the on border Kolpa Upper of Valleythe environment new of effectthe with state the concerned is mainly in activists ofnationalist study micro- the The ethnographic politics. everyday ethnicity of policemen border card. The A southern part of the Slovenian-Croatian state A state border. part of southern the Slovenian-Croatian Policemen in the borderland who control the border have to be from other regions of Slovenia, they they are of Slovenia, regions other to be from have border the who control in the borderland Policemen never from the borderland. the from never In order to examine the identifications of the border communities, the present thesis present the communities, border the of identifications the examine to order In political the affected only not has thus border international the of establishment The It is argued that due to historical, geographical and economic determinants together determinants economic and historical, is geographical due to It arguedthat 3 in contrast to the national rhetorics articulated by the spokesmen and spokesmen by the articulated national the rhetorics to in contrast 2 stopped her, and since she did not have any document with 5 CEU eTD Collection 4 understanding identity formation of as a product of boundary construction. and nationhood Barth's studyofethnicity and Brubaker's tothe approach analytical borderland in relation to a various types of borderlands. Kolpa Valley the Upper for classifying basis a servesas Thechapter perspective. comparative main such concepts, frontiers,as boundaries, borders and borderlands by inputting them a of analysis. ascategories settings everyday their areperformedKolpanationhood Valley, intheUpper in study presentthe groups examines how ethnicity formsexamined todetect andpractices.a widerangeof In order through and notshould be approached byinvoking language bounded the of groupsbut be should bounded andsubstantive units of social In world4. it respect,this is arguedethnicity that as howscholarly analysishave groups demonstrate ethnicity of often too studied ethnic aimchangenotdoes ethnicity butseeksto andnationhood, theories on existing to politics 'from in and theabove' groups whose namespeak. politicians The claim to thesis in field.identities work accentuate the is discrepancy Thegoal between the nationalist to borderlanders. the of manipulate (self)identifications are starting to hand, as cross-border interactions are diminishing, essentialist understandings of nationhood rigid conceptions national identity of and membershipas defined 'from On above'. other the border people's notion of ethnicity differand nationhood substantiallyfrom categorical and hand, one the On contacts. cross-border of decreasing today's of light the in influential very Following Rogers Brubaker, University Press, 2006). The third chapter specifiesThe third the UpperKolpa chapter Valley by of ahistorical overview giving and ofethnicity.nationhood defines the concepts The secondadopts chapter It The first chapter gives a theoretical framework of how to study borderlands. It defines national and ethnic of categories how show to attempt is an thesis present The Nationalist politicsand everyday ethnicity inaTransylvanian town 6 (Princeton CEU eTD Collection 5 may Croatianneighboring be andnationhood countries,therepresentations of Slovenian the between relations heated and intense of time However, wasthe asthis both states. of elites political by constructed is identity' 'national how question the on light shed will analysis the belonging, national and nationhood of concepts the evoking in atool as countries both the Croatian negotiations with the European Union. As border dispute serves political elites in into Sloveniabetween the following finallyerupted and Croatia open Slovenia blockade of from 2008. until 17 December dispute24 December This thetime whentheborder was and broad bemediademanding, analysis too present periodthe on too focuses discourse the newspapers identity in studied on analysis would of everyday construction the the of reports Croatian press. In this respect, the study focuses on the Jutarnji list and Vecerni list. Since the read Croatian of people side borderland the the most on media, as as Slovenian well Croatian Deloand Dnevnik.Moreover, although many peoplesides onboth of follow border the in representations the on focuses analysis the newspapers, daily Slovenian leading the of one Kolpa in Valley Upper interviewedthe subjects of the most media.Since national the only analysis examined in the region, newspapers the local influential or significant no are there As press. local and national both analyze analysis discourse of leadingthe Slovenian media.and Croatian Initially, ideawas the to a through examined be will politics nationalist of rhetorics the discourse, political dominant 'from above'. itAsis argued mainstream ideology the media thatthe of reproduce the interactions. cross-border economic and cultural social, intense enabled have that determinants linguistic and economic understand better,In theregion its area. to the order geographical, provides chapter the with The empirical study in the Upper Kolpa Valley was conducted in April, the sample consists of twenty two interviews with people from both sides of the border. of the sides both from people with interviews In the forth chapter the thesis turns to the empirical study of the nationalist politics nationalist the of study empirical the to turns thesis the chapter forth the In 7 5 on the Slovenian side argue that they read they that argue side Slovenian the on CEU eTD Collection and national and Croats. andnational between Slovenes difference imposedenforces bounded by cultural of state perception the that the clearly categorizations Upper Kolpa Valley has shown,peoples’ fitinto fixedthe donot (self)identifications centers. In their everyday practices ethnicity does notmatter. As the ethnographic study of the ethnicityinterpret innot in andnationhood the politicians same way theas do the state do border Slovenian-Croatian the of sides both of populations local The locality. border the of reality with the isinconsistent national cultures cross-border as asite of border separate two views the that nationalism of state research. rhetoric future argues, the thesis As the for 'from and'everyday above' ethnicity' in the UpperKolpa Valley, andposes questionsrelevant institutional a within of complex arrangements. set practices which identities are builtup andnegotiated individual, through narratives group and everyday constituent nation as wellinterviews with people living in both sides of borderland belongingthe those (both the to as members of the minority)(self)identifications of people inthe KolpaUpper Valley. conducting By qualitative the thesis explores the processes in made. when stepsSeptember resolving were first until the 2009, towards dispute 25 September the 11 from events the on focuses also theanalysis nation-states, respective the of centers givepartial. to order amore In view unbiased of national (re)production the identity by of the The last chapter summarizes the main findings of the study of nationalist politics nationalist of study the of findings main the summarizes chapter last The Finally, analyses fifth the chapter the understandings of ethnic andnational 8 CEU eTD Collection widest meaning,although it originally territorialthe denoted expansion nationsof or the with word is the to Anderson,demarcation. frontier According line of mean a also itcan states.” between power political in changes of indicators and control, political of manifestations the power, state cultures. peoples and different between delimitation or line of demarcation meaningasthe general used in diplomatic discussions on the precise location of borders, but it also has a more boundary, infrom terms the useof arisingdifferences border, and frontier. is often Boundary territorial jurisdictions. In this respect, “national borders are political constructs, projections constructs, of territorial power” political are borders “national respect, this In jurisdictions. territorial give system clear-cut by aworldwide nation legitimacy of the to establishing frontiers to imposed politically use to elites by state attempt a collective symbolizes thus borders of mapping The society. of ordering the for is central drawing their inclusion, and loyalty, exclusion political nationhood, identity, citizenship, concerning questions fundamental inconstructed lawyers of heads the andpoliticians, intellectuals. As raise borders initially, were,atleast borders all Nevertheless, existed. if have always as they granted, for them other. take cases people the mostover In state one of jurisdiction the demarcate 6 2 8 7 Michiel Michiel Baud and Willem Van Schendel, “Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands,” Hastings Hastings Donnan and Thomas M. Wilson, Ibid., 213. History BORDERS INTHEORETICALBORDERS PERSPECTIVE When examining thereis borders a lack of conceptual in consensus social the sciences Contemporary national borders appear on maps in precise forms aslinesthat in on maps precise appear borders national Contemporary 7 8, no. 2(October1,1997): 211. As Wilson and Donnan claim, boundaries are the “expression of the spatial limits of 6 that demarcate distinct political political communities. distinct demarcate that 8 The term border usually refersa zone, to a rather narrow one, though Borders: frontiers of identity, nation and state 9 (Berg, 1999), 46. Journalof World CEU eTD Collection 11 10 9 frontiers. international to applied being first the only with marche, limite, front, frontière, words, four have French border. and boundary terms the prefer British the while frontier, international means normally 'border' term the as frontier, languages. Within anglophone the in world, scholars UnitedStates the tend touse term the indifferent terms useof the from the comes confusion conceptual Further phenomena. different completely identify times andother passassynonyms sometimes terms three andby demarcated controlled police andmilitary customs, personnel.” meet, usually line atwhichjurisdictions it “precise the contemporary use, addresses In continent. of the in interior the settlement of moving the zone refer to is to used frontier areas.InTurner's'empty' classic intocivilizations famous authorities below state level.” below state authorities boundary, isboundary denote“thewhile frontiers usedto of administrative and political and a term of discourse. The meanings people ascribe to frontiers change over time, in the time, frontiers over change to ascribe people meanings The of anddiscourse. aterm identifications, contradictory sometimes different, of range a identify they although identity, identity, frontier.markers national of are state frontiers the usually have Moreover, over same the phenomena. refer to to have terms used different scholars this respect, limite –and German,many along with languages,European useonly one term – Grenze. In the policies and practices of by arelimited policiesthe of andpractices governments degreeof the ison definefrontiers states who includedandwhoexcludedfrom its territory. Nevertheless, are instruments of state policy. By borderenforcing control and promotingnational symbols Malcolm Anderson, Ibid., 10. Ibid., 10. 9. As one can see, although social scientists in various disciplines claim precision, all precision, claim disciplines in various scientists social although see, can one As In his book his In Frontiers: territory and state formation in themodern world Frontiers, 11 Malcolm frontiers him,Accordingfour have dimensions. to First, they Anderson uses the term to identify the international the identify to term the uses Anderson 10 10 Spanish have three – frontera, marca, Spanish have –frontera, three The FrontierThe History, in American (Wiley-Blackwell, 1997), 9 de facto control they control CEU eTD Collection 15 14 Kolpa, the concept of concept the Kolpa, another. try to use state local andsociety Membersof remained borderland hasinsomethe unstable. cases restricted institutionsinsuch borderlands. Sahlinsevenas state's power aborder after the arguesthat wascreated, to their and inmarginal members its is best between state reflected areas the complex relationship own ends and Theoften identities. of aswellmarkers territories own their over wielded states that power sometimes building.Following arebothmarkersof actual the resultborders state of were the Anderson, play off one state against 13 lies”. boundary the which within zone “transition as borderland and boundary” the fringe which areas “adjacent the as border define to on going synonyms, as be used never work on territory.state warns inhis conceptual overlapping, Prescott is apparent Although an there 12 countries. within areas between anduninhabited countries or settled the between political two division adopted. approach meaningsdifferenttheoretical tothe according anthropology, political science, geography, history, law and sociology, the term frontier has frontier. toa description ofterritorial depth in in the Nevertheless, academic discussions in shaping identities, such as local,ethnic, religious and linguistic, although he never gives a The novelty of Anderson's is his work emphasis on roleofinternationalthe frontiersborders/ concerned. people the of andidentities statuses andrespective event, political of context the Peter Peter Sahlins, Ibid., 12. John Robert Victor Prescott, Ibid., 2-3. And Donnan and Wilson, 1991), 276. For the purposes of this thesis we use the term In political In political geography,zonesfrontiers refer areusedto whichmark eitherthe 15 As the key focus of this thesis is Slovenian Croatian borderland along the river 13 Political Frontiers andBoundaries In the same manner, In samethe asthelineswhichdemarcate defineboundaries geographers Boundaries: the making of France andSpain in thePyrenees borderland Political frontiers and boundaries Borders is of central importancefor study. our Although usually . , 56-58. 11 that the terms frontier and boundary should boundary and frontier terms the that (UnwinHyman, 1990), 36. border for the political divides that divides political the for (University of California Press, 14 12 CEU eTD Collection 18 17 16 likely extendinlands thatare actually from distant borderline. the quite more will meet, groups linguistic or religious ethnic, various where or claims irredentist a diminished leadin where senseof borderland to theirhinterland, whileborders exist there Well-defended uncontroversial, long borderswillor establishedand likely uncontested more located. are borderlands peaceful, the border, of or the character whether disputed where losing differences. their without ininteraction together come cultures also wheredistinct sites but the borders, national of conjunction atthe spaces physical production requiresthat investigation.” creativecultural “siteof butasa zone, empty transitional asananalytically regarded sides of a state border is applied as the unit of analysis. The borderland thus should not be both in on region the perspective, border,which thisinternational takesacross-border thesis borderland is as a regionunderstood in is onenation that significantly affected by the focal point of our analysis. In this respect, the study of Slovenian Croatian borderland moves borderland Croatian Slovenian of study the respect, this In analysis. our of point focal are the theborder reach across that networks social Thesenew region. of the development the andinteraction systems distinguishborderland from of inland which and the the determine networks new encapsulate also they distinctions, andcultural political, social create borders ethnicbackgroundhave changed significantly after separation the by border. the Thus, as consequence of a border: iscommunitieslinguistic division Indeed,moreitis the that ofsuchgroups groups. apparent a which once sharedconstitute an unambiguous dividing a line betweendialect different ethnic, cultural, religious or or a language, or same David Laven and Timothy Baycroft, “Border regions and identity.,” Robert R. Alvarez and George A. Collier, “The Long Haul in Mexican Trucking: Traversing the Borderlands the Traversing Trucking: in Mexican Haul R. George and Long “The A. Collier, Robert Alvarez Renato Rosaldo, “Ideology, Place, and People without Culture,” of the of the North and South,”the (June (June 2008):256. Press, 1989), 207-8. 1988): 77-87. and Renato Rosaldo, Nevertheless, although some borders delineate different although some borders cultures,Nevertheless, rarely a border does American Ethnologist Cultureand Truth: The Remaking ofSocial Analysis 16 In this respect, borderlands do not address borderlandsnot only respect, Inthis the do 21, no. 3 (1994): 607. 12 Cultural Anthropology European Review Historyof 17 18 It depends Ituponthe 3, 1 (Februaryno. 1, (Boston: Beacon (Boston: 15, no. 3 no. 15, CEU eTD Collection erupt. borders are alienated from the across populations cases, these onename In some. to just Koreas, two the lineseparating the another, exchanges are kept toTurkish Cyprus,border region Curtain Kashmir betweenIndia the theand Pakistan, and Iron a minimum and violence can and its and between Israel borders line imposed Greek are the the neighbors, separating Arab power. their preserve symbolic boundary and the more states try to impose stricter control of the border in order to and itis,serves asa more the practical vary significantly. frontier the more closed The 21 20 19 2.1 sides from of both border.the between people interactions everyday of study the with concerned mainly is thesis the Therefore, population. their and borderlands the to role active an assigns which itself, borderland the from perspective the to phenomena unproblematic and asunchanging see borders approachesthat state-centered from the territorial ideologies become powerful instruments of political mobilization in local in situations. mobilization political of instruments powerful become ideologies territorial these Nevertheless, evidence. historical tenuous rather are basedon they justification, their relationship of their tothe areathey populations inhabit. Although history forthey appeal to borderland interaction, has called this hascalled interaction, borderland interchange is practically nonexistent due to the animosity between the two sides of the of sides two the between animosity the to due nonexistent is practically interchange Ibid., 35. Ibid. Anderson, 20 BORDERLANDS IN COMPARATIVE IN PERSPECTIVE BORDERLANDS Relations across internationalRelations borders between thepopulationsacross theyseparate which These onideologies territorial argue conflicts aremainly which grounded for adeep 21 Similar to Anderson's classification, Martinez, who distinguished four models of models four distinguished who Martinez, classification, Anderson's to Similar Frontiers . 6. 19 The most illustrious twentieth-century examples of such rigid frontiers rigid such of examples twentieth-century illustrious most The alienated borderlandsalienated 13 inwhich cross-border CEU eTD Collection 24 23 22 border. the same time political elites view borderlands as sources of nation building ideologies as ideologies building nation of sources as borderlands view elites political time same the Paradoxically, areas. at displaced asperipheral borderlands hand,they regard other andthe on borderlands. On the one hand, states try to impose national culture on borderland populations, life of in andeveryday people maintenance of border rhetoric is the between a hugegap andlife income, divides, vary employment, importantly. where opportunities Moreover, there unequally borderland of among the havebecome population. Most borders the economic borderlands, havingin mind that benefits of interactioncross-border are often distributed as defensivethe lines of cultural and social identities. in highly regionsthe havebecomedeveloped more permeable and less tobeprone regarded not.frontiersis genuinejoint It do while that actions promote others acknowledged generally local somethese of though activities, jointtrans-border in participate andauthorities regional borderland, Croatian Slovenian the with case the is it as borderlands, integrated most In flags,public etc. legal services, for accessto taxation, suchas systems, everyday practices, merged Nevertheless,and remain open regions. easilycrossed borders barriers important for we canspeakof sothat has meldedtogether life andsocial economic ones, comprehensive borderlands. Finally, when all barriers humanto and trade movement are diminished, we talk of liveborder symbiotically, flowhaving a of exchange. andcultural considerable economic two states. The third model is that of people on both sides have minimal interaction despite the unfriendly relations between the Anderson, Ibid. Óscar Óscar Jáquez Martínez, Arizona Press, 1994), 5-10. 22 These models are ideal types that can only serve as heuristic tools indetermining asheuristic tools can models serve only ideal areThesethat types The second in his categorization of are borderlands The secondof inhiscategorization Frontiers 23 People on both sides speak the same language, or at least atmutually both sides speak People language,or same the on ., 6. Border people: life and society in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands interdependent borderlands 14 coexistent borderlandscoexistent in which inwhich people across the (University of integrated in which in 24 CEU eTD Collection 25 networks follow the contours viewed problematic, social andkin border as become scarcerandareincreasingly relations of the border. The next the In decrease. stage is havenetworks stillnot disintegrated buteconomic andsocial exchange hasalreadybegun to undeniable reality although people remember thebefore period border the existed. Old borders alter. Baud and Schendel distinguish fivestagesin lifethe cycleofborders. they reside. inwhich nation-state the with identification aweak only display may in borderlands living cultural and which linguistic factors pull inthem atleasttwo directions, many of peoplethe borderline. economic, due centersacross Moreover, to the their state inby the and pulled centers national from away pushed both are they as identities ambiguous experience often inborderlands life. As people ofpolitical aconsequence, nation's the parts asperipheral well of we talk removed, are sides of border the two the between barriers physical andthe abolished is border the when Finally, nation-state. the to threat a as seen longer no are that emerge networks orsupra-border Newcross- losingits importance. of border resultthe are the reality.social a The than rather potentiality which side border toliveof the infuture. In firstthe stage of theborderis cycle the a close kinshiplinks. National identities of peoplearethe undefined, and people canchoose on share of sides arestillboth border inthe on andpeople place, networks economic and social borderlandsinfant Baud and Schendel, “Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands.”, 223. of Borderlands.”, History a “Toward Comparative Schendel, and Baud defunct borderlandsdefunct In all, the role and significance of borderlands change over time as the meaning of adult borderland are those that exist just after the borderline has been drawn. Preexisting beendrawn. has just theexist after thatborderline arethose . Border-defined networks graduallyby newand fall arereplaced apart . Border-defined networks stage the border has become a firm social social reality.firm Cross- a hasbecome border the stage adolescent borderlands 15 declining borderlands have already become an become havealready . These . 25 The CEU eTD Collection culture. populations, manyborderlanders have their developed 'creole' own 'syncretic' borderor borderland on culture national impose a to authorities state-center of the attempt the Despite sides. two the differences between the andhighlight legitimize border the to in order (ab)used are unity national of Symbols border. the with coincide that divides cultural new impose adopting new policies with regard to language, settlement, and culture, the states try to fairly homogeneous population are, according to some theorists called some theorists to are, according population fairly homogeneous increase. networks and cross-border less significant become EU, differences intothe the when loses its border hardness, suchasinthecase the countries' integration European the of strictimposes languagerules policies.other regarding the useof official or in timeThus, borderin has the itsreached meaning lifewhen a border state isestablishedcycle, the stage the of consequence ethnicity, bea also can differences ofthe Thesharpness culture. or language, to differ that respect with groups clearly ifitbenatural separates to border ideology, by intheserviceelites of manipulated nationalistpolitical perceive these scholars areoften culture inethnicity beor differences madesince to impossible is classification make a distinction between make a distinction 28 27 26 2.2 of oldthe division. regardless ones Ibid., 234. Ibid., 231. Ibid., 223-225. IDENTITY IDENTITY ATBORDERS THE Borders that do not coincide clearly with ethnic or cultural cut through buta cultural coincidenot divides or do clearly ethnicwith Borders that In terms of language, ethnicity and culture, some theorists of borderlands have tried to 28 Governments have often resisted such border cultures by policiesenforcing strict – natural 26 and unnatural 16 borders. 27 Although we believe that such a such that believe we Although unnatural borders. By CEU eTD Collection 29 borderlanders. the of map mental and perception the of part become borders be, may impact their Whatever andneatly on a map, becomedrawn forfact areal borders peoplethe living nearthem. meetings diplomatic agreedat Once realities. social become of can some mental constructs citizenship. share same who the from elsewhere individuals than with the border the across cultural people still cross-border morecontinuity much present, identify with from those communities. cross-border between isrelationship ahigh quite two Asthere level the of examine importance to the it bewill of key respect, In this experienced 1991. since have people its transformation particular the and borderland, Croatian Slovenian of dynamics point for theexperiences of borderland populations. research, withmaylived beodds itsthe at culture 'own' national a state'sof projection factthat the this thesisby arecaused borderlands within Wilson, For perspective. conflict/differences potential the tries to localunderstand levelthe at be examined best can infrontier the of sides real both on people borderland of experiencesidentifications the social, of the borderland cultural, populations, on borderlandthe people by invoking national stereotypes, myths and symbols. fromand the economicso called bottom-upnational one. In effortsthese mediathe playanimportant role in identity national conveying byamoreculture 'civilized' aim replace that border to projects –andcultural authorities for example,prohibiting thelanguage useof localthe incommunications with state 30 Thomas M. Wilson and Hastings Donnan, Baud and Schendel, “Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands.”, 242. of Borderlands.”, History a “Toward Comparative Schendel, and Baud (Cambridge University 1998).Press, and Laven and Baycroft, “Border regions and identity.”,262. Nevertheless, one has to keep in mind that borders are the best examples of how of examples best the are borders that mind in keep to has one Nevertheless, andvariety by of state a the identity national enforced the The between relationship 30 Border identities: nation andstateat international frontiers 29 By studying both sides of the border as a starting 17 CEU eTD Collection “multifarious ways in which ethnicity, and race, nationhood can exist and'work' without the them.” between relation the than presume can one rather between and“problematize groups, continuously categories distinguishing by Indeed, below. from and above from both categories, of politics the examine to and askhowpeople with dothings categories in aparticular degreeof to the setting, groupness of a construction various identificationsof in gives borderlands.the an It study opportunity to focus to on processes and relations ratherthanbounded providing substances, afuller picture fluctuating conceptual variable.” conceptual fluctuating 34 33 frames. discursive and organizational routines actions, situated schemas, cognitive categories, essentialist and substantialist way as things and entities in the world, but in terms in an constructs conceptualize notthe which nationhood does and ethnicity of study of to the practical governments, the thesis looks at the social realities provoked by them. theirnarratives andidentity. expressions of focusing Ratherthan on ofnational rhetoric the local of and viewpointexamines processes the the from of nation-building ethnicity people, study of everyday experiences of communities living in Upperthe Kolpa valleyborderland. It and states in which all power flows from the center, this thesis primarily focuses on the micro 32 31 3 Ibid., 12. Ibid. Rogers Brubaker, Brubaker. Rogers from The is term borrowed NATIONHOOD AND EVERYDAY ETHNICITY By focusing on 'everyday ethnicity' formationto approach the nations has of top-down the As thetaken scholarship often 32 This means examiningnotthegroup asan entity, butgroupness a“contextuallyas Ethnicity without groups 33 This enables researchers to treat groupness as an event and event an as groupness treat to researchers enables This (Harvard University Press, 2004), 11. 31 34 the thesis adopts Brubaker's approach adopts thesis the analytical 18 In short, a focus on categories can elucidate can afocus oncategories Inshort, CEU eTD Collection 38 37 36 35 but how they are constructed. are constructed, nationhood and ethnicity that show to not is thesis this of task main the Brubaker, Following andhow emerges init why remains situations whileinothers groupness latent. some entities.” assubstantial groups ethnic of existence ethnic groups. of reification' the 'reinforcing by ethnopolitical rhetoric reproduce uncritically doing, scholars particular context, which,in of spite isof arbitrarily ethnicity acknowledging by that peoplecreated in a group a tends to conceive groups as real substantial entities in the world. In so respect, the critical focus of analysis becomes the “ethnic boundary that defines the group, defines the “ethnic boundary that the becomes of thecriticalanalysis focus respect, people identify through relational themselves of inclusion processes and exclusion. Inthis rather differences, basisof the cultural on but formedshared culture, basis of a groups the on by focus them replacing ontheinterfacewith a between groups. As ethnicgroupsarenot bounded bonds,anthropological primordialist entities, notionscultures andethnicity as of as from of the Hedeparts people. between groups ofboundaries negotiations going Boundaries Inhisinfluential book, differentiation betweenspecific groups. of construction social or cultural of process a is identity ethnic that emphasize constructivists history, human throughout existed always have that facts natural and essential as identity nationhood. and identity ethnicity, of conceptions constructivist the on relies still base theoretical the of thrust The it. renew to aims Fredrik Barth, Ibid., 10. Brubaker, Ibid., 13. 1998). In this respect, the study study the 'everydayIn a critiqueis respect,of this view ethnicity' of constructivist the In contrast primordialist tothe understandings andperrenialist of ethnicity and , Barth Nationalistpolitics and everyday ethnicity ina Transylvanian town 37 Ethnic groups and boundaries: the social organization of culture difference Nevertheless, thesis notundermine the does the constructivist viewbutrather 38 defines an approach to the study ontheon- ethnicity which focuses study tothe of an defines approach 19 36 35 These cognitive perspectives can explain can perspectives These cognitive . Ethnic Groups and (Waveland Press, CEU eTD Collection element Wallman the“ that notes inside line as linebetween interface asby between and outside, identity well an an by characterized are but sides, two just have not do thus boundaries Social construction. group. another of members the on categorization their impose can group one of members that consider not he does boundary, second the based on self-ascription and ascription by the others. the by ascription and self-ascription on based ascription, of sources distinct two between distinguish to important is it that emphasizes Jenkins Nevertheless, be might named. culture shared howevergroup that of that they are apart claimmembershipinthemselves aparticular category, ethnic and are seenas suchby others, social relations. for articulating device organizational Cultural differences are thus significant only when they are socially effective, as an them. themselves. theboundaries Yetof stability affect and durability the not this does across relations regular continue may and so, do to beneficial it find if they groups between 42 41 40 39 not the cultural stuff thatit encloses.” long list of itunderplayingaccording context, tothe oneshouldlook at ethnic not in groups of terms a Richard Jenkins, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 15. Withal, at identity the thesislooks this formation ofboundary a as product As individuals may strategically manipulate their cultural identity by emphasizing or emphasizing by identity cultural their manipulate strategically may individuals As marks the significance given to that change and expresses the participants' relation to group identification objectively Rethinking ethnicity: arguments and explorations outside identified cultural butattributes, ascategories in whichmembership is interface element interface and across it.” across and and socialcategorization. 39 marks a change in what goes on while the while on goes in what change a marks 42 20 In this respect Jenkins is critical of Barth since Barth of critical is Jenkins respect this In 41 In other words, as long asindividuals 40 People may cross boundaries the People may cross (SAGE, 1997), 23 “The first occurs “The first inside us and the … identity them . CEU eTD Collection 46 45 44 intointer-ethnic issocial apre-established of system brought 'cultural establishedcontrast' cases the 'cultural differentiae' doesidentifications. not comenational and ethnic their affect they how from and border, Croatian Slovenian the of a sides both locally organizedcreated context among but the a populationpre- meanings on boththe and sidesboundaries they these uncover to is therefore, ofthesis, are this of task the The exist. given.borderboundaries shape The everydaykey questions life inter-group arehigh,the interactions where cross-border borders interdependent in Even open of people are on to whatborder. the of sides both on place takes constantly otherness of extent construction the where sites these symbolicbring upasense inherentdualityof and advancea“process ofmirror imaging. They are the boundaries be. to itleastis As at many theorists presumed regions, or in border apparent a keyfactor represent in identity.defining their communities along themost of the cases,itborder. does not mean that they coincide with the perception of boundaries of the in drawn Asprecisely are borders someinternational Although boundary. the to might ascribe they meaning see the border as invisible,people, boundary meansmoreoneexamine boundary can whatthe to specificallywhich to others itcommunity's boundary. may claims,studyplace the best to everyday of practices inclusion isexclusion and atthe Cohen also as Therefore, itself. of sides both on interface and identity between relationships 43 it.” Michèle Lamont and Virág Molnár, “THE STUDY OF BOUNDARIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES.,” Borneman, Berdahl, Lofgren, etc. Anthony Paul Cohen, Sandra Sandra Wallman, Annual Review of Sociology 28, no. 1 (2002): 184. 1(2002): no. 28, of Sociology Review Annual 43 Any boundary,social sheargues,must beanalyzedasa consequence of possible Barth's theory also contributes to the respective analysis as he argues that in most that as heargues analysis to respective the contributes theory also Barth's The relational construction of national similarities and differences is even more Ethnicity at work The symbolic construction of community 44 By focusing on interactions between groups on both sides of the of sides both on groups between interactions on focusing By (Macmillan, 1979), 207. 21 (E. Horwood, 1985). 45 argue, borders 46 CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 evertothe is superior alwaysor -excludesor it exists - when identification national people isthings.most argument Ibelievethis assumefor“cannot pretentious rather that since we i.e. ways practices, of thinking everyday and doing commonsense, nationalism comprises banal more, forgetisWhatpractices. their never nationhood. him,people According to and representations habits, assumptions, beliefs, everyday through ways, in banal reproduced Despite postmodern discourses, Billig argues that nation-states continue toexist and are daily nationhood are deeply nationhood ways of in embedded contemporary thinking analysis instead ofanalyzing inwhich processes ForMichael they develop. Billig of notions people. Moreover, as criticized before, they take discrete and bounded groups as categories of explaining actually howethnicity andnationhood in work life everyday the of ordinary understanding the of of construction the ethnicity ininsufficientthey and nationhood, are intelligentsias.” nationalist modern by reinterpreted be, and living rediscovered hasbeen,andcan past a popular inwhich heritages the ways and ethnic of symbols and traditions, memories, myths, the are power its nationalism gives “what nations. modern Heargues in construction of asfundamental that the characteristics symbolic off, and for politics. ethnicity inand nationhood borderlands of interests and the politicians, whomay be living of understanding people's between divergence the on light some shed will above' 'from 48 47 (de)constructing ethnicity theand otherhand, nationalism. On Smith relations. Michael Billig, Ibid. Anthony Anthony D. Smith, John Breuilly, Ibid., 30. Nationalism: Theoryand Comparison Breuilly and Brass and Breuilly 47 From this perspective, a study of ethnopolitical rhetoric of nationalist politics nationalist of rhetoric ethnopolitical of astudy From perspective, this Nationalism and the State Banal nationalism Myths and memories of thenation 48 also stress the importance of the political elites in the process of (SAGE, 1995), 11. (Sage, 1991). (Manchester University Press, 1993). PaulR.Brass, 1993). Press, University (Manchester 22 (Oxford University Press, 1999). 50 Although these theories contribute to contribute theories these Although 51 and acting in social life. in social andacting 49 identifies ethno- identifies Ethnicity and CEU eTD Collection 53 52 nationalist.” less still and national necessarily not are which people, ordinary of interests and longings needs, hopes, assumptions, of the is below,from interms that analyzed also unless be understood “cannot they above, from constructed essentially are ethnicity and nationhood macroanalytical well perspective. as microanalytical,Asalthough as Hobsbawm argues, a from them study to needs one best, phenomena these Tounderstand people. by manifested and enacted areexpressed, and ethnicity nationhood inwhich processes tothe contribute alone can nationhood, of forms visible less everyday, the of a study nor nationhood, of people. ordinary daily of the routine focus on the ways in which national identity and ethnicity play an important role in the course social remainder setofidentificationsthe being.” the which of constitute Ibid., 10. Eric Eric J. Hobsbawm, Press, 1992), 11. Thus, neither a study of the role that the political elites play in the construction of 53 Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality 23 (Cambridge University 52 One should rather One should CEU eTD Collection borderlands. While economic social and lifehad been melded beforeittogether 1991, has integrated borderland notfollow of all does of Slovenian-Croatian characteristics the each other.ideal, are yetcan understand As models they all dialect, acquired this not have border of the establishment the born after people while leastgenerations, atolderborder, the an fields, they always have to carry their identity cards with them. across the border they have passto the border control,moreover if they want towork on their friends their visit to want if they that fact the accept to come have People border. the of rules the to have adjusted life borderlanders of Every-day communities. border the experience of a central represent longer no and scarcer much become have they but disintegrated, yet not have networks cross-border Old border. new the of existence the by influenced significantly been have they exist, to continue relations kin and social cross-border Although before existed one theirviewnostalgic the border can sensetimes. and often of previous the period the remember still people Yetmany borderland. in the live who those of minds in the adult the of characteristics borderland Croatian Slovenian caseof the follow one upon another in an unilinear classificationmode, nor do all borders pass through all borderland. any various on categorize borderlands, in the studied chapter As explained the stages. In of borders is ideal and different stages of development do not necessarily 4.1 4 integrated borderland. VALLEY SLOVENIAN CROATIAN INTHEUPPER BORDERLAND KOLPA borderland THE BORDERLAND IN THEORETICAL IN THEORETICAL THE BORDERLAND PERSPECTIVE In terms of cross-border relations Slovenian-Croatian borderland can be regarded as be regarded can borderland Slovenian-Croatian relations cross-border of terms In Before moving onto the analyze of the Slovenian Croatian borderland, one must first must one borderland, Croatian Slovenian the of analyze the onto moving Before can be found. The border has become a firm social hasbecome afirm reality, canbefound. social The border embedded deeply People in this region speak the same dialect on both sides of the 24 adolescent as well as of an CEU eTD Collection national borderlandculture on populations, people in respectivethe borderland have jurisdictionunity overat the national border of Symbols border. the another. with coincide that crossings divides cultural new impose to try states and constantDespite police population. By newadopting policiescontrol with regard tolanguage, schooling andthe settlement, the denoteattempt the limits coincide cultural but homogeneous a fairly through cuts not with divides ethnicor clearly of ofone territorialthe state-center authoritiesborder. to friendship, the networks of cross on pre-existing andentrepreneurial kinship, that partnership imposebased mainly been have exchanges a These economy. national larger in their economy border the integrate to havefailed governments both asthe economically interact forced to are communities local hand other the On region. the in factories most of shutting the to led which part due to the change creation the before lessermuch in border.exchangesthan the of adegree though This isof in the political commercial and economic border cross their continue border andthe of sides both on economicPopulations systemsborder. the redrawing to claims strong any without Kolpa from river the along borderland socialism to capitalism rather Croatian in homogeneously Slovenian population andlocal operate regional authorities state, The category. first the into falling borderland Croatian Slovenian with rebellious unrulyborderlands, and of borderland types quiet, three wecandistinguish politics, Whenlooking at borderland. in respective the overlap networks cultural economic and considerable interdependent borderlands significantly diminished after the existence of the border. In this respect, one can talk more of In terms of language, between border In terms and ethnicity Croatiaand of culture, Slovenia does The analysis of Slovenian Croatian borderland examines how and if the political, if the and how examines borderland Croatian Slovenian of analysis The flow of economic and cultural exchange. in which people across the border live in border which across people symbiotically, the having a 25 CEU eTD Collection the thirteenththe century madewhich itone of oldestthe European borders, and notjust in this Slovenianthe borderlandCroatian in UpperKolpathe Valley. dynamics in historical evolution borderlandthe abrief provides reviewof this thesis of the 55 54 4.2 political, economic, and cultural dynamics of the region over time. of andnationhood ethnicity in Slovenian Croatian borderland one should alsostudy the understandbetween linkterritory, perception the people's to nation. Therefore, ethnicity and rethink to us invites borderlands of a study differently, it Put claim. lay states modern which borders challenges the nation building ideologies putting into question the territoriality to of unity and of separation character it. Thisparadoxical on and border depending to the butsimultaneouslycultural unitesthemin living contact, experienceand of social their close Slovenian Croatian border divides people living both on sides, whohave hadalong history of mappinga border. of of the In respect, this asaconsequence arises communities often border Indeed, linguistic division cultural, the betweenor along religious, ethnic, cross- lines the interexchange. economic often formoreover commercial or they are abasis exchanges, based friendship andon frequent areeven more kinship than economic cross-border the interethnic relations these borderland, Croatian Slovenian caseof festivities. Inthe other or franca linguaborder into comes existence, border culture. 'syncretic' 'creole' developedor own their Sahlins, Baud and Schendel, “Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands.” 234. A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW The Slovenian Croatian border was already established at the turn into twelfth of turn the atthe already established was border Croatian The Slovenian adequately In order social and political of thehistorical to context current the assess As isaforementioned, border rarely the betweenclearly distinguishable drawn groups. Boundaries . , 166-76. 55 peoplemay visit each others' festivalsreligious 26 54 When different languages meet, a languages meet, different When CEU eTD Collection 58 57 56 of Europe. part turned once medieval cities and market towns into rural intosettlements. rural towns andmarket cities once medieval turned frequent Turkish to exposed border raids buffer Croatian today's along a role zone second of beinglatter a mighty extended into fortress which was conquered by the Turks only once. The the with Kostel and Pobrezje inPoljane, fortifications were There (i.e. Austrian) territories. Kolpa valley and Krajina Bela animportant played in role protection the of inner Slovenian Border, the upper Military the to connection directnohad of landsand time apart Austrian 1881. from 1527to serveditsaround purposes Although theterritory atthat Sloveniaof was invasion. (“Militargrenze”Border The Military in German, and“Vojna in Croatian) Krajina” of the danger Turkishthe from Border, which Austrian Military Empire protected as the named a bufferinto zone, turned were Romania and Hungary Slavonia, Croatia, of territories in late medieval Europe Many times. the Ottoman expansion to border region due to Monarchy. political-territorial it within units the separated 1918 from Austro-Hungarian until then 1527 borderthe divided the Holy Roman Empire and union, Hungarian-Croatian the state and economically powerful context. withinthewiderEuropean borders feudal familieschanging of one and least the stable time most itremained the for so, Even as itsimportance. who held estates on both sides of the border. Until negative underdevelopment, historical legacy led to depopulation negativeand other trends in the with together centers urban major the from distance and isolation by traffic caused Stanko Pelc, “Slovene-Croatian border as past, present and future generator of marginalization,” in of marginalization,” generator future and as present border past, “Slovene-Croatian Pelc, Stanko Milan Bufon, “Theory and practice in Central European border areas: the slovenian example,” slovenian the border areas: European in Central practice and “Theory Bufon, Milan Dušan Dušan Bilandži 1993) Globalized Europe New European State Zagreb and OKC Zagreb, 1991), 1-91 In this regard, the areas along Slovenian-Croatian border are knownas a historical border the areasalongSlovenian-Croatian In this regard, , no. 1993/1994 (n.d.): 173-182. 56 ü and Sveu From that time on, its administrative and political role has changed, as well (Založba Annales : (Proceedings of the symposium held in Zagreb and þ ilište u ilište Zagrebu, : Zgodovinsko društvojužno za Primorsko,2005), 278 Croatia between war andindependence 57 27 Itsalterations wealthy duetothe occurred and ý akovec, September 22-25, (The University of 58 Bad accessibility Croatia- A CEU eTD Collection 59 the to west the From Croatia. and Slovenia between borderline long km 546 the of middle 4.3 is needed. andeconomicdetermination socio-geographic essential to the people toexaminethe matters on abandoned.Inefforts or weakened were either previousthe unity both sides of the border independence of a andCroatia,Slovenia border acquired the new significance. of Many aspects better comprehension laws. federal After the inmanywaysfollowed have these of republics, laws of respective the their existing socio-politicalsame the to belonged times Yugoslav the in countries both for andterms, economic and social economic system.both in role integrating an had always has border this Nevertheless, Although state. non-EU a and each side was regulatedindependentnations border aSchengen and into between inMay2004evolved enlarged EU by the politics independencein and Croatia of Slovenia 1991. The border, thus, became aborderof two and federative republics with rightthe of inself-determination, led which tothe turn in then Slovenes, Yugoslavia. After World between Wartwo aborder itrepresented II and in border, Croats be firstSerbs, of Kingdom aninneradministrative the continued to a border between Austrian and Hungarian part of the Empire. With the decay theof Empire it unfavorable areas. most prevented total of geographically depopulation improved workhasand,thus, situation andcommutingmobility the to population of improved Nonetheless, areas. border of certain development social the economic and Or in Croatian GEOGRAPHIC DETERMINANTS Geographically the studied Upper Kolpa valley Geographically UpperKolpa studied the Within the Austrian-Hungarian Empire current Slovenian-Croatian borderline became borderline Slovenian-Croatian current Empire Austrian-Hungarian the Within ý abranka - Kupa valley: the river Kolpa is in Croatian language called Kupa 28 59 borderland lies in approximately the CEU eTD Collection on Slovenianthe on side. mountainousThe underdevelopmentof twothe regions arises partly sparsely populated zones of Gorski Kotor on the Croatian side and Dolenjsko and Notranjsko and underdeveloped economically isolated, mountainous, markedly two between located the base, its into deeply branches, one along the Kolpa river and the other along its tributary, the the tributary, its along other the and river Kolpa the along one branches, two of consists valley The borderline. Croatian Slovenian the of parts other the to attention part of the valley belongs to Croatia, and the smaller part to Slovenia, this thesis pays little Slovenian-Croatian border follows the riverMura. followsthe border Slovenian-Croatian brooks small follows andmainly borderline The Drava. of valley the to on further and crosses Haloze, to Sotla and Sava rivers the along low Gorjanci of ridges hilly the through moves it ridges onward there From all the more region densely populated Bela Krajinaof mesto-Karlovac). atMetlika (Ljubljana-Novo way to the Mura plain where the last section of ý on Slovenian side and Prezid in Croatia the borderline starts to sweep down to the valley of 61 60 atPetrina(Ljubljana-Ko one first the crossings, majorin parts other of has the The borderlands. of borderlineKolpathe border two area higher than is Kolpa population valley the ofthe very densely. widerparts in the Particularly Slovenia. plateaus of south-western mounts DinaricIstria and karst of part Slovenian of hinterland hilly the cuts Dragonja, river the follows borderline the bay represents the most polemically between the former maritime border noYugoslav was Since there bay Piran republics, contestedeast and northeast the borderborder starts in the Piran bay, where the delimitation is still notdefined. dispute between the two states. From the See the Appendix 1 281 of marginalization.”, generator as and border future present past, “Slovene-Croatian Pelc, abranka and then Kolpa. Here the borderland becomes more populated, although still not although borderland moreKolpa. becomes populated, Herethe abranka andthen As the subject of the study is borderland in the Upper Kolpa region greater the where Kolpa region in theUpper borderland is study the of As thesubject ý abranka-Kupa valley (or in Slovenian the Upper Kolpa valley) is valley) Kolpa Upper the in Slovenian (or valley abranka-Kupa 29 þ evje-Rijeka) and the other one in one other relatively the and evje-Rijeka) 61 60 Between Babno Polje ý abranka river. Cut river. abranka CEU eTD Collection a feudal relicand the result Carniolan the of The isnot drawn border current isalong ethnicbutpurely lines.ineconomic-historical It fact itstates. was onlyin and areabecamebetween administrations, the 1990that two divided the is position of latter muchthe better inthan Croatia. economic sincethe toSlovenia side emigrated onCroatian people many Nevertheless, in neighboringdifficultwork country,to a hasdecreased. the abroad emigration thus opportunities. After establishment the international of border in it1991 has become more employment but nationality upon depend not did settlements two the of in one live to choice 63 62 Ko sideand Croatian the Delnicecenters, on two to gravitated mainly have border the of sides both on People itself. valley the of development social overall economic and the on negative impact have a great, had factors and transit Gulf andthe Trieste. Zagreb Ljubljana with connect that routes region remains in isolated terms of transit. This isarea bypassed by all majorof the Slovenian mountain Slovenian the hand, other the On highway. Zagreb-Rijeka the by enhanced been has corridor the of importance transit Thecentral forefront. the areato moved the railroads Lousiana Theupgraded centuries. nineteen The firstmodern through roads Gorski wereKotor only in constructed eighteen the and horses. mainly with trafficthe carried area, was where Kotor i.e.Gorski west, the moved to the sea to Adriatic interior Croatian from the route the that threat Ottoman the of time in the land central Slovenia while the roadto Adriatic seafollowed the Una river valley. Itwas only bypassed Gulf the andfound exit them.to of Central countries European Trieste low through from thefact that the primary transit routes from the continental inland to the Adriatic Ivan Crkven First built in 1809 ý abranka-Kupa valley),” In political terms, the Upper Kolpa area was always a single unit under various þLü , “Certain socio-geographic characteristics of a Croatian-Slovenian border region (along the Acta geographica Croatica ý 62 30 ebranka district beingboughtby Frankopan the roadthrough Delnice corridor together with 35 (2000): 97-105. þ evje on the Slovenian side. In the past the past the side. In Slovenian evjethe on 63 These natural, economic natural, These CEU eTD Collection provision, various cross-border interactions and the impact of the border on their everyday their on border the of impact the and interactions cross-border various provision, area's opportunities, migration, everyday language employment networks, practices, ethnicity among borderland communities focuses on their social, cultural everyday and of economic Valley, analysis Kolpa the Upper in the living people of identifications multiple border.sidesthe both of the local population, this thesis carries out numerous qualitative interviews with the locals on new on some border impacts of marginality. the produce of examine the extent to the order In of can effects with border the negative the together independence the established after and factors new conditions of area.Peripherality, studied geographical the unfavorable flows. However,ita closedis as not border, itself not causemarginalization border the does traffic international for holds same the and population local of life in everyday's obstacle an is It rather population. borderland of migration daily the affected has significantly new border the surveillance, of increase the and crossings border legal Moreover, the the lackof dueto of inled the depopulation. its character and, peripheral increasedthe to area turn, additionally of some settlementsinaccessibility caused has This network. traffic the insufficient difficulty represents greatest on both border, side Croatian has borderland'sthe infrastructure of the however, onthe remained the side of the border.new sidesof the The main both of on local impacton part the population had agreat border only from the opposite side, which has 64 language were andinhabitants concerned. monarchy of that period.and Zrinskinoblemenin century mid-17th the and annexedtothe Hungarian part of the In those times the Upper Kolpa valley was Slovene as far as its Damir Josipovi Damir border regions širitve EU,” in As the thesis is concerned with the effect of the newly delineated border on the on border delineated newly the effect of the with is concerned thesis As the placeChanges took that the independenceafter ofSlovenia and Croatia in1991have (Koper: Založba Annales Razvojne priložnosti obmejnih obmo þ , “Razprava o odnosu center - periferija: peripanonski slovensko-hrvaški stik v sistemu stik slovensko-hrvaški peripanonski - periferija: center o odnosu , “Razprava : Zgodovinsko društvojužno za Primorsko, 2009),197-211. 64 31 þ ij Slovenije = Development opportunities of Slovenian CEU eTD Collection development of the Upper Kolpa valley. Kolpa Upper the of development regional andharmonious cooperation in trans-border the obstacle/barrier agreat rather but exchange, andcommercial people,for of interms economic the a new especially opportunity notrepresent does newborder region, the of unity historical the the local Despite population. of the percent three exceed still Slovenes the where inCroatia, therareareas is of one Kolpa of the river (border) speak the same local dialect. Furthermore, the Croatian part of the Upper both sides on areainwhich communities settling a historical constitutes asitspecial interest, lives. In regard to the other areas of Slovenian Croatian border, the Upper Kolpa valley is of a 32 CEU eTD Collection which live.”they in context social bythe them to provided materials raw from individuals by “constructed is 65 leadingandnewspapers. Slovenian Croatian limited since I have chosen restrictto the analysis only to printed media representations in the (CDA) developed byFairclough van and Itis Dijk. thatthe horizonsclear of study this are The study draws largely on the methodological framework of critical discourse analysis by imposed and discursively articulated Croatian the newspapers. leadingand Slovenian daily The analysisinterest”. “national examines of enemy the as nation neighboring of portrayal the and the discourse national ways in which category ofquestion a Croat, or a Slovene ofis illuminate the to between Slovenia disputeCroatia tries and media the border constructed, on reporting how and to what identity.national of process of and construction reproduction precisely, More study the of extent the media hasof interpretation. contributed inthe process must actively one engage understand representations, these meaningof the to to the imagemirror of reconstructionbut world,rather they the offer representations various of in world,the order which are for identity essential membership. one's medianotand group Since arethe the of imaginary and complicity. They influence values, beliefs and forms of behavior in the society, role in andlegitimation identity conception the ofgroup by constructing acommon 5 Peter Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, knowledge DISCOURSE ANALYSIS NATIONALISTIC POLITICSFROM ABOVE –MEDIA As Berger and Luckmann argued some time ago, social reality is not 'out there', but it but there', 'out is not social reality ago, time arguedsome As Berger andLuckmann The following media discourse analysis focuses mostly on reports by the two leading two by the reports on mostly focuses analysis discourse media following The media inthe of the role the examine critically isto of this chapter task the Therefore, (Penguin Books, 1991). 65 In this process of construction media representations play an important Thesocial construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of 33 CEU eTD Collection 66 daily newspapers in DeloSlovenia, and Dnevnik, identity and the portrayal of the neighboring nation as the “Other”. national of legitimation and conception the to contributed media the sentiment, nationalist politics in representing of both discourse Slovenian media dominantsituation andCroatian the settled down adopted the border the dispute as a following question pressure from although the European ofUnion “national and governments two the the between rhetoric US. the softening thus Nevertheless, minister, interests”. prime of position By evoking replacedinKosor Jadranka IvoSanader in states. the political among the atmosphere change the to in of half second2009 due the mediahad changed of made.the The discourse when stepsSeptember resolving were first until the 2009, towards dispute 25 September the 11 from events the on focuses also analysis the state, neighboring the to connection in nationhood of construction on the and and Croatia, between Slovenia consequently from Jutarnji list since it has also been the most frequently quoted in the Slovenian press. come will media Croatian in articles the of majority the Nevertheless, angle. adifferent from attention is also given to Vjesnik which sometimes publishes articles that portray the situation in press,the country. conservative the newspaper it to However,comes when conservative leading the is list Vecernji while leftist, leading is the list Jutarnji newspapers Croatian by politics. blockade, Among constructed in the on nationalisticreporting discourse adopted they leftist, rather as be regarded can newspapers daily Slovenian both Although society. civil intense and extremely heated debate among intellectuals Slovenian politicians, and within which EU, an negotiations tothe Croatian caused blockedwas thetime when Slovenia list, Vjesnik andVecernjiin listfrom December periodthe until 2008.This17 24 December There is no leading conservative newspaper, although Delo was considered as adopting right views in views the right as adopting Delo considered was although newspaper, conservative is no There leading period of Janez Janša's government (2004-2008). In order to represent a more unbiased picture of therelationship a more media on unbiased of picture In order to representreporting 34 66 and three Croatian newspapers Jutarnji newspapers and Croatian three CEU eTD Collection 70 69 68 67 relations, knowledge systems and value systems. shaped through power relations and ideologies and howitinfluences social identity, social aim of CDA is therefore not describe only to butalso toexplainhow discourse becomes The researcher. the of interpretation individual always is analysis the of results the method, sociological interpretative practices. andqualitative As discriminatory an sexism andother racism, against directed activism political of part integral an but science social objective emancipatory aim to modify the existing power relations. Thus, itis not to be seen as an CDA is to make these aspects of task the therefore invisible only tacit, and areoften usage behind language the relations of the discourse aspects Ideological and power asindividualssubjects. social and becomepeople constituted visible.70 In this becomeswhich thebasic framework of through knowledge,tool the discourse produces respect, CDA has a clear systems inside anddomination specificsocial of subordination structures.69 As power the reveal can media texts language of the of analysis a systematic intertwined, are ideology is Fairclough Following notion Foucault's not.68 discourse, argues of since that languageand setboundarieslanguageis as soasto structuring for what what knowledge'true' and accepted by knowledge and'truth' generates butalso others, towards behavior perception and According to Foucault, discourse does not only create the social reality by shaping one's others.”67 over group of abuse one is,power socialdomination,that (re)produces “discourse 5.1 Ibid., 258-259. Norman Fairclough and Ruth Wodak (1997), “Critical Discourse Analysis”, in Michel Foucault, Teun S. Van Dijk, “Critical discourse studies: a sociocognitive approach”, in Ruth Wodak and Michael Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction Meyer, According to CDA, discourse is seen as a form of “social practice, which implies a implies which practice, “social of form a as seen is discourse CDA, to According which to hegemony,extent of notion investigatesCDA the Gramsci's Based on CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Methods of critical discourse analysis The archaeology of knowledge and The discourse on language (SAGE Publications, 2011), 258. (SAGE Publications Ltd, 2009), 63. 35 Teun A VanDijk, (Barnes & Noble, 1993). Discourse CEU eTD Collection 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 such as racism, should also include the level of cognition.77 and generalsocial representations therefore thestudy between anddiscourse social structure, As van argues,Dijk language usealways intervening presupposes the models, mental goals qualification, distortion by and manipulation contextin mediaimagesthe which areused. prevailing interpretation of reality, reality, construct isinfinitely which vulnerable to of the dominant ideology in the society. Media as one of the major fields of struggles for the inthe (re)production play role essential they an for publicdiscourse, space they that provide social inideologies.”75 and tobeattitudes institutions neutral purport Although media often of confirmation and formation the to contributes it when only functions and effects social has in and appear “suchdiscourse models by mental mediated inorder to discourse, these beliefs and thus be differently,expressed indiscourse.”74 Put social representations are often “interface of individual the and the social, group beliefs and explainhow may affect personal models. in individual social arethe the connecting system the cognitive The latter with ofvanframework sociocognitive social representations73Dijk's approach, play role key the and the social identities of and relationships between people In andgroupsof people.”72 the of knowledge, objects situations, “itconstitutes aswell conditioned, as socially constituted institution(s) which structure(s), andsocial it.”71 frame discourse Inshort, issocially and situation(s), the event discursive a particular between relationship dialectical Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (eds.), “ Caroline Brothers, Ibid, 82 Teun S. Van Dijk, “Critical discourse studies: a sociocognitive approach”, in Wodak Meyer,and approach”, Teuna sociocognitive S. studies: Van discourse “Critical Dijk, Collective frames of perception – knowledge, attitudes, values, norms and ideologies as different of types as different and ideologies values, norms attitudes, – knowledge, of frames perception Collective Ibid., 6 Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (eds.), “ methodology”, in critical discourse analysis social representations. methodology”, in Methodologically, Fairclough's van combination Dijk's and onthe of study relies this Wodak and Meyer, Wodak and Wodak and Meyer, Wodak and War andphotography: a cultural history ., 78. Methods of critical discourse analysis Methods of critical discourse analysis Criticaldiscourse analysis: history, agenda, theory and Criticaldiscourse analysis: history, agenda, theory and 36 (Routledge,1997)., 19. ., 14. ., 5. Methods of 76 CEU eTD Collection 80 79 78 interests”. national on “our vital repeatedly argued, an attack Žbogar Samuel minister foreign Slovenian as were, documents The dispute. border maritime the to provided maps and indocuments EUnegotiationsthe thatwould have pre-judged asolution 5.2.1 5.2 analyzedunderline the newspaper articles. views by media andinterpretations arereproduced andimplicit discourse, which assumptions approach to CDA. Itfocuses on the question of who speaks, what and how they speak, whose them on justice. to a claim their higher positionwouldnot redrawmaps and thatprejudgethe documents border bystubbornly insisting on who state, the of astheenemies wereportrayed Croats by media. all Slovenian adopted the regarding whichwasuncritically its interests, in protecting discourse nationalistic used government the Thus EU. the to the accession Croatian the delaying for responsible minister foreign Croats, interests” were usedwere as mainthe arguments of Slovenian prime minister, Borut Pahor, and the labeled from start the of blockadethe on 18 December 2008till endof the “the 2008 vital national as interests”. of “national discourse the adopted media immediately the the attack, under were victims, interests national which specified clearly never government Slovenian whose Ibid. Ibid. “Boži Gaube, Aleš 2008: available at Dnevnik, The reason for Slovenia's blocking elevennegotiating chapterswas Croatiathat had OF CROATIANBLOCKADE SLOVENIAN NEGOTIATIONS WITHEU ANALYSISOF SLOVENIAN MEDIA December 20, 2008. and “Pahor: Zaš “Pahor: and 2008. 20, December http://www.delo.si/clanek/72713 þ ni premor med Slovenijo in Hrvaško: Pahor Pahor želi in Hrvaško: Slovenijo premor med ni 80 On the other hand, Slovenes, as members of the EU, which ranked which EU, the of members as Slovenes, hand, other the On þ itili bomo svoje nacionalne interese,” nacionalne bomosvoje itili 37 þ imprejšnje sre imprejšnje 79 In numerous reports dating þ anje s Sanaderjem,” anje Delo, 78 Although the Although December 13, December CEU eTD Collection 84 83 82 81 coast. Croatia's of Adriatic hundred kilometers seven thousand one neighboring country wanted to take away their forty six kilometers of coastline despite the politicians firstused the nationalistic Delo discourse, and Dnevnik it. uncritically adopted Although, interests. national and identity national of question the to crisis economic the from attention redirect aneffective means to thus dispute represented border The maritime and“bad”,“good” Slovenes dominantonthe“good” the “bad” discourse adopted and Croats. strategies of dichotomization, essentialization and inrepublics general Balkans). Therefore, themediabymeans(The discursive specific of identity is its differentiation and distancingfrom Croats,namelythe former Yugoslav categorizing the '' inclusion-exclusion, group formation differentiation,”inclusion-exclusion, and group group differentiating identity. of coincide perception Slovenian the with “alwaysisAs identity basedon one'sin Croatia. relation Such Slovenia media as the to representations portrayed dominant self or an memberthough at that diplomacy at time state,83 EU lobbying, wasmuchbetter Croatian one's groupthe position from of Slovenia as ana member thusglorifying ofOther, state, as of a candidate Croats status the by undermining constantly EU.preserved By referring to Slovenian on powerful the position dichotomyas role. andauthoritarian social power discourse of James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity” of Ethnic “Violence Construction DavidSocial D. and the and D. Laitin, Fearon James “Foreign Minister Samuel Zbogar said in Ljubljana the EU was ‘obviously not paying enough attention to Rotschild (1981) in Gerd Baumann, Ibid. fanfare,” International Organization, of enlargement’.” Published in Delo and Dnevnik, December 19, 2008 And in Zoran Poti Zoran 2008 in And 19, December Dnevnik, and Delo in Published enlargement’.” of area inthe results to reach looking but [was] berepresenting, should it which states, ofmember interests the identities Therefore, the heated debate quickly moved from the sphere of politics to the public the to politics of sphere the from moved quickly debate heated the Therefore, The authoritarian role of the Slovenian government in the The was and roleSlovenian Dnevnikauthoritarian government Delo of (Routledge, 1999), 61. Delo , December18, 2008. Other '' who serves the principle of a scapegoat, politicians preserve their 54, 4,no. (2000): 851. The multicultural riddle: rethinking national, ethnic,and religious 82 38 naturalization of dividing the world on 84 a crucial part of Slovenian 81 argues,As by Rotschild þ , “Ko zadonijo , CEU eTD Collection 2,000 members2,000 in justone day. former Yugoslav republics”. “classic the of to the strategies boycotting of bycomparingSlovenian products discourse the former inthe of wars territories Yugoslavia.the revived Theauthor the Croatia”, to “Red Light described, to some extent, as a form of media moral panic. The concept of moral of panic moral Thepanic. concept media asaform of some extent, to described, given opportunity Slovenianthe attack nation identity.and Suchuseof canbe discourse any at would which nationalistic tribe” as “crazy a theCroats of portraying tothe contribute Miloševi Slobodan and different moving country”.so they'll our stop to border,buildthe a wallalong “Let's buttrue!” men primitive ... or ... arestealingwomen our from the page, such as “Fuck the country that a chicken can fly over in two days”, “Slovenian war, Facebook the its edition in quotingsidedto weekly comments article atwo dedicated nations. Dnevnik between increase two the of contributedtensions tothe such groups 89 88 87 86 85 " Slovenian Facebook on group Moreover,of for socialthe Slovenian networking aboycott products. site the calling anti- joinedon wars.OverFacebook dispute agroup some 40,000Croats sparkedwhat the called months...we have just taken is of ... itof weeks, a soon come a couple will question claiming that“the compromise some time for reflection hope, arena. full of initially beginning blockade the of wereatthe Although politicians on solving the problem,” Translation: Klasika odnosov med nekdanjimi jugoslovanskimi republikami. Ibid. Ibid. Mazi, “Iš Blaž The above mentioned articles and internet articles in and articles The articles above internet mentioned http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/1042231585 guy ,” Delo, tribes December18, 2008. by hememorieswhich evoked of ethnichatredthe had that resolved inbloody þ em jo na zemljevidu, em pa jo je na zemljevidu, ni nikjer,” 87 ü , the former authoritarian leader of Serbia. Such comparisons Such Serbia. of leader authoritarian former the , which supported which supported line. government'sthe tough Mediacoverage of 89 Furthermore, he evoked the comparison between the boycott the between comparison the he evoked Furthermore, Svi mrzitelji Slovenije iglupesloven 86 In opposition to Croatian based groups, Slovenes launched 88 The author of the text referredboth to nations as two 39 and “Hrvaška kot konstruktivni igralec, Pahor pa Delo, Dnevnik Dnevnik, December 20, 2008. at: And Available 2008. 20, December , December18-30, 2008. þ adi! !!” gainedmore than ethnic nationalistic 85 the border the bad CEU eTD Collection 94 93 92 91 lower represented. only claimed have 2.5 percent Slovenia to apositive towards feeling with being only Serbs RegardingCroatian interests. popularity, thebiggest to argued thatthreat Slovenia represents 73 percentof Croats polls that the showed negotiations, blockadeCroatian of Slovenian private life, which nottensions erupted in only embracedbut sphere, political the all areasof the and public were reflected even in opinion polls. Only a couple of weeks after the 90 nation. Serbian the of enemy ancient the overcoming neighbor, hated most the became the safetyof because in Zagreb tournament Christmas annual in the question participate not did fighters karate due to the political tensionspopulation. Slovenian the of one between positive the accentuating and Croats of behavior negative representing the countries.texts by emphasizingin the invoked is panic moral connotations, extreme such evoke not does study case analyzed the well known ideologicalwhichthreatening of leads element, adoption tothe extreme positions.90 Although the objectives of denotes“Us” anda short the period“Other”, during over which a specific group of people or an event is defined as a As he built argued, had Slovenian been a rotting on proposals basis. Onesolving journalist wascritical Slovenian the maritimeof the to dispute. approach border issue. ontheborder discourse dominant opposingviews the newspapersthe published also Dejan Kova Dnevnik, Delo June 2008 Miran Lesjak, “Vox Populi: Hrvaška naj gre v EU brez referenduma, 15 odstotkov manj Slovencev pri naših pri Slovencev manj 15odstotkov referenduma, v gre EU brez naj Hrvaška “Vox Populi: Lesjak, Miran Milan Jakši Roman Kuhar, “Media Representations of Minorities”, in Brankica in Brankica Petkovi of Minorities”, Kuhar, Roman “Media Representations sosedih,” Hrvaškem,” Institute, 2006), 135. Furthermore, the dispute entered even the sports arena. young A sports of eventhe team entered Slovenian dispute the Furthermore, Although Dnevnik and Delo mostly followed the nationalistic discourse of politics, of discourse nationalistic the followed mostly Delo and Dnevnik Although Dnevnik, ü þ Dnevnik, , “Elektronska pošta s finan , “Partija mejnega pokra s Hrvaško,” 92 January 26, 2009. The percentage hadin worsened the followingmonths, whenSlovenia December22, 2008. þ nega nega ministrstva: Skrivnostni poziv k bojkotu slovenskega blaga na Dnevnik 40 , December20, 2008. ü , Media citizens for 94 According to Kova to According 91 As one sees the sees As one (Peace 93 þ , CEU eTD Collection 97 words such light”,words and judgement” “final as “red Slovenian distance.” 20km from a sea freed the Trst, observe Slovenia would 5.2.2 media,ignore including the to statement, the tried the hadnegativebeen relations set off. negative interests fortheirtense debate among totriggerpoliticians own dormant whousedhistory the sentiments between In middlethe Stipe of January Croatian president, 2009 Mesi the nations. Although most of the Slovenian politicians, legal experts. Croatian opposition of 98 96 95 leading to a situation where different voices are forbidden.” blockadeSlovenian is from claimingthathysteria, “nationalistic originating blockade,the the of critical were Both Juri. Franco member coalition the and Juri, Aurelio Parliament, European the such thememberof as negotiations, theblockadeCroatian of opposed who politicians those views of the published newspapers the Furthermore, states. the between it a compromise solid never represented become binding,agreement although legally had Italy. The with border sea its of continuity the maintain to in order Slovenia to given Ra onlythe decent Slovenian solution the contribution to of disputethe was2001Drnovšek- Delo, Dnevnik, January 13, 2008, available at: Jutarnji list, December 17, 2008, available at: Milan Jakši Ibid. þ December19, 2008. http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/1042236301(accessed an agreement, which had not been ratified by the Croatian parliament due to the strong the to due parliament Croatian the by ratified been not had which agreement, an When reporting on the Slovenian blockade of listused Jutarnji negotiations blockade of Croatian When on reporting Slovenian the As time passed, less and less optimistic voices were heard and the tensions increased. heard and the tensions were voices andlessoptimistic less As passed, time ü , “Na Hrvaškem tekmujejo v iskanju na ANALYSISOF CROATIAN MEDIA 95 Under the agreement 80 percent of the bay would be would bay the of percent 80 agreement the Under http://www.jutarnji.hr/slovenija-presudila--blokada- http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/svet/1042236007 41 þ ina, kako kaznovati "trmasto" Slovenijo,” on April 222011). 96 98 ü , said that “[i]f “[i]f , saidthat Croatia hadnot stating that “EU membership “EU that stating 97 The statement caused a caused statement The , Dnevnik, CEU eTD Collection Zeitung, which portrayed Slovenia in a negative way in Zeitung,blockingwhich anegative Slovenia way as theportrayed enlargement process. the articles from Moreover, WienerAustrian they process.”104 quoted negotiation affect the presidency, all bethat shouldissues stated not bilateral which resolved bilaterally the and French bythe brought compromise accept to unwilling “Slovenia was that sorrow expressed Union. ontheopinion They spokesperson Commission reported European whose of reports media criticizing Slovenian negotiation Slovenia's position on Croatian the to with EU. Compared in Sanader mannerby and minister portrayedoptimistic a positive theconstantly prime interest.” national vital asof “question the dispute the unitedly represented in Slovenia choicerepresents words of way an extremely ablackmailingnegative country.as 103 102 101 social andconsequences,” obvious models mayhavethemost of “hence attitudes, 105 100 99 neighbors.” between relationship friendly and solidarity of principles the from “far is decision Slovenia's blackmail” labelled that portal Internet blockadeand described as“Slovenian the Index.hr will not be bought with Croatian territory”. 104 Ibid Dnevnik, December 18, 2008, available at: Index.hr, December 17, 2008, available at: Wodak in andMeyer, approach”, asociocognitive studies: Teun discourse S. Van “Critical Dijk, Jutarnji list, December 23, 2010, available at: at: available 2008, December Index.hr, Jutarnji list, 18 kukavicje-jaje-u-eu/281048/ blokirala-hrvatsku/280399/ on April 202008) ucjena-koja-ce-dugorocno-ostati-upisana-u-kolektivnu-memoriju-hrvatskequot/414014.aspx April 20 2011) koja-ce-dugorocno-ostati-upisana-u-kolektivnu-memoriju-hrvatskequot/414014.aspx pregovora-s-eu-u-11-poglavlja/280307/ critical discourse analysis April 22 2011) All the analyzed media adopted the views of the government and the opposition who opposition the and government the of views the adopted media analyzed the All 100 103 Since the choice of words and the structures most directly influence the mental influence the mostdirectly structures andthe words of choice Since the th Croatian press dedicated much more attention to the views from from views the European moreto much attention dedicated Croatian press December 2008, available at: available 2008, December ., 69. (page accessed on 17 on accessed (page (page accessedon April 192011) (page accessed on April 20 2011) http://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/quotslovenska-blokada-je-ucjena- http://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/quotslovenska-blokada-je- http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/eu/1042230829 http://www.jutarnji.hr/wiener-zeitung--slovenija-kao- http://www.jutarnji.hr/komisija-zali-sto-je-slovenija- th April2010) 99 42 Similar discourse was used in other media. (page accessed on accessed (page (page accessed on accessed (page (page accessed (page 102 Methods of 101 Vjesnik such 105 CEU eTD Collection state. asatruly European Croatia depicted portrayed asenemies Slovenes and that discourse blackmail”. titledfrom Slovenian the “Primitivism blockadeof the hisarticle of products, can result no outcome positive factthat the rationalized who columnists, leading Croatian the of one Bešker, Inoslav example, For enemies. the as Slovenes represented that way in a objective issueweretitled view of the an articlesthataimed atrepresenting Even those nations. two the between tensions of increase the to contributed media Croatian analyzed public.” Slovenian decision and stated that they “were obliged to follow the Association resorted to a friendly discourse, they did express disappointment with the national CroatianSlovenia team. campof the asatraining Although chairmen of the the days after the boycott the Croatian Football Association decided to no longer use 111 109 108 Milanovi leaderZoran the opposition Sanader and byminister prime calledlater asunacceptable 110 107 106 Jutarnji even calledList upon people boycott Slovenian to product, Vjesnik, 19 Jutarnji list, December 19, 2008, available at: Jutarnji list, December, 19 2008, available at: Jutarnji list, December 20, 2008, available at: Jutarnji list, December 18, 2008, available at: Jutarnji list, December 17, 2008, available at: (page accessed on April 202011) svjetlo-za-hrvatsku-/280677/ (page accessed on April2011) 20 2011) bojkotirati-proizvode-iz-slovenije/280476/ pregovora-s-eu-u-11-poglavlja/280307/ 18, 2008, available at: 111 Compared to SlovenianCompared in to manner,press, but a reverse Croatian press adopted As onecan disputequickly see, the spheresspread toother public life. of of Couple Similar to both, Slovenian as well as Croatian press, is their use of generalization. 108 ü . By reporting on the establishment of the anti-Croatian group on Facebook, on group anti-Croatian the of establishment the on reporting By 107 110 th December 2008, available at: available 2008, December http://www.jutarnji.hr/milanovic-o-slovencima/280432/ (page accessed on April20 2011) (page accessed on April 20 2011) (page accessedof on17th April 2010); Jutarnji list, December http://www.vjesnik.hr/pdf/2008%5C12%5C19%5C02A2.PDF http://www.jutarnji.hr/hns-ukida-pripreme-u-catezu-/280577/ http://www.jutarnji.hr/slovenija--facebook-grupa--crveno- http://www.jutarnji.hr/primitivizam-slovenske-ucjene/280660/ http://www.jutarnji.hr/premijer-ivo-sanader--nemojte- http://www.jutarnji.hr/slovenija-presudila--blokada- 43 106 (page accessed on April 20 on April accessed (page an action that was only pulse of the Croatian ý atež in 109 the CEU eTD Collection media discourse changed from from The rhetoric. changed media previous nationalistic the populist had media discourse dispute with the facilitation of EU. facilitation the of with the dispute with EUbysolvingthe issueof the prejudices, andsecondly, border of on resolution the the Croatia's negotiations Firstly, of objectives. continuation the two on on reached agreement dispute. forsolving border The the framework regarding Primeagreement the Ministers an reached 11on September time and first for the metKosor Jadranka counterpart Croatian replacing Ivo Sanader. As early as 31 July Slovenian Prime Minister Borut Pahor and his new beginning of July 2009 when Jadranka Kosor became the Croatian prime minister by withdrew from led by processRehn.the Commissioner continue.issue EUaccession negotiations Croatia's andallow toInJune2009Croatia initiativethe by European the EnlargementCommissioner, Olli Rehn, tosolve the border butnone of Slovenia January them mediatingwelcomed services, were successful.2009, In 112 5.3.1 5.3 'groups'. 114 and positions,” multiply, across different, intersecting practices discourses, often and antagonistic constructed Although, ashas mentioned been are never many groups times, “unified singular, or but 113 Stuart Hall, “Introduction: Who needs Identity?” in Stuart Hall and Paul Du Gay, Ibid. Republic of Slovenia: Government Communications Office; available at: venia_and_croatia_december_2009/ (page accessed on April2011) 18 identity http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/foreign_affairs/border_issue_between_slo As political strategy to settle the disagreement moved toward “silent diplomacy”, the In the period between January and September 2009 the European European In theperiod betweenJanuary Union 2009the and September offeredits TOWARDS ANAGREEMENT (SAGE, 1996), 4. ANALYSIS OF SLOVENIAN MEDIA 112 the media represent Slovenes orCroats as a concrete, tangible and bounded (page accessedon April 18 2010) 114 44 113 The rhetoric changed in the in changed rhetoric The Questions of cultural CEU eTD Collection 117 Although there were still arguments against the Pahor-Kosor agreement by agreementby Pahor-Kosor parties againstthe opposition therewerestill Although arguments Mesi Furthermore, victory,Kosor's the goal.”more precisely, scored Jadranka “primeminister the he saidthat 116 opinion. no have Croats of percent the Pahor-Kosor agreement, the strikingfactis thatmore than fifty percent of Slovene and 40 polls. Although pollsthe both showed that sides believeotherthe side that gainedmore with Slovenian citizens regarding in the disputewasreflected various resultsthe of publicopinion aside. put was politics crisis, economic of the consequences had been useful in the winter period, but when the summer came with the disastrous 115 countries. two the As Kova between tensions settling the changedtoward media the discourse inboth countries, parties opposition from especially partner.friendly agreement, the asa Croatia portrayed against therewereobjections Although a resolution of problems.” in the bilateral relations of two friendly states ... thus friendly relations and respect can lead to marks abeginninga newchapter of “the an reaching of agreement that prime ministers, both by position,the Dnevnik development Deloadopted taken negotiationsand of process. the lessbeen involved ininspiring sentiments, nationalistic andmore torationalizing prone the the settlement of the disputed issues. Croatian president Ivo Mesi issues. president of disputed Croatian the settlement the on Kosor newminister the prime hecongratulated agreement, Rehn arbitration the opposed 118 “Tako Hrvati kot Slovenci verjamejo, da je dogovor v Ljubljani bolj naklonjen drugi strani“, drugi naklonjen bolj v Ljubljani jedogovor da verjamejo, Slovenci kot Hrvati “Tako Dejan Kova Dejan Vesna R. Bernard, “Slovenija bo umaknila blokado, Hrvaška sporne dokumente,” sporne Hrvaška blokado, bo umaknila “Slovenija Bernard, VesnaR. Delo, Dnevnik, available on available Dnevnik, Delo, September22, 2009. Available on: http://www.delo.si/clanek/88121 2009. 17 2010). What isisWhat alsothechange striking of politicians’ opinions. Sanader before Whereas þ , “Blagohotni u , “Blagohotni ü argued that access to international hadaccess neverbeenquestionable. to waters arguedthat 115 þ http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/svet/1042298483 inek washingtonske naveze,” washingtonske inek Whereas before they presented an enemy nation, the media now the nation, an enemy they presented before Whereas (accessed on April 172010) http://www.dnevnik.si/sport/drugi_sporti/1042301091 117 45 Dnevnik þ ironically commented, the dispute the ironically commented, , September, 19, 2009. 116 The disinterest of Croatian and Croatian of disinterest The and ü called the agreement the called Dnevnik, (accessed on April (accessed September 12, September Dnevnik, 118 CEU eTD Collection 121 120 122 119 isbest represented in the statement of the Slovenian foreign minister, who said that “Slovenia differently, agreement interpreting the which parties were two the that became clear as itsoon However, thefriendly, andsomewhat positive surprising changed discourse significantly as andUnion122 from United States. the European the presidency of from community, Swedish international the from the especially came Equal reactions with agreement.”121 scored the “Kosor declaredthat triumphantly and legal some experts, 123 Mesi Stjepan community. president international Croatian of the from members the as well as lawyers and politicians Croatian the from coming agreement the on views positive Thenewspapers published of larifying detailsdispute.120 the the manner resolution the of in between ministerson and reported listprime Slovenian agreement Croatian the a positive 5.3.2 between based onrenewed two countries in trust the faith. andnegotiated good as the newagreement and Dnevnikrepresented in 2008.Delo December been the case as had The nationalistic discourse was not in the forefront of media coverage on the dispute anymore Vecernji list, September 12, 2009, available at: Jutarnji list, September 11, 2009, available at: Vecernji list, September 11, 2009, available at: Tatjana Pihlar and Vesna R. Bernard, “Slovenija bo umaknila blokado, Hrvaška sporne dokumente,” Jutarnji list, September 18, 2009, available at: spora-ne-bi-bio-moguce-bez-vas/310209/ odusevljen-ek-socijalisti-oprezni-clanak-17222 zakucala-gol-clanak-17499 20 2011) sloveniji/309473/ reševanje mejnega spora sta neenotni tako Slovenija kot Hrvaška” kot Slovenija tako sta neenotni spora mejnega reševanje Dnevnik, http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/win-win-ljubljani-ali-bez-trijumfalizma-clanak-17364 Similar media, Slovenian Croatian newspapersJutarnji List, to Vjesnik Ve and ANALYSISOF CROATIAN MEDIA September 15, 2009. and Vesna R. Bernard and Tatjana Pihlar , “O drugem Rehnovem predlogu za predlogu Rehnovem drugem , “O Pihlar Tatjana and Vesna and R. Bernard 2009. 15, September (page accessed on April 20,2010) Vecernji list, September11, 2009, available at: 119 (page accessed on April 212011) the media had focused mostly on legal aspects of settlement. the legal aspects focusedon mostly themediahad (pageaccessed on April 21 2011) 123 http://www.jutarnji.hr/sto-je-premijerka-obecala- http://www.jutarnji.hr/hillary-pohvalila-kosor--rjesavanje- (page accessed on April21 2011) http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/reakcije-eu-svedani-hvale-puk- http://www.vecernji.hr/regije/mesic-premijerka-kosor-je- 46 Dnevnik, September 17, 2009. (page accessed on April accessed (page þ ernji ü CEU eTD Collection rooted atmosphere between thetwonations.media Slovenian helped to(re)construct the heated the to contributing thus coverage, media of forefront the to came territory national and interests” “national Theissues of blockade. the on discourse nationalistic dominant the media reproduced the therefore interests”, “national of question EUasa with negotiations 2008 Slovenian Croatian and representedtheblockade politicians Croatian of accession dispute. In the dominant of inrepresentingpolitics border end of the adopted discourse 5.4 would its with continue European path. Croatia would and be resolved itbecame dispute the clear soon calmeras much becoming feelings nationalistic with moments, tense politically most the during only lasted “others” the as Slovenes the of representation the that be concluded largely could it Therefore, sentiments. itopposition criticizeditin theagreement, did abynationalistic notdo awakening the Although Kosor. Minister Prime the towards precisely more government, Croatian demanding Kosor’s resignation. soon became suspicious regarding the exact text of the agreement, with some of them even 125 124 would notunblock all negotiatingthe chapters.” Vecernji list, September 16, 2009, available at: Vecernji list, September 14, 2009, available at: podnijeti-ostavku/309947/ sadrzaju-dogovora-sa-slovenijom-clanak-19644 samo-10-od-14-poglavlja-/309789/ September2009, available at: image of the Croats as the 'Others', as the enemies of Slovenian interests, which has Media discourse analysis shows that the Slovenian as well as Croatian newspapers Croatian as aswell Slovenian the that shows analysis discourse Media ANALYSIS FINDINGS the but Slovenes towards directed longer no was dissatisfaction the Nevertheless, (page accessed on April 20 2011) http://www.jutarnji.hr/kajin--kosor-nakon-dogovora-s-pahorom-treba- 125 (page accessed on April 2011)21 (page accessed on April21 2011) Jutarnjiand list,16th of http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/pusic-izvijestiti-javnost- http://www.jutarnji.hr/zbogar---hrvatskoj-cemo-odblokirati- 47 124 Moreover, the leaders of leaders opposition Moreover,the of the deeply CEU eTD Collection 126 “Other”. of presentation the anegative and presentation ofself- a positive in theprocess role a crucial play of reality interpretation prevailing for the struggles field of major media asthe the theworld. Therefore, of interpretation commonsense asa which is represented discourse, political thedominant ideology of reproduce two governments. between the more relations constructive and friendlier tothe hadsoftenedatmosphere due themselves inOnce second half quite heated the of from discourse. nationalistic 2009 the of content and agreementthe in following dispute. border solving developments the the inrepresenting critical approach sustained though states, the between bilateral relations dispute. asa for the for border the The mediaannouncedan success agreement solving framework the regarding agreement reachedan Pahor Borut counterpart her Slovenian and Kosor Jadranka minister aprime as weeks of couple only After tense. less and constructive more became Croatia and Slovenia between relations the minister, prime Croatian of discourse towards a more rational rhetoric. With the arrival of Jadranka Kosor on the position people. Croatian the of enemies as the were depicted who Slovenes Serbsto categorical from the transferred 'Other' the of portrayal Croatian side, other the On identity. Slovenian of part essential an been always From the period between end of 2008 until the middle of2009 middle the until of 2008 end between period the From To conclude, by means specific andof discursive narrative strategies media the ontheborder dispute, earlierthe reports to In opposition As the discourse of politics transformed, the media turned away from the nationalistic 48 126 the media distanced media the CEU eTD Collection 128 127 to it. Moreover, the objective of the present study examinehow is study it. to Moreover, of present to objective the the examines border whatthe means people, more to specifically, meaning which people ascribe study borderthe valley.Upper Kolpa across interactions variety people's of a By questioning establishedborder lives on everyday the of living inpeople sides ofthe onboth border the April 2011 andits results. in borderland in Croatian Slovenian the conducted research of the the objectives presents be done. Thisborderlandhad to chapter an the study of empirical nationhood of and ethnicity understandings intimate assess people's to in However,order in area. the dynamics social the of the analyzed borderland of the Upper Kolpa Valley borderlandsof and everyday ethnicity. By providing ahistorical and geographical overview 6 lives of ethnicity, seem especially nationhood, be and do they all matter But inaround. to everyday and inpublic performed holidaycelebrations,demonstrations, and commemorations, crossings, border monuments, flags, in symbols, Objectified seen. beeasily can nationhood inexperiencenationhood and settings. theireveryday From afar, ethnicity ethnicity and research explores how visible nationhood and ethnicity are in the daily lives of andhow visibleresearch livesnationhood are in explores ethnicity of people daily the on this minority) the of members as well as nation constituent the to belonging those (both The word “common” refers to inhabitants of the Upper Kolpa Valley border and by no means describes the describes Valley means by Kolpa and no Upper of border the inhabitants to refers “common” word The Kotor. Gorski Croatian In interviewed subjects in any way.any in subjects interviewed The aim of the empirical research is to study the effects of the rather study the to approaches theoretical the emphasized thesis of present the part The first newly THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH By conducting in depth qualitative interviews with people living in the borderland in the living people with interviews qualitative in depth By conducting common people? 49 127 this study light on shed some this study already common 128 people CEU eTD Collection the state border. state the only represents by theriver,are separated actually which that focusessettlements on research As this thesisis primarily interested in the study of areas directly connected to the border, the of inhabitants. The municipality compriseswhole of fifty approximately six hundredpeople. the borderland, and consists of side of Slovenian fiftyin the issituated twoKostel smallermunicipality first The border. the settlements, of side Slovenian each of them having some tens municipalities in the Upper Valley Kolpa, one in Croatian Gorski Kotor and the other one on the Upper Kolpa Valley region on both sides of a state border. The research takes place in two 130 129 6.1 in life. everyday isthesis presentthe grasp thesocial thusto processes iswhich through ethnicity (re)produced of task The borderland. in the locals the to matter nationhood and ethnicity why and settings ethnicityto referring explicitly without orborder, the of nationhood.(dis)advantages and opportunities, employment In this respect, language migration, everyday practices, social networks, cross-border preoccupations, the research tries to answer when, how, in which interpreted as the 'border in minds'. as 'border people's interpreted the meanings, whichshape people'slives and forms of socio-spatial identification canbe that 1991. Itexamines people's understandingsof 'new'the border, its cognitive andaffective in frontier border, international sides establishmentof both of the the the especially after See the Appendix 1 Dutch-German the along of Spaces Absence Stories: “Bor(der)ing Struver, from Anke taken is term The (Ashgate, 2005). Zierhofer, Wolfgang and Kramsch, Thomas Olivier Houtum, van Henk in Border” THE STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH SAMPLE THE AND THERESEARCH OF STRUCTURE THE This a thesis cross-borderadopts perspective,in which mainthe unitof analysisthe is 130 129 50 It doesby abouttheir soquestioning It people Bordering space CEU eTD Collection 133 Slovenian villages to the Croatian side of the borderland were destroyed. Schengen regime, many previously precisely bridgesconnected that entered when Slovenia crossing the bridge isillegal. Afterinternational the border establishmentmore of in 1991, passports that allow them to cross the border, for all the others who do not have these passes, by Kuželj obtain special settlements both are connected from Many people a bridge. Croatian and Kuželj Slovenian as such others and Petrina, crossing border the to proximity in toeach of are them Kolpa.other, bytheriver situated opposite Most divided only wereselectedasthey are geographically andCroatian settlements studiedthe Slovenian percent. 2.8 around varies figure the Kupi na Brod in and Slovenes, nationality by Kuželj are in population fourteen percent of population.the census, the According to local of the three percent around to amount still Slovenes the where in Croatia, areas rare the of one are there because chosen were settlements three The in Kuželj. five and thirty hundredlive 2001 the forty peopleinKupi,ineightcensus two Brodna twenty Grbajel one Kupi,Kuželj and Grbajel, which are situated in the Primorsko Goranska county. According to Croats. are population of whole the five percent over because werechosen These settlements 132 131 in Pir two twenty Kuželj, border. state the precisely, in the settlements Vas, Potok, Pir Ibid. Damir Josipovi See the Appendix 1 1991 (Ljubljana, 2010), 123. 132 Across the border I conducted interviews with seven people in the settlements Brod na In interviewsinApril fifteen with I conducted more municipality Kostel,people the of þ 131 , Slovensko-hrvaški obmejni prostor According to 2002 the census ninetwenty people live in fiftyFara, fourin þ e, seventy one in Potok, twenty two in Vrh and sixty seven in Vas. seven sixty in and Vrh two twenty in Potok, one seventy e, þ e, Vrh, Fara, Kuželj which lie in close distance to 51 : etni þ ne vzporednice medpopisi prebivalstva po letu 133 Moreover, CEU eTD Collection subject of interest is the history Kostel. of history is the interest of subject 134 belongings. national different sides of as unit, border one focusesthe andonlyon differencesbetween subsequently spouses of different nationality. In this respect, the research examines the populationsborder. Almost comehave backgrounds or from all interviewedinterethnic subjects married of both comparison of these groupsafter conducting several interviews, it seemedirrelevant due tobase the analysisto on the the high Moreover, groups. aforementioned allthe of sample a representative collect to mixing failed research of the populationof Croat majority on and Sloveneboth minorityand on Croatianborder, the sidesof side side. Slovenian Dueon to minority the Croat time and andofmajority fund Slovene limits both the of the nationhood Upper Kolpa Valley borderland. inthe interactions andcross-border on social dynamics future would the light shedsome of younger andoldera comparison residents borderland between five. Ibelievethe that research,the means which sample that the includesonlyfew younger respondents than thirty willingparticipate in younger to werenot wasthefactthat more generations disappointing research. Thus, insteadofhavingfifty, only interviews.I conducted half Even planned the of itlimits,get morewas impossible to people participate whowould in bewillingto the be time many the representative since Considering interviewed. refused andfund to people is not sample the of studied settlements, the structure followed thedemographic 6.2 Dr. Stanislav Južni Central Slovenia. His latest book “Kostel” examines the genealogy of the region. the of genealogy the examines “Kostel” book latest His Slovenia. Central primarily interested in physics of Carniola Jesuits, he has written many publications on the history of South RESEARCH LIMITS HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH Respondents were chosen with the help of dr. Stanislav Južni dr.Stanislav of help the with chosen were Respondents and ethnicity of understandings compare to was research the of intention first The þ is a historian. At the moment he works at the Kostel municipal office. Although he is 134 52 interviews the of Althoughchoice theoriginal þ , historian, whose main whose historian, , CEU eTD Collection substantive groups. Moreover, the concepts Slovene or Croat also refera nominal, to context- way, inageneralizing meanscategorization. Theterms areused refer to by nodothey and criteria. When avoid of speaking Slovenian newspapers, orCroatian schools such one cannot and “the Croats”. The grantedtwo terms as bounded are mostentities, commonly it does not usedrefrain in fromthe thetext use of asthe a conceptsdistinguishable “the Slovenes” 6.3 provides with an of overview possible scenarios for future development of borderthe areas. thesis the border, the along living people of memories cultural and historical in the changes as an obstaclein people's minds modified the social dynamics of the area. By analyzing these border decreased.Theperception the of have significantly neighboring the side migration to daily as well as border across relations friendship intense Once borderland. in the people of practices everyday changed has border international an of establishment Yet, the nation-state. of their constituent parts from other theco-nationals with than theborder across others with people UpperKolpa inthe Valley Furthermore, Croat. interconnected more felt have always or Slovene nominally being without moment, a particular at context a particular in Slovene or Croat as themselves Valley identify Kolpa Upper in the people likely, More relations. inter-ethnic or for their cross-border feature a meaningful represent nationality, not itdoes category.consider theirnationality asignificant as Although acknowledge theirthey interpret do nor problems border the their and terms inethnic they everyday concerns twenty two interviews. To anticipate the results, neither Croats or Slovenes on either side of METHODOLOGICAL TOMETHODOLOGICAL THEEMPIRICAL INTRODUCTION RESEARCH As the reader has already noticed, although the thesis does not take ethnic groups for ethnic take groups not does thesis the noticed, although has already As thereader Nevertheless, certain parallels can be drawn on the basis of the existing sample of 53 CEU eTD Collection 137 136 observation. direct open to nor controllable, 135 category.” a particular member of cognitivestructures. of preferences, of system an acquired thinking andregulatedbypeople's and generated things, doing of areways practices Following Bourdieu, of practice. categories insteadof of analysis unconsciousness.study everyday of The aim categories isto thesis this these experiences as asaform of understood are often asthey register hardto -are –practices experiences social process. groups. The way how people categorize experience everyday a mental isthus both and social with analysis its begins one when mind in come that those than questions of set different not take Slovenes or Croats as groups, but deals with them as categories. Doing so suggests a organize systems. subjective people's to the researcher to findhabitus out what these commonintentional consciousness. In this regard,objective decisions or norsimply subjective rules schemes of perceptionnever only are practices since constructions and subjective structure between objective are and how they by developed everyday experience through social As ithas been mentioned many study the times, present examines ethnicity and nationhood situation. herself as Slovene in someone identifies a particular which meansthat context-specific, bealso can categorization such hand, On theother Slovene. or as aCroat independent categorization,ifmeaning that so,one asked would identify consistently herself Ibid., 209. Brubaker, Houtum, Kramsch, and and Zierhofer, Kramsch, Houtum, produces commonsense produces everyday whichdirects social Itisexperiences of actors. up In order to understand how ethnicity works in ethnicity In ordertounderstandhow works analysis does everyday this practices, first. be explained to have concepts some research the of results the analyzing Before 136 Nationalistpolitics and everyday ethnicity in a Transylvanian town As a cognitive process, itinvolvesAs “ process, a cognitive Bordering space 137 As a social process, it implies it process, asocial As 135 . 54 People act according to their practical sense, practical their to according People act ordinary perceiving social actors. Thusthe everyday actors. social or Habitus habitus, conceiving . is thus a mediator a isthus something neither characterizing someone as a or CEU eTD Collection subjects areaskedsubjects life togive their story which short tospeakafter they are encouraged about questions of ethnicity nationhood. and to refer explicitly intended to arenot –,theinterviews contexts in theirthem everyday nationalin terms. or ethnic ethnicity decenter - As this thesis to nationhood tries to findand ethnicityconnected to ofnationhood,and scholars understandings formulated their questions directly not were moments and events certain if Even matters. ethnic about explicitly 139 138 scholars have given any attention to If nationhood. and of ethnicity articulate understandings to motivated and are equipped who others and scholars politicians, journalists, of views activists, the analyzed have places 6.4 amongmany of categorizations. kinds just is one Ethnicity isethnic.139 all butnot categorization ofcategorization, various acts ethnicity. Croatian. for Tosame goes it The putdifferently, in through and operates ethnicity to andin citizenship, others canrefer to Slovenian contexts, certain In classification. of system same of the as apart appear always not do and Slovene Croat The categories categories. ethnic a pre-existent stance to or action certain attach study how people has to one in identify terms.ethnic When others for of aspect discursive searching the categorization, people examine when howand designed to is questionnaire the categorization, of dimension formulating Brubaker, Ibid. Therefore, the research itself consists of 'life story' semi structured interviews. The interviews. structured semi story' 'life of consists itself research the Therefore, Most studiesMost of focusnationhood on that ethnicity and ethnically nationally marked or OF INTERVIEWS THE STRUCTURE Nationalistpolitics and everyday ethnicity in a Transylvanian town the identity of a person in this way. common people, they have done it simply by asking them 55 138 In order todetermine Inorder thecognitive . , 237. CEU eTD Collection 140 framed by categories imposed from framed by imposedfrom categories above. qualitatively interviewsisstructured toavoid formulated well opinion answers that are such idea of The identifications. national and ethnicity to are related their experiences referring to ethnicity or nationhood. Only later, they are asked in what way and towhat extent directly without networks, and other social preoccupations, problems, concerns, everyday discuss relatedresearch. tothe them This and to enables theireveryday events practices own everyday migrations. The provisional was questionnaire structured as follows: sociolinguistic, commemorations, and holidays different of celebrations habits, shopping media opportunities, and leisure practices, the effect of thedepending onindividual experiences and stories. border on everyday differed they although interviews all coveredduring researcher. were questions the of Most lives and was inadvance. designed of The listfor aguideline topics the provisional represented interpret the to enables researcher itthe categories These categories are formed by state policies, political struggles, social movements and media discourses. and media movements social struggles, political policies, by state formed are categories These 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. The topics focus on people's kinship andfriendship employment networks, interviews Although wereopen ended, aquestionnaireten questions of approximately Which media do you follow? How often do you cross the border? What for? Is there any difference since 1991? Can you describe your friendship and networks? kinship of both nations? doyouHow remember of theevents is your1991? What opinion on independencethe wouldHow you describe themeaning border of the before 1991and after? advantages? the are which and border the of disadvantages the are What How do you view the border? How has the border changed your everyday practices? 140 56 Moreover, byavoiding these talking about story without framingin it advance. CEU eTD Collection 142 141 na Kupi. Majda many changedjobs in herlife in Brod work to continued but border the of side Slovenian to Croatian from moved husband inlocation from her Vas. current Kostel,kilometers in ten born of municipality the Her inreflected migrationsa highlevel in andcross-border interethnic marriages region.the of people have maintained intense kinship and friendship relations, cross-border which is more central, peoplelargely depended on themselves. Hence, mostly forfunctional reasons, become to area for the conditions the created never have elites As political the nation-states. 6.5.1 6.5 in the lives of ordinary people in the Upper Kolpa Valley. examines study present the experiences everyday people use ethnic categories. Moreover, byanalyzing people's categories. ethnic people use and focuses inethnic bysubjects in experienced terms.understood It which ways on the She worked both on Slovenian side and Croatian side of the border. ofthe side Croatian and side Slovenian on both worked She A factory that has closed down in 1990s. 11. 10. 9. Majda Kolenc met herhusband workingwhile inDipo The Upper Kolpa valley has always been from distanced mainthe centersof both ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS The analysis of the interviews is interested mainly in the specific practices that are that practices mainly in specific the isinterested interviews of The analysis the INTER-ETHNIC MIXING How doHow you viewfuture the of borderland?the theregion?effect on politics of is the What politics? centered state Croatian and Slovenian on opinion your is What are yourWhat main preoccupations? 57 142 thus the side of border never the thus played a side of the how relevant ethnicity and nationhood are nationhood and ethnicity relevant 141 life in Brod na Kupi. She was She Kupi. na Brod in stories, their choices and CEU eTD Collection they how in her young days “boys and girls from Kostel used to go to the go to to used Kostel from girls and “boys days young her in how this and got married. As Goran Repi asabaker.there worked in whenhisfather Kuželj Croatian comelove Theyfell used to to Croat.” mixedwere all Croats,weweremarryingvery with eachother, in my end, is wife the married to a Slovene, identifies herself as a Slovene. As Miha Lisac from Pir a Slovene. herself as from As MihaLisac identifies a Slovene, married to couldunderstand hisfriend, not why who mother hasaCroatian andaCroatian father,is but whenhe membership. became todescentrules is evident This group ethnicity of connected that believes still he terms, national or inethnic identity interpret not he does Although significant. most the is identification local borderlanders, other many for as him For Brod). side other from is the her everyday of riverexperiences. a world distantthe life na in Kupi,Brod she identifies Croatian with the primarily partof borderland.the herFor entity. and asbounded unchanging shesee neitherethnicity does herhas lived mostAs of she Vlasta notrespect, perceive does identity interms a her belonging of to nation particular Slovene by nationality she denotes the Slovenian side of the borderland as borderland the of side Slovenian the denotes she nationality by Slovene 144 border,of the inin BanjaLož,and Ko Loka, 143 Their children three all live “ by Croat nationality,inalthough Dipo, him the weddingafter moved she BrodnaKupi. to to role in her decision of employment. Pajni employment. of decision her in role Kostel dialect. “Kaj ma pa to veze (granica), ljubav nema granice. Kdor se je poznu, se je poznu, in meni so Orig. “Mi smo zlo mešani s Hrvati, poro vše or the to þ iz te strani in iz une.” 143 Ante Abramovi Ante Goran Repi Goran our other side, but side of theborder.” þ , Croat by nationality, identifies himself as a Brojan (a person from person (a Brojan a as himself identifies nationality, by Croat , we ü , a retired baker from Brod, is also from a mixed family. His mother His family. mixed a from isalso Brod, from baker a retired , , the girls, used to visit there” þ argues, “love does not have borders... I like women from þ as Vlasta expressedherself,meaning onSlovenian side al smo se, jst mam Hrvatico za ženo.” 144 Sixty years old Ivanka Lisac from Fara remembers Fara from Lisac Ivanka old years Sixty þ Vlasta from Slovenia also met her husband, a husband, her met also Slovenia from Vlasta 58 þ evje. It is meaningful isevje. Italthough she that them more often. Often there were fights were there Often often. more other side to dance, and to side there þ e says, “we e says, . In this CEU eTD Collection 149 148 147 side.” goused to discosto the together, onewas Croatian on Slovenianside and the other on we wereall We one. of border, we the establishment the sides, even both after on hadfriends wholives now in Ljubljana, says that “when I was going to school, we did not feel the border, Potok, from Janeš Lidija Kupi. na Brod to go out to used friends years school high in his that used to go out with friends from across the river all the time.” all theriver from across with friends go out used to “they that remember of Yugoslavia, dissolution the of time inthe school high attended who moved who border.” sidefemale are tothis neighbors Croats, of the did not let river the of sides both on eachBoys often. quite side other the otherto went sides both from girls while to cross the bridge. Only girls were allowedexisted in borderland.the to cross... Mostalways have and Carniolian, Croat before or and Slovene, Croat ofcategories the influences my differentiation between two sides of the river. Nevertheless, due to the historical and political regional,likely membership.Thekinship and geographicallysignifiesthus to border gender ethnic membershipmorerefer to distinction but between usandthem, group terms the do not sisters married to Croatia, and moved to Bela.” moved to and Croatia, married to sisters 146 145 nicedays.” the between Slo. “V By Goran Abramovic (Croat by nationality) in Slovenian: “ Jaz sem se z vsemi se zvsemi sem “ Jaz Slovenian: in by nationality) (Croat Abramovic By Goran Slo. “Fantje so ostajali na lokaciji, punce so šle pa na drugo stran. Pa so tam gor sedeli, pa Kostel dialect. “Ljudje so se dosti poro onej in naples, tja smo hodili fantje pa Kostevske, punce od nazej, bi povedala vam “Ako dialect. Kostel hrvaški strani, eden naslovenski strani, tako da to nas ni takrat mlade razdvojilo.” strani, ko se je meja vzpostavila, smo mi še vedno mel tendence, smo skupaj v disko hodil, eden je bil na se družil.” Hrvatje prišli sem k našim puncam. Samo punce so lahko šle.” Belo.” strašno lipo imeli.” sem, sam bl mi tja. Pa so se fanti stepl, k mi smo mele bl piko na hrvatske, pa je bilo mau dreganj... smo se 149 Ana Ra Ana Although establishmentof the stateborderthe didnot immediately friendshipeffect our þ asu moje osnovne šole se meja ni boys and the ones from the from ones the and boys þ 145 ki from Kuželj confirms Ivanka's memories. “Boys stayed on their location, their on stayed “Boys memories. Ivanka's confirms Kuželj from ki And as she says, “many girls have married Croats. From Croats. married have girls “many says, And asshe þ al s Hrvati. Iz naše hiše so se dve h þ utila, mi smo bli vsi eno, prijatelje smo mel na eni in na drugi other 59 side, because we liked them better. Thosewere them weliked because side, 146 Although Ivanka constantly usesthe 148 þ Jože Rauh from Rauhfrom Jože Vas recalls erki poro 147 þ ez reko poznal, z vsemi sem z vsemi poznal, ez reko Also younger people, þ ile na Hrvatsko v our þ akali, family two þ e bodo CEU eTD Collection 152 in the Upper Kolpa valley since people on both sides of the border speak the same dialect. ethnocultural membership. language beThus, ethnicity a cannot seen as setreliable of cues to ismainbetween recognized indistinguishing criterion as the Croatian and Slovenian language religion, on catholic based nationalisms are interactions. state As both socio-cultural 151 150 6.5.2 relations. cultural populations on both sides of the border, but also significantly modified cross-border socio- fornot the a new only reality created political border international of the establishment the when 1991 until least At river. the of banks both the from people delineating than rather connecting function of a played hasalways border the Indeed, meaningless. often completely Slovenes or Croats, but as interact, notas Croats in settingsSlovenesand other interethnic aswell environments colleagues, spouses, and friends. Ethnicity is theborder.” that. friends haveacross His any confirmes brother rarely evoked, and my brother werehighlyinterconnected, “While we still interactions. social border effect cross- the on hashadasignificant border state formation the of the that acknowledges would marry someone from the other side of border.”the of side other the from someone marry would my sister's from know anyone not Ido while border the across married itnetworks, eventually “diminished friendship cross-border My interactions... generation still Born in 1988. Slo. “Šele ko se je meja ustalila, je to prineslo neke spremembe... Moje generacije soseporo Moje generacije spremembe... neke jetoprineslo ustalila, kosejemeja “Šele Slo. Born in 1982. þ e pa pogledam sestrino generacijo, se pa nih se pa generacijo, sestrino pogledam e pa Religion intense andsimilarcross-border haveimmenselycontributed tothe dialect As one can see, a substantial number of Croats or Slovenes are intermarried. In these In intermarried. are Slovenes or Croats of number a substantial see, can one As LINGUISTIC PRACTICES ANDLINGUISTIC REGIONAL IDENTIFICATIONS þ e ni ve e ni 60 þ poro þ al.” 151 Also Goran Goran Abramovi Also 150 generation that generation þ ale ale 152 þ ez mejo, ez did not ü CEU eTD Collection 157 border, Jože Kolenc argues that “we were never connected to Osilnica which gravitates more gravitates Osilnica which to connected never were “we that argues Kolenc Jože border, the of side Slovenian on situated are Osilnica and Kostel Although categories. ethnonational than more ethnic areeven andthus descent, or origin implicate They categories. ethnic Kolpa case In Valleythe of Upper likeboundaries. regional function categories regional Slovenian is Croatian language. The markedor actually isboundary languagein the linewith 156 155 buy toBrod,bread youth the speaks only Croatian, noone knows the language anymore.” they do not speak not they do “the that border delimited the mixed language region.of our When peoplebuy come to bread, who owns the only bakery for both Slovenian and Croatian side of the borderland observes emerged states but also delimited the language of the studied borderland. thestudied language Ante of butalso the emerged delimited Abramovi states newly two the of theterritories demarcated not only border state of the establishment on basisthe of ethnicgeographical andnot belonging. leastuntilAt the 1991, when different between languages. linedividing language two differentiated of The was region the dialects.” two the between Slovenian municipalities Kostel and Osilnicais located, isthere historicalalso the border Kolpi.Srebotnikbut between ob dialect, ormore preciselly the Whereborder parole, language has a lotof Croatian words.” As Lidija claims,“it wasnot the border that delineated 154 153 dialect.” special The classification of marked and unmarked categories follows Brubaker;s approach to the study ofeveryday study the to approach Brubaker;s follows categories unmarked and of marked classification The Slo. “Ista govorica na obehbregovih, jaz grem ve razmejil.” se jejezik pomeji koncu, natem je mešan “Jezik Cro. Slo. “Pojmovanja besed so druga so besed “Pojmovanja Slo. Dialect. “Ni slovenski, ni hrvaški, dialekt, enako pa govorimo mi i oni preko.” ethnicity. Brubaker, na Brodu, to vsi ve vsi to Brodu, na Srebotnik ob Kolpi, tam kjer je ob In this respect, Kostel dialect is the unmarked is the dialect Kostel respect, In this Goran Goran describes languagethe beingas “neither Slovenian nor Croatian,itis mixed, a 153 þ our For Ra Ana For pravo hrvaško govorijo, ni ve ni govorijo, hrvaško pravo Nationalist politics and everyday ethnicity inaTransylvanian town language anymore.” 154 þ In this respect, the border historically never represented a þ na, meja ne lo ne meja na, inska meja, je tud zgodovinska meja med obema govora.” þ ki, who was not born in the municipality of Kostel, “the Kostel, of municipality inthe born not was who ki, þ 155 i dialekta. Kolpa ni razdelila nare razdelila ni Kolpa dialekta. i þ þ krat krat po kruh na Brod, inko tega dialekta.” tega 61 Also Majda Kolenc notices that “when I go to Igo “when that notices Kolenc Majda Also 157 language while the use of official þ akam tam za kruh, ta mladina þ ja ali dialekta, ampak dialekta, ali ja . 156 ü CEU eTD Collection studied borderland. Forexample,many people from Slovenian Kuželj to go churchthe to in church has on the informal relations. hadabigsocial impact the relations Therefore, border inhaselement represented animportant and uniting both ethnic groups promoting cross- case UpperKolpa of the Valley,coincide, boundaries and religious donot where state church societies. In the heterogeneous religiously or divided have they nation-states homogeneous transformation.have They social either reinforced theandunity cultural religiously of 6.5.3 nation-state. their constituent of parts from other co-nationals the with than theborder across more others with interconnected felt always have people Moreover, generation. older amongst least at ethnicity, across theborder. andnot Slovenia never be true Kosteuci.” benever true 159 from abroad, from Ljubljana,real inhabitant Ko of her, “adialect. According her to of the proud is very as us.”She aresame they than us, worse no borderland is one thatCroatian side as the speaks the dialect of Kostel. Those who come Jože, Osilnica is the Osilnica Jože, 158 to the Croatian side, to Kostel dialect. “V Slo. “Ni neke povezave z Osilni Kosteuci. Sej mi smo prijazni, sam kokr re ki bojo kupli hiše, pa ne mislim Hrvati, al iz druge strani, to so naši ljudi iz Ko govorico,drugi dialekt, gebarji jim pravmo...” Churches have always played an important role in the social reproduction and As analyzed, language practices in the Upper valley Kolpa are not seen Kolpa in avehicle Uppervalley of arenot the As analyzed,languagepractices as RELIGION IN THE BORDERLAND IN THE RELIGION þ asih so rekli, keri boste dlje ostali, ne bo ve other other ý 159 side, more interesting although he is Croat by descent, he labels the abrank. They speak different dialect, we call them side. Also Ivanka considers Osilnica as the other side, “but they they are “but side, other asthe Osilnica considers side. Ivanka Also For her foreigners are those who come from other regions of þ ani. Osilnica je bolj na þ evje and other Slovenian cities, not across the river, will þ emo, rabiš eno ero, da si Kosteuc.” 62 ý abrank, bolj na hrvaško stran... Oni majo druga þ kostelske besede slišat, se bodo priselili ljudi þ evja, Ljubljane, to niso gebarji .” 158 For þ no CEU eTD Collection although some have with problems crossing the border.” 163 162 161 have side,wego abakery on Slovenian 160 Assumption of Mary of Assumption the For together. holidays Christian celebrate border the of sides both from people Croatian side“it becauseis closer, and is the more time for convenient us.” border, we never had any isproblems, myhusband from the lives. their into patterns and routines new brought border official the of existence itlivediscussing became in obvious the theirand that depth everyday practices stories changenot borderthe did anything. everyday responsewasthat lives,After the immediate and their affected border ethnicity.nationhood the 'new' how asked When peoplewere of perception their to in relation borderland in the lives everyday people's changed 6.5.4 people start their to businesses.” of inlivefuture regionthe “People tourism. out of cannot air, municipality help the should more people left. The ones who have stayed, do not interact as we used.” Bine Likar sees the around fivethirty lambs.“Those were the nicedays,” says “butIvanka, today isnothere father prepared his that Rauhrecalls Jože Croatia. from Bizjak Marija remembers played,” festival in Fara. “In the past the festival used to last four days, and bands from both sides Slo. “Jaz osebno ne ne osebno “Jaz Slo. family. to her Referring People call it Velika Maša. Slo. “Jaz hodim na Hrvaško v cerkev, Fara nam je predale nas se ni spremenil, For Majda Kolenc not much has changed after 1991. “I personally do not feel the This examinessubchapter how the establishmentof an international border in 1991 THE EFFECT OF THE 'NEW' BORDER – THEN AND NOW þ þ utim meje, nismo mel nobenih problemov, hodimo tja po kruh, mož ma žlahto tam. Za tam. žlahto ma mož kruh, po tja hodimo problemov, nobenih mel nismo meje, utim eprav eni majo probleme priprehajanju.” 161 , one of the biggest Christian holiday,biggest of , one Christian the days they atwo organize there 63 to buy bread. For þ , pa še taka ura je, ob 9h, v Fari pa ob 10h.” 163 Majda perceives the border from Majda perceivestheborder other side and sincewedon't sideand us 162 nothing changed nothing 160 Moreover, CEU eTD Collection 167 166 165 164 visitme as often as they did, neither do I visit them that often.” “People don't want to go through all these processes very often, thus my friends don't come to theborder. with friends across her contacts have decreased constraints institutional that these border.” the across we carry what attention pay and time the all cards identification our carry to have we that is today novelty only The changed. nothing it quickly, quite to isdivided it us, but weadjusted now as very It alike. so we evenspeak wewerelikeone, sincebefore emerged, comfortable very notfeel wedid“When border the town is around ten kilometers closer than Ko Croatian side, itis just closer... We also bought thematerial for our house in Delnice since the just or goods meetfamily to friends... upwith Our has beenmorealways linked upwiththe market, the go or tothe 1991 to “it after became coordination, popular Actually, more today demands border the as crossing for Sloveniancount same astheyusedto apply rules border.” Slovenian Austrian Italian or “The not. border, andwhat carry across to allowed they are what pay attention to people have as now crossing border of practices border changed previous state the that acknowledges smugglingborder by unregistered tractor.” or“crossing thedriving an migrations, illegal to she refers border” with the problems have “some that shesays When institutional the legalnotline perspective,ethnic asadividing between and and groups. two Kostel dialect. “Jaz mam svoje prijateljice, k tam živijo, pa one re Kostel dialect. “Mi smo bili eno isto vsi, Slo. “Gremo v Delnice v traktorjem ješelzneregistriranim gnoj probleme, ma –Lisac, probleme ma vKostelu menda edini “On Slo. osebne pokazat.” istih besed. Nas je malo presekalo, samo smo se strašno navadili, kot da je isto kot prek. Edino moraš dobrpo zarad stroškov, mi osebno smo bili bolj vezani na uno stran, nam je bilo bližje.” bilo je nam stran, uno na vezani bolj bili smo osebno mi stroškov, zarad zdaj popularnozdaj od 91. Tud po material za bajto smo hodil na Hrvaško, Delnice so 20 Ko km, vozit, pa so ga tam na Žabjeku, na poti do Fare, ustavili.” People in the borderland have accepted the political reality of the new border without border new the of reality political the accepted have borderland in the People Ivanka Lisac agrees that the border brought some changes crossto border interactions. þ utili, ko je enkrat meja prišla, k prej nis niti vedu, kdaj je meja, pa skor isto govorimo, imamo dosti þ etrtek na plac, nakupovat, to je bl kot en sejem, prodajajo, tekstil, kramo. To je place þ isto isti, smo hodili tja na ples, ko se je pojavila meja, se res nismo as we call it, to Delnice in Croatia to shop, exchangeshop, to Delnicein Croatia it, to as wecall þ 64 evje.” 165 þ ejo, je treba it peš...” 166 167 Nevertheless, Ivanka admits Ivanka Nevertheless, 164 In this respect, she respect, this In þ evje pa30,tud CEU eTD Collection 171 170 the studiedthe matter in borderland not ethnicity everyday lives.does people's Withstanding them. In elites propagate state the of rhetorics nationalist as the in way same the nationhood belong to Slovenia.” should borderland Kotor Gorski The unit. one been have should valley “this that believes practices.” other border,everyday wewereconstantly wechangedour and shopping andgradually checked, cross the to harder much itwas of Slovenia independence there. hairdresser Afterhad the our wenttoKoMoreover, we there. license her driving 169 168 Slovenia. mainly KoAsto 1991 wegravitated Abramovi one went shopping, today due to the border crossing we go on Slovenian side.” Goran destroyed. For example, before the establishment of the border it did not matter on which side interactions weregradually other all relations, diminishednot arekinship has border the that passes carry all time.” our the we haveto in funeral.to the and Croatia, wewent Wenot dohave with anyproblems the have not bridge, problems with crossing the weall passes.Justyesterday have someone died passes which allow them to cross the borderobtain permission for eachat time we crossunofficial the border.” border crossing. “Inany Kuželj resistance.we do “Before people did not even know what the border was, today we have to “Jst sm še zmer mnenja, da bi moral biti ta Gorski kotor, sploh 5 km obmejni pas, da bi moral biti pod biti bimoral da pas, obmejni 5 km sploh kotor, Gorski ta biti bimoral da mnenja, zmer še sm “Jst By Goran Abramovic (Croat by nationality) in Slovenian “Pred mejo smo predvsem gravitiral na Slovenijo, na gravitiral predvsem smo mejo “Pred Slovenian in by nationality) (Croat Abramovic By Goran Slo. “Pri nas mi nimamo problemov, mamo mi te obmejne, glih v Citation by Ivanka Lisac. oble Slovenijo.” zamer vse skupi, pa se na drugo stran usmeriš.” Sam brez tega prepustnice ne grem ven.” grem ne prepustnice tega brez Sam nam je bližje, Ko þ t, kfrizerju, potem ko se je Slovenija osamosvojila, je mau težje, te skoz preghledujejo, pa se ti mau As one can see, people in the Upper Kolpa Valley do not perceive ethnicity and Lidija Janeš looks at the new border from atthenewLidija“The Janešlooks from onlything a more critical border perspective. ü regrets the establishment of the border since it divided the borderland. “Before borderland. the divided it since border the of the establishment regrets 170 þ evje nam je bližje od Zagreba, Rijeke, mami je delal vozniški v Ko 171 His father agrees that the borderland used to be “one state”. Goran be “onestate”. to used borderland the that agrees father His 169 65 þ evje was closer than Zagreb, my mother did Zagreb, evjecloser than was þ 168 evje to buy food and clothes, weeven andclothes, buy food evje to Some,as Ana Ra þ eraj je na Hrvaškem en umro, pa smo šli... þ þ ki, acquired special acquired ki, evju, po fasango, za other side.But CEU eTD Collection 172 itsdeclared independence inJune1991,a warbetweenten days Slovenian the Territorial Slovenia After region. the of picture political and geographical the changed significantly have 6.5.5 endogamous social in environment borderland.the In friendship longthe patterned ethnically networks. this run canleadtoanethnically Today, school the system and the border perseprovide apowerful institutional for structure generation. young the amongst non-existent havebecome almost which interactions social infootball, tennis table chess.Such and activities significantly tolater contribute cross-border 1991.” before practice this wasthe school as Slovenian the with organizenot activities common any argues, “we never socialized with children diminished. brother interactions havealmost As Goran's cross-border generations whose from the other side of the border. friendshipinteractions cross-border have modified. This has influencedThe significantly younger school did crossing a unitedof community.rather institutional division within it constraints the caused Dueto the border, employmentobstacle. in perceiveborder when international as an 1991, gradually have to they started border the the of and establishment the until least At interconnected. been always have bank the of sides educationalunderdevelopment and of depopulation area,orpreciselythe in ofthem, spite locals both on structures as well as linguistic and By Goran's brother, who also moved to Ljubljana to study. to Ljubljana to moved also who brother, By Goran's 172 The dissolution of The of dissolution Yugoslavia a series that upheavals led of and political conflicts to Although the bordernot didalterAlthough people's understandings ofethnicity the and nationhood POLITICS IN THE BORDERLAND: THE EVENTS OF 1991 Indeed,when was Goran a pupil, school competitions organized cross-national the 66 CEU eTD Collection and theirs... it was not important.” “ours between distinction wasno there agrees with in conflict the thatof Ana,time saying work Croatian to butwent to sideevery day, from Croatianback andforth.” side Goran Defense Territorial Slovenian by recruited he was end the In be there. he should said Croats the tanks really came to Brod. Of course, there was no one there, the tanks were still in still were tanks the there, one no was there Brod. Of course, cameto really tanks the if check to went another place, and our was at One squat Brod. are approaching tanks the that “theministerJelko Kacin Slovenian Slovenian announcedNational prime onthe Televison Defense Force. Jože Rauh wasand clear that her family washis giving shelter to numberwife of members of Slovenian Territorialcooked for thein his garage.” man hidingwas it truck giveour want to a details,Although Majda not did TO. He remembers one event We tensions. in “there were There Delnice. JNA headquarters how saw the military bombed when Brod, in side Croatian on worked husband my time that even know that the war started, my son's school notified me. We did not feel the war at all. At events. the of unfolding 1991 events, thisif research role, what examines any, played nationhood and inthe ethnicity onthe andopinions memories Slovenia their By independentanalyzing andCroatia. states, newly of two emergence the perceive borderland Croatian in theSlovenian people showis how provide butto in-depth not to 1991events the this of an review subchapter TO establishan to JNA against defensivepositions expected Thus, objectiveattack. the of sovereignty, Slovenian governmentseized control of republic'sthe which borders enabled the 175 174 173 Defense Force Defense Slo-Cro. “Nimamo mi problemov, nimamo ni problemov, nimamo mi “Nimamo Slo-Cro. In further text JNA. Obramba. Teritorialna translation: Slovenian to TO referring text further In blo pomembno.” blo According to Ana Ra Not all remember the June 1991 events with such an ease. Majda Kolenc says that 173 and the Yugoslav andthe People's Army þ ki, people along the border did not experience the war. “I didn't 175 þ , ni blo nit prej prepucavanja za vreme rata, je naš al je vaš, ni je vaš, al je naš rata, vreme za prepucavanja prej blo nit , ni 67 174 erupted. In toestablish erupted.In order its ours said he should be on our side, CEU eTD Collection 177 176 Ko of in direction the back their turn cars would they that answered They there. were really definitely such moments. Whenwar, suchdefinitely remembering the Ante Abramovi areinvoked. The of nationhood dissolution Yugoslaviawere following days war the ten and andchoicesKolpalife in Valley, Upper the decisions when moments ethnicity and are there citizenship... Funny, job was the decisive element in my father's choice.” fatherbutlotwhich questioned a obtain.citizenshipSlovenian to Intheend weall got Slovenian school, to going since we were me my sister and was easierfor side.It Croatian side to belong to, we had break-up of remembers after“we werethe that confused Yugoslavia. We whichchoose had to an apartment on Sloveniandistinguished borderland. in that visible people the criteria As only a teenager,Janeš Lidija side but all of front. became didbelongthe whichnationhood to choose a come As to, had peopleside to to our relativesCroat-ness or Sloven-ess of notion people's livedJNA and TO between war days ten the of events on borderland. heated inthe In the groupness heightened moments moderately of these were the as from This is war.”I remember the politicians iswhat Jože's addresses how wife It interesting on. them turn you didn't why lights, have you did why border, the across from friends our we hadbutlightlights therewerearound, inBrod, our noon. And talking then we were with so there were no lights on our side, but Brod“ Jože's wife. had lights. The next time it was the other way Delnice.” Slo. “Pa sm TO vprašal, kaj pa Slo. “Pri nas smo za TO kuhal hrano, pa je Kacin na TV povedal, da so na Delnicah hodil tanki proti Brodu, proti tanki hodil Delnicah so na da TV na povedal, je Kacin pa hrano, za TO kuhal smo nas “Pri Slo. them pobegnemo.” envod je bil pr nas 35, drugi pa na Brodu, pa žive duše ni blo tm, vse v Delnicah stalo, ni þ evje.” As play analyzed, andnationhood although ethnicity insignificant in role an people's Although people donotexplicitly describe in the 1991events terms of nationhood, . 176 177 The works of war propaganda is best exemplified inis Theportrayed aneventby bestexemplified worksof warpropaganda His wife added “after that I asked the soldiers what would they do if tanks the do would they what soldiers I askedthe that “after added His wife They said we should turn out the lights because there will be an air force attack, be force an air because will lights there the out turn should saidwe þ e res pridejo, pa so uni rekli, vse avte obrnemo prot Ko 68 ü clearly expresses his expresses clearly þ evju, pa þ se ni premaknil.” CEU eTD Collection 179 178 region.” state shouldimprove Ljubljana, connection with the young“only so willstay in people the borderland. the of development throughis expressed politics state with Dissatisfaction politicians. and politics for dislike and from, severalavoidcannot politics. talkingmost about Hence, of subjects interviewed the express distance topics,peripherality, well-known betweenpolitical disputes figures or neighboringthe states one the prevalent on political issuesbutwhen economic discussing of situationand future the regionthe orits inwell-informed conversations part substantive and basistake peopleeveryday mean on that one beingNevertheless, comes politics in up often quite everyday people's discussions. This not does disinterest of the 6.5.6 state center in under Serbiancommand. the the JLA enemy, same the against fighting were they since border the of sides both from people time.” the region. region. the Ana Ra in positions job more establish should state the that believe borderland in the people Many so itcloudy fortunately was headquarters... bombmilitary “We Delnice to the nationhood. perception flyingto of planes the heard Slo. “Spremljamo še preve še “Spremljamo Slo. Cro. “Za vojno 1991, v Delnicah so avioni letal, sre v Kostelu.” za Vukovar, to je bla JLA.” bla je to Vukovar, za 178 Majda Kolenc argues that she follows politics “even too much.” She believes that the that believes She much.” too “even politics follows she that argues Kolenc Majda politics. nationalist evenfewerwith areoccupiedpolitics, with Few borderlanders EVERYDAY LIFE AND POLITICS 179 Thus, paradoxically, the experience of the 1991 events at the same time connected sametime atthe events Thus, 1991 paradoxically,the of experience the Miha Lisac agrees that the “region is forgotten by isforgotten far.” “region wearejust center, the the agreesthat too Miha Lisac þ ki complains that “when Itas (the factory) was opened, many people lived many people opened, was (thefactory) “when Itas that complains ki þ politiko. Tukaj bi bilo povezavo z Ljubljano treba zrihtat... pa bi blo ve blo bi pa zrihtat... treba Ljubljano z povezavo bilo bi Tukaj politiko. our 69 þ om je bilo obla soldiers could take the guns forsoldierstake could Vukovar on þ no, da so specialci prišli, in vzeli orožje þ mladih CEU eTD Collection 183 182 181 is no job on either side. Everything got privatized.” job no got is either side.Everything on of border. side theother the There between or this situation isin economic there nodifference argues, “theborder is not the reason for the collapse of the borderland, itis the system. Today and there isand there nosign increase of of an population.” seventy,since “only settlements the will disappear eighty, livehere, ninety years people old 180 is hard, at least for us, the common people.” isLisac also nostalgic of socialism it system,“in But livedvery previous the today good. we Ivanka anymore.” each other helpbetter, were don't today people people relations between husband“whatever think that politiciansis do, In communism bad. everything was better, the although unemployment... high for be blamed areto economy, their longer protect no Zagreb and “Ljubljana centers state the that states for region's bad economic situation but the change of the system. As Goran Repi As thesystem. Goran of change the but situation economic bad region's for states independent two the of emergence the blame don't they Hence, side. Slovenian or Croatian on either biggermovecities, to forced to were people close down, had to many factories breakupof the worsenedYugoslavia. after argue, situation demographic as people the As Nevertheless, valley always faceddepopulation. legacyUpperKolpahistorical negativethe stay.” Miro Petovar from Pir her, but now, they all left.” Jože Rauh claims that “if more firms would open, people would ethnicity and nationalism. The nationalistic ideas of Slovenian and Croatian political elites political Croatian and Slovenian of ideas nationalistic The nationalism. and ethnicity Slo. “ Cro. “Za nezaposlenost so krivi gradovi, centri, Zagreb, Ljubljana, vaši so malo bolji nego naši, al je sli Slo-Cro. “Ni zbog granice, propada, kle je meja, tam je meja, gremo vse privatizirat, dobi neki kredit, pa Slo. “Ob je bil drne, danes pa vprašanje, kok bi ti kdo pomagal, je neka foušarija.” menjala, drga ko naši.” propade.” þ e ni mladine, ni ni ni mladine, e ni Due to the traffic isolation and distance from the major urban centers together with the with together centers urban major the from distance and isolation traffic the to Due As examined,most of everydaythe not political does havetalk anythingdo with to ý esarkoli se lotijo, je nekaj narobe. In v komunizmu sem živela, in vidim, kaj se danes dogaja, takoj bi þ utek je grenak, ker nikol ne bo ni þ je blo življenje, drga þ esar.” þ e lost all faith in the development of the region. He believes that þ so bli medsebojni od odnosi. Ko smo to bajto delali, nas je blo tok, da yours þ v tej vasi, 70, 80, 90 let so stari ljudje, ni are a bit better than bitbetter area 183 70 180 181 Ante also sees the problem in the fact inthe problem Antesees the also ours .” 182 Majda andher Kolenc þ ne bo, pomrli bomo, þ no þ CEU eTD Collection 185 184 to any new analysis. the conclusions them.” of the border, Moreover, have andBut wereally side to.” before other sell goods animals “one tothe could now youfields. the to go we when have even them carry to have we that We joke time. the all documents to know a certainfeeling.” According toIvanka, the biggest disadvantage of the border is that “onepersonhas carry to on I cross the theborder whether I am carrying something Ishould not. It is definitely nota borderpleasant to me.be Although the ablepolice is nice and most of them know tous already, sell I still question every annoyedby border police.the The factthatIcannotmy visittimeby bikeirritates grandmother still have not adjusted to the constant control of the border “extremelypolice. is Janeš Lidija newreality, the more. haveaccepted they control Although all areaany the not police will once border improve significantly life will as an their everyday border obstacle, the perceive join Union European and Schengen the as fastpossible. Since allinterviewed subjects Kolpa Valley nationality,in theUpper of their Irrespective people should Croatia that believe want.” we what us asks ever one no ends, own their for nationalism use “politicians us.”Politics is isnot this distinction, with Goran preoccupied with politics since disappointed joking. maybe when Slovene,we were Croat or other each called never “we Ivanka says, As interests. own their pursuing politicians by stimulated is and above from comes that most. depopulation are topicspopulation the thatconcern the and main centers, the from neglect ofthearea, character peripheral underdevelopment, borderland. in Economic the caresand preoccupations far everyday are from people's Slo. “Najslabša stran meje, k si mogu dokumente ven vle Slo.-Cro. “Oni so nacionalno nastrojeni, politika je kurba, nam je vseeno. Mi se vidimo, znamo sve, kaj možno, si prodal na Hrvatsko, zdej pa morš met dolo met morš pa zdej Hrvatsko, na prodal si možno, nobenga od nas ne bodo vprašal. Tu baš nema provokatora.” nema baš Tu vprašal. bodo ne od nas nobenga 185 All interviewed subjects claim that ethnicity is not a problem and has never been a been never has and a problem not is ethnicity that claim subjects interviewed All People in the borderland regardless of their ethnicity see ethnic as something conflict see ethnic ethnicity their regardless of People inthe borderland Most of the subjects expressed similar stories, hence citing them would not bring not would them citing hence stories, similar expressed subjects the of Most 71 þ eneg eneg þ t, v þ loveka, k je na carini za te stvari.” zate carini je na k loveka, þ asih si þ ez kako živino prodau, zdej to ni þ mo, 184 CEU eTD Collection 186 border as a hypothetical division of the two 'local nations' livingthose inmethodological the Croatian for side, the analysisofficialpurpose, took state was compareto ethnic (self)identifications ofinhabitants of Slovenian part of the border with before establishment the and after international of the in border 1991. As theoriginal idea interactions cross-border economic and cultural social, their on focusing by nationhood Croatian border. The ethnographic locals' study verified understandings of ethnicity and ethnic and national The main in purpose Kolpaof empiricalthe research theUpper Valley wastoaccentuate (self)identifications 6.5.7 of local peoplepeople are moving out from the region to the hinterlands of the respective nation-states. on both be done. trend should (self)identifications youngershows, these populations As thecurrent of sides of thedynamics Slovenian- thefuture anticipate andlater. to In eighties inorder late the born i.e. those generations, of theyounger interactions among non-existentcross-border ledhas to Thisdisappeared. Upper completely not if have decreased interactions cross-border institutional as well Kolpa borderland,international border in the institutional 1991. Dueto oftheborderregimeconstraints private a researchdecisive role in everyday the lives of people in borderland.the nationhood andplay only not thisresearchhasshown ethnicity a analysis that through do of therefore settings, other many in thefound be can harmony interethnic everyday of discourse everydayproblem, in relations the heated even of time Of between neighboringthisthe states. course, practices and The political border on the Kolpa river was interpreted by the scholars from the beginning of the twentieth of the beginning the from by the scholars interpreted was river Kolpa on the border political The century as a ‘natural’ historical separatorbetween the two local populations from the fifteenthcentury on. Nevertheless, as the study has shown,much has changed after the establishment of the RESEARCH FINDINGSRESEARCH 72 186 . However, as it turned out, locals CEU eTD Collection 191 190 189 always felt more interconnected with others across the border than with the co-nationals from co-nationals the with than border the across others with interconnected more feltalways denominators, as Slovenessituation or Croats.economic the of example, for speak, they when hand, other the On radically. them separated of the regimehas border samethe border, they side althoughadmit other time of atthe the the neighboring one. with national later the only identification, local the with identify primarily state,People in 1991. regime border new the of theyinterviewedtwo189 subjects viewthe valley one as unitwas dividedthat with emergencethe refer peoples' ethnicof On national (self)identifications. hand,twenty andtwenty out one the to people across the border in national 188 187 of border communities along the river Kolpa, done in 1993 by Duška Kneževi study interviews. asaquantitative Interestingly, similarconclusions two came to research the the valley as one unit, conclusions were drawn on the basis of the existing sample of twenty research the newthe regime border wasestablished. this in Having mind, accompanied with failurethe of perceivedidnot asadividing the border linepopulations between until two the 1991 when border, analysisthe the borderlandexamined asabound social This was especially evident in the case of interviewees in the Croatian side of the border. of the side Croatian inthe of case interviewees inthe evident especially was This This This is in line with the results of 1993 the study. As Duška Kneževi Younger respondents were neutral on this topic. In Duška Kneževi In Duška Due to the time and fund limits together with unwillingness of many respondents to participate in the the other half identified first with the name of their settlement. described themselves as first and foremost in accord with the national categories (Slovenian/Croat), while betweenthe two cross bordercommunities dropped significantly, but not so much the informal contacts.and after the border imposition. The results showed that only formal business and economic contacts quantitative techniques, she tried to determine the intensity cross-borderof the contacts in the region before sample The Kolpa. included river thirty the residents from the Croatianalong side and thirty border residents from the the Slovenianof side. By sides employing two of the inhabitants the between belonging of Založba ZRC, 1999). Herinvestigation, conducted in 1993, focused onthe perceived differences in feelings in lokalitete (Boundaries in theUpper Kolpa Valley. Native Imaginings ofNation and Locality) from the Croatian side of the border. the of side Croatian the from border. of the sides ofboth As the samplepopulations of of sample interviewed subject inSloveniana representative form sideto was satisfactory, achieve not did latter too the little people wereresearch, interviewed One of the key findings of the present research is the inconsistent nature of border of nature inconsistent the is research present the of findings key the of One 187 to collect a representative sample of the populations of both sides of the ü Ho þ evar, 190 Družbena razmejevanja v dolini zgornje Kolpe. Doma They They emphasize only that andneighborslivetheir relatives on 191 Nevertheless, all respondents claim that they have 73 ü examined, only half of the respondents locus . From the perspective of þ inska zamišljanja nacije ü Ho (Ljubljana: þ evar. 188 CEU eTD Collection 192 the cross border interactions have almost diminished.interactions crossborderhavealmost the later years eighteen canseethat one contacts, cross-border the of inintensity drop significant any detect not 1993 researchthatdid to Compared decreased. havesignificantly contacts cross-border economic and friendship strong, rather remained river the across relations 'other' changes the in side, peopleinformal complained alsoabout theirties. Although kinship the on properties passes, border control, border currencies, as different such complications, mobile border police and complications with crossing the border. Despite the formal by irritated imaginations. of are relations popularThey andwithin peoples' presence the socio-cultural asan of obstaclecross-border border –an the obstacle perceive borderline the of sides both on People community. united rather ethnically once within division political reality for local the populations, butinhas also relatively short period caused everyday people's settings. eveninterdependent. in As interconnected, matter this study rarely examines, ethnicity economically and socially highly been always have border the of sides both on areas Indeed, barrier. a as than communication of site a as more functioned always has river border conditions historical with combined interactions friendship and kin- intense river, the other parts of their constituent nation-state. Due to the same spoken language on both sides of Traffic isolation, poor communication with the hinterland of both states. However, the establishment of the international border in 1991 created not only a new a only not created in 1991 border international the of establishment the However, 74 192 the CEU eTD Collection 195 194 linguistically unified. Valley was Kolpa Upper the that prove which riverbanks, both on dialects various adopted by the political elites, both by adopted Slovenian both border along politicalCroatian,the elites, and perceive the who nationalisms islargely state of these and wasmade.The rhetoric Slovenes local Croats the between distinction clear the that society, homogeneous culturally and politically a as riverbanksexist didthe but not it. alongsideborder the wererather crosscutting the for evidence banks resolvedin than river.border both of states rather dividing the uniting Thekey communicationhistorical with thehinterlands well conditions asthe poor of respectivethe as borderland always abound social Indeed, cosmos. represented similar geographical and the and Slovenes ethnicCroats, two line between groups, view a'natural' dividing itas borderline.the its long history borderexistence,of the hasneverdelimited the both populationssides of of 193 Slovenia Croatia. and nation-states sovereign between border political became the secondthe within andRepublics Yugoslav theSocialistbetween state it inuntil state; 1991 in first Yugoslavthe entities administrative various between Empire; of parts the Hungarian and Austrian the between estates; Hapsburg Hungarian the and Empire Roman Holy the quite opposite, it has existed for long time. It has been the site of a political border between 7 Duška Kneževi Duška 5. See chapter Duška Kneževi Duška Croatia” in Thomas M. Wilson, Croatia” in Thomas M. Wilson, CONCLUSION It was only due to nation-buildingthe both projectsstates, which of viewed the nation The Slovenian-Croatian border along the river Kolpa is not a young phenomenon, a young not is Kolpa river the along border Slovenian-Croatian The 194 ü ü Ho Ho boundness Although its historical and geographical characteristics ledmany scholars to þ þ evar, “Local and National Narratives of a Border Regime Between Slovenia and Slovenia Between Regime ofaBorder Narratives National and “Local evar, evar, “Local and National Narratives of a Border Regime Between Slovenia and Slovenia Between Regime ofaBorder Narratives National and “Local evar, 195 What is even more interesting, the differences among the dialects of dialects the among differences the interesting, moreis even What of the borderland can be found in the apparent similarities among similarities apparent in the found be can borderland the of Cultureand cooperation in Europe’s borderlands Cultureand cooperation in Europe’s borderlands 75 (Rodopi,2003), 171-194. (Rodopi,2003), 171-194. 193 Despite CEU eTD Collection 200 199 198 197 196 Croats by citizenship, and at the same time they are seeking attainto Slovenian citizenship. who are a Croat,have as children marriedhave to they feel Croat like but theirafter parents, The in study ethnographic has shown contextspeople that certain say they that are Slovenian particular context orpeople at a particular in the Upper Kolpamoment, ofnational loyalty conceptualizations legally defined ofmembership. categories and When Valley without identifystate’ exclusive from beingsignificantly differ and themselves belonging national of national nominallynotions of Their identity. terms ethnic in than rather as Croat identifications Slovene linguistic or and Slovene,regional of or terms in Croat. identity they do so in a difference between Slovenes and Croats. People in the Upper Kolpa Valley interpret their national and cultural bounded of enforcesclearly perception the that by state the imposed fitperspective has shown thatnotinto fixedthe their (self)identifications do categorizations atleast centers, in in politicians the UpperKolpa Valley.the state the Theethnographic Slovenian-Croatian border do not interpretposition. dominant ethnicity a in themselves and nationhood elites political Croatian of in discourse the same way as do national identity. tothe(re)production contributed Slovenian of manner,a reverse In the as “primitive Other” a barrier byportrayingpolitical have border the againstthe elites part of Balkans”, aline between “primitive andthe Balkans” the “civilized Europe”. discourse political the river Kolpa as politically and culturally dividing two nations. Moreover, the dominant This was the case of Pajni 5. See chapter 4. seechapter media, mainstream inthe Asreproduced 4. See chapter discourses. media and popular in reflected Asalso In contrast to the nationalist rhetorics of the state elites, the locals on both sides of the of sides both on locals the elites, state the of rhetorics nationalist the to contrast In Slovenian nationalidentity 196 in Slovenia interprets the border as a “barrier against the dangerous “barrier theagainst asa border interprets inSlovenia þ Vlasta from Brod na Kupi. Similar identifications, as in the example of Goran is its differentiation and distancing from the Croats, the 198 depicts Slovenians as the“bad Other”by putting 76 197 As acrucial 200 199 CEU eTD Collection of river.of the andlocally differences between deepened the communitiesdefined onboth sides 'ethnic' the locals among national (self)identifications has border activated imposed the Nevertheless, from above. imposed reality butapolitical nations as a linebetween the dividing borderland along the river Kolpa is in the reformulation of the border which is not to be locality.seen border reality the understandingof Slovenian-Croatian key the to Therefore, with is inconsistent national cultures cross-border separate of asasite two theborder views in wouldbeneededconfirmlatter further research observation. to a the order Nevertheless, definedcategories. national from state of border the perspective tointerpret the started people population. Aslittleinstitutional is there as wellinformal cross-border exchange,young young among of (self)identifications perceptions the regime changed new generations, the significantly affected and understandingsthe ofnationhood ethnicity among elder not has border new the Although region. the of structure and dynamics of terms in contacts formalization of lifeeveryday in borderlandthe broughtdeclining of various cross-border consequent and regime border new The theborderlanders. of (self)identifications startedtomanipulatein nationhood international border of 1991essentialist understandings wantsits toimpose that members. on rigid nation-state the the conceptualizations of in processes identifications national UpperKolpathe Valley differently from are perceived These various identifications do not mean that they obtain they that mean not do identifications various These Abramovi To Kolpain Upper conclude,Valley, caseof the nationalism that state of rhetoric the the of the establishment after has concluded, research However, empirical asthe ü , were recorder in the study.the in recorder were , 77 confused confused identity , but that but , CEU eTD Collection 8 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x BIBLIOGRAPHY Croatica Slovenian border region (along the Cohen, Paul.Anthony 173-182.(n.d.): Crkven 1985. symposium held symposium held in Zagreb and slovenian example.” Bufon, Milan. “Theory andpractice in Central European border areas: the Princeton University Press, 2006. ———. 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Available 18, September at: ostavku.” Fable, Silvana. “Kajin: Kosor nakon dogovora s Pahorom treba podnijeti 21 2011). izvijestiti-javnost-sadrzaju-dogovora-sa-slovenijom-clanak-19644 Vecernji list hrvatskoj-cemo-odblokirati-samo-10-od-14-poglavlja-/309789/ ostavku/309947/ “ Hillary pohvalilaKosor: Rješavanjesporanebibiomogu Jutarnji list , September 162009.Available, September at: , September 14 2009. , Availableat: (accessed on (accessed on April 212011). Map 1. Map of the Upper Kolpa Valley September 16 2009. September 16 Available at: http://www.jutarnji.hr/hillary-pohvalila-kosor--rjesavanje- 83 http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/pusic- (accessed on April 212011). http://www.jutarnji.hr/zbogar--- (page accessed (page on April ü e bez vas.” Jutarnji list CEU eTD Collection 84 CEU eTD Collection 10 APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX Map 2. Map of the location of the Upper Kolpa Valley 85