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Modeling Scope Ambiguity Resolution As Pragmatic Inference: Formalizing Differences in Child and Adult Behavior K.J

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Modeling Scope Ambiguity Resolution As Pragmatic Inference: Formalizing Differences in Child and Adult Behavior K.J Modeling scope ambiguity resolution as pragmatic inference: Formalizing differences in child and adult behavior K.J. Savinelli, Gregory Scontras, and Lisa Pearl fksavinel, g.scontras, lpearlg @uci.edu University of California, Irvine Abstract order of these elements in the utterance (i.e., Every precedes n’t). In contrast, for the inverse scope interpretation in (1b), Investigations of scope ambiguity resolution suggest that child behavior differs from adult behavior, with children struggling this isomorphism does not hold, with the scope relationship to access inverse scope interpretations. For example, children (i.e., : scopes over 8) opposite the linear order of the ele- often fail to accept Every horse didn’t succeed to mean not all ments in the utterance. Musolino hypothesized that this lack the horses succeeded. Current accounts of children’s scope be- havior involve both pragmatic and processing factors. Inspired of isomorphism would make the inverse scope interpretation by these accounts, we use the Rational Speech Act framework more difficult to access. In line with this prediction, Conroy to articulate a formal model that yields a more precise, ex- et al. (2008) found that when adults are time-restricted, they planatory, and predictive description of the observed develop- mental behavior. favor the surface scope interpretation. We thus see a potential Keywords: Rational Speech Act model, pragmatics, process- role for processing factors in children’s inability to access the ing, language acquisition, ambiguity resolution, scope inverse scope. Perhaps children, with their still-developing processing abilities, can’t allocate sufficient processing re- Introduction sources to reliably access the inverse scope interpretation. If someone says “Every horse didn’t jump over the fence,” In addition to this processing factor, Gualmini et al. (2008) do you think any horses made it over the fence? If you noted that discourse properties, such as what children con- think not, then you’ve interpreted this utterance as some- sider the question under discussion (QUD), may impact their thing like (1a). In contrast, if you think it’s possible some scope interpretation behavior. Formal theories of pragmat- horses made it, you’ve interpreted this utterance as something ics suggest that all discourse transpires with respect to some like (1b). These two different interpretations are possible be- QUD, whether implicit or explicit; utterances in the discourse cause the utterance is scopally ambiguous. That is, it contains need to (at least partially) answer the QUD to be pragmat- two scope operators: a quantifier (every=8) and a negation ically felicitous (Roberts, 2012). Gualmini and colleagues (n’t=:). Either element can take scope over the other (indi- (Hulsey et al., 2004; Gualmini et al., 2008) suggest that chil- cated as >> in (1)), and so yield two different interpretations. dren are very sensitive to this requirement. In particular, chil- dren may be able to access the inverse scope interpretation but (1) Every horse didn’t jump over the fence. nonetheless choose the surface scope interpretation because a. 8 >> : (surface scope): it better answers the perceived QUD in the contrived experi- None of the horses jumped over the fence. mental setups. So, children’s observed behavior would derive b. : >> 8 (inverse scope): from a still-developing ability to manage the contextual infor- Not all of the horses jumped over the fence. mation available and correctly infer the intended QUD. While adults can access both interpretations given appropri- Thus, children’s developing processing and pragmatic abil- ate context, 5-year-old children typically struggle to obtain ities may both be a source of the observed non-adult-like be- the inverse scope in (1b) (Musolino, 1998; Lidz & Musolino, havior (Viau et al., 2010), though current experimental stud- 2002; Musolino & Lidz, 2006; Musolino, 2006; Viau et al., ies have struggled to clearly isolate the influence of each type 2010; Tieu, 2015). For example, in a context where two out of of factor. To this end, we formally articulate the mecha- three horses did in fact jump over the fence, only the inverse nism of scope ambiguity resolution using the Bayesian Ra- scope interpretation in (1b) is true. Adults charitably inter- tional Speech Act (RSA) computational modeling framework pret the ambiguous utterance in a way that makes it a true (Frank & Goodman, 2012; Goodman & Frank, 2016) in or- statement (i.e., with the inverse scope in a two-out-of-three der to identify the separate contributions of processing and scenario), but 5-year-olds stick with the surface interpretation pragmatic factors. in (1a), which is false. Why does children’s behavior differ We first summarize key experimental results from the liter- from adults’ in this context? ature on child scope ambiguity resolution, noting three core Previous accounts of children’s scope interpretation be- variables (one processing, two pragmatic) that affect chil- havior have recognized that both processing and pragmatic dren’s scope disambiguation behavior. We also highlight the factors may contribute to non-adult-like behavior. Musolino nature of the task children are being asked to engage in, which (1998, 2006) observed that the surface scope interpretation in we then formally articulate using an RSA model that specifies (1a) may be easier to process because the scope relationship the role of each of these three variables. Our results suggest in the semantics (i.e., 8 scopes over :) aligns with the linear that pragmatic factors play a larger role than processing fac- tors in explaining children’s non-adult-like scope ambiguity and Lidz augmented the basic TVJT to include an additional resolution behavior, and the computational modeling frame- contrast condition in which the puppet precedes its negative work allows us to understand exactly why that’s so. These scopally-ambiguous utterance with a contrasting affirmative results additionally suggest targeted future behavioral exper- clause. This additional clause describes a previous successful iments to verify the impact of the specific pragmatic factors story action (i.e., early-success), such as Every horse jumped we identify. More generally, our model yields a more pre- over the log, but every horse didn’t jump over the fence. This cise, explanatory, and predictive description of the observed early-success contrast manipulation increased children’s will- developmental scope ambiguity resolution behavior. ingness to accept the scopally-ambiguous utterance in the not-all scenario: Children in the baseline condition endorsed Background: Experimental results the puppet’s statement just 15% of the time, while children in Children’s ability to access the inverse scope interpretation the early-success affirmative context condition endorsed the has been shown to be sensitive to manipulations of experi- puppet’s statement 60% of the time. Viau et al. (2010) later mental context. The methodology typically used to assess replicated this increase in utterance endorsement using only children’s scope disambiguation is the Truth Value Judgment an early-success story context. That is, the utterance endorse- Task (TVJT; Crain & McKee, 1985). In the basic TVJT, chil- ment rate was maintained by an early-success story context dren are presented with a background story about the actors— alone, and children didn’t need an explicit contrast clause in for example, horses engaging in some activities. After this the test utterance. background story, children watch as the horses attempt to Notably, the early-success affirmative context manipula- complete an action, such as jump over a fence. The critical tion potentially changes several aspects of the experimental not-all result state meant to prompt the inverse scope inter- context. First, it can shift participants’ expectations about pretation is illustrated in Figure 1, where the white horse fails successful outcomes in the experimental world. This shift to jump over the fence. then potentially increases the salience of a QUD targeting this success, such as “Did all the horses succeed?” (all?). Rec- ognizing this QUD’s potential significance, Gualmini (2004) attempted to manipulate the experimental context so it fa- vored the all? QUD. With all? as the salient QUD, chil- dren’s endorsement of a scopally-ambiguous utterance that perfectly answers all? in the critical not-all scenario in- creased to 90%. Even for a scopally-ambiguous utterance that does not answer the all? QUD, children’s endorsement rate was at 50%—markedly higher than the 15% baseline from the original study by Musolino and Lidz (2006). This finding highlights that privileging the all? QUD increases children’s Figure 1: Sample not-all scenario from Musolino and Lidz utterance endorsement in these scenarios. (2006): 2 of 3 horses succeed at jumping over the fence. A third potential impact of the affirmative context manip- ulation involves scope access. By altering the experimental In this scenario, the surface scope interpretation of the world expectations and/or QUD to increase access to the in- scopally-ambiguous utterance Every horse didn’t jump over verse scope, the inverse scope interpretation may also become the fence (i.e., none of the horses jumped over the fence) is more accessible for later use. Viau et al. (2010) term this false, and the inverse scope interpretation (i.e., not all of the structural priming. Children who are better able to access the horses jumped over the fence) is true. A puppet then says the inverse scope are then more likely to endorse the scopally- scopally-ambiguous utterance, and the child is asked to state ambiguous utterance in subsequent not-all scenarios. Viau if the puppet is right. That is, the child is asked whether s/he et al. investigated structural priming explicitly by attempting would endorse the puppet’s utterance as a true description of to directly alter the accessibility of the inverse scope inter- the scenario. Typically, children refuse to endorse the pup- pretation. In one modified TVJT, they attempted to prime pet’s utterance, saying that the puppet is wrong.
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