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AFRICAN LITERATURE and the ENVIRONMENT: a STUDY in POSTCOLONIAL ECOCRITICISM By AFRICAN LITERATURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: A STUDY IN POSTCOLONIAL ECOCRITICISM By Cajetan N. Iheka A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of English – Doctor of Philosophy 2015 ABSTRACT AFRICAN LITERATURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: A STUDY IN POSTCOLONIAL ECOCRITICISM By Cajetan N. Iheka African Literature and the Environment: A Study in Postcolonial Ecocriticism , examines how African literary texts document, critique, and offer alternative visions on ecological crises such as the Niger-Delta oil pollution and the dumping of toxic wastes in African waters. The study challenges the anthropocentricism dominating African environmental literary scholarship and addresses a gap in mainstream ecocriticism which typically occludes Africa’s environmental problems. While African literary criticism often focuses on impacts of environmental problems on humans, my dissertation, in contrast, explores the entanglements of humans and nonhumans. The study contributes to globalizing ecocriticism, expands the bourgeoning corpus of ecological investigations in African literary criticism, and participates in efforts to foster interdisciplinary connections between the humanities and the sciences. Following the lead of postcolonial ecocritics, like Rob Nixon, who have pressed the need for dialogue between ecocriticism and postcolonialism, Chapter One interprets Frantz Fanon’s Wretched of the Earth , Homi Bhabha’s Location of Culture, and Gayatri Spivak’s A Critique of Postcolonial Reason as an archive for environmental inquiry. In Chapter Two, I track representations of ecological crisis in the Niger Delta novels of Gabriel Okara, Isidore Okpewho, and Tanure Ojaide to argue that these texts spotlight the progressive devastation of the Delta esnvironment.While critics have celebrated the human agency implicit in bombing oil installations and oil bunkering as forms of resistance in the novels, I draw attention to its limits, positing the ecological challenges posed by the resulting oil spill, flooding, etc., to the ecology, and argue on the need for alternative means of addressing the problem. Chapter Three brings into view the environmental despoilment caused by the Somalian wars depicted in the novels of Nuruddin Farah. This chapter is informed by the recent materialist turn in ecocriticism. I show that the interplay of the human and nonhuman aspects of the Somalian ecology produces types of agency that move us away from African literary criticism’s conventional anthropocentric assessment of the toll of war. By considering the capacities of the landscape, animals, and other nonhumans to produce agency in Maps , Secrets , Links , and Crossbones , the chapter argues that Farah’s work enables us to rethink anthropocentric agency. Ultimately, I foreground the interactions of humans and nonhumans in a war scenario and highlight the shared suffering and agency that their interactions produce. The final chapter extends my analysis of human-nonhuman interactions by attending to the contradictions that often characterize such relations. Informed by Karen Thornber’s notion of ecoambiguity, the chapter asserts that Doris Lessing’s The Grass is Singing , Bessie Head’s When Rain Clouds Gather , and J.M. Coetzee’s Life and Times of Michael K portray the ambivalence characterizing the process of meeting the sometimes competing demands for agricultural progress and environmental sustainability in their Southern African contexts. My reading captures the ambiguities that emerge as Lessing’s Dick, Head’s Gilbert, and Coetzee’s Michael pursue their agricultural ventures while trying to maintain an ecological balance. Copyright by CAJETAN N. IHEKA 2015 To Eve and Kamsi for being there and for the joys they bring to my life. Always v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First I thank God, my creator for his many graces, mercies, and favors. His sustenance saw me through my stay at Michigan State University. When the story of my doctoral program is told, it will be said that I completed a PhD in four years; however missing from that temporal overview is the labors of Kenneth Harrow, my dissertation chair and mentor, who took interest in my work since the first day I arrived East Lansing. Ken’s turnaround of dissertation chapters (within a week for the most part!) and his thorough feedback have enriched the work in this dissertation. My other committee members: Rob Nixon, Justus Nieland, Salah Hassan, and Kiki Edozie, provided suggestions and mentorship for which I am grateful. Other professors at Michigan State University such as Nwando Achebe, Folu Ogundimu, Jyotsna Singh, and Steve Rachman have provided direction and support at various points of my journey. To them I say thank you. I thank my colleague, friend, and brother, Connor Ryan for reading most of the pages that follow and the excellent suggestions he provided at every stage. It was Chima Korieh who saw the potential in an undergraduate at the Imo State University (IMSU) and encouraged me to undertake graduate education in the United States. I thank him for his consistent support and trust in the work I do. Apollos Nwauwa has also been a shining example since our paths crossed at an academic conference a couple of years ago. He has remained a mentor ever since and I thank him for that. Maureen Eke supervised my master’s thesis at Central Michigan University. She has remained an advisor, mentor, and a mother to me ever since. I appreciate all you do, Mom. I have also benefitted from the friendship and mentorship of Evan Mwangi of Northwestern University. His insistence on focusing on what is vi important guided my thinking on this project. Many thanks are also due to Carmela Garritano, Amatoritsero Ede, Akin Adesokan, Olabode Ibironke, Pius Adesanmi and Adeleke Adeeko whose encouragements were invaluable throughout the writing of this dissertation. In Nigeria, Chris Onyema introduced me to the eco in literature and I have not looked back ever since. I thank him for his love and support. I also thank Isidore Diala for the inspiration he has provided since I first took his class as a freshman at IMSU. I cannot thank him enough for his exemplary scholarship and teaching. Friends have supported me throughout the project. I thank Jack Taylor, Anna Feuerstein, Abdulhamit Arvas, Esra Genc, Hanan Aly, Yesomi Umolu, Jennifer Royston, Samuel Salvidar, Noble Onyema Ikeh, Emmanuel Akanwa, Tobi Omoyele, Kenneth Agbonwaneten, Dammy Agbonwaneten, Bala Saho, and Leonald Ndubueze Mbah for all their touch in my life. I have also enjoyed the warmth, love, and prayers of my wonderful family. My parents, Clement and Justina have supported me with their prayers, love, and everything else they can afford. I will remain in their debt for everything they have done to bring me this far. I thank my siblings for being there and being a constant reminder of the Nigerian environment. I am grateful to my inlaws for the gift of my wife and for being part of my story even when it was unclear where I stood with their daughter. Evelyn Moromokeji’s respect and appreciation of intellectual labor saw me through the writing of this project. Her greatest gift, however, is Kamsiyonna, whose arrival motivated the completion of the dissertation so I could spend time with him. My dedication of the dissertation to mother and child is a step towards acknowledging the ways they enrich my environment. Finally I thank Michigan State University for providing a conducive environment for developing this project. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ………………….…………………………………………………………………...1 A Note on Method……………………………………………………………………….12 Chapter Breakdown……………………………………………………………………...15 Chapter One Postcolonial Theory and its Ecological (In)attention …............................................................22 Fanon and the Wretched African Environment………………………………………….32 Bhabha, the Human, and Ecological Possibilities……………………………………….54 Spivak, Women, the Environment, and the Global……………………………………...68 Chapter Two The Ecological (In)attention of Niger-Delta Literature: Rereading Okara, Okpewho, and Ojaide ……………………………………………………………………..…..............................84 The Niger-Delta Unveiled ....................... ...........................................................................91 The Niger-Delta Environment in Three Novels: Okara’s The Voice…………………..100 The Niger-Delta Environment in Three Novels: Okpewho’s Tides ................................116 The Niger-Delta Environment in Three Novels: Ojaide’s The Activist ………………...121 Let’s Blow Things Up and/or the Possibilities of Ecological Collectivities…………...127 The Niger-Delta, the Environment, and the Intellectual………………………………..150 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...160 Chapter Three Ecologies of War, Farah’s Somalia, and Material Ecocriticism ……………………………162 The Contexts of the Texts………………………………………………………………169 Secrets, Links, and Crossbones: An Overview…………………………………………172 Meeting the Animal Other……………………………………………………………...176 Can the Landscape Act…………………………………………………………………182 Commodification of Bodies and the Production of Agency……………………………192 Conclusion: National War, Planetary Implications…………………………………….204 Chapter Four Southern Africa’s Agricultural Economy and the Hauntings of Environmental Ambivalence …………………………………………………………………………………...209 Lessing’s Dick and Environmental Contradictions…………………………………….212 Bessie Head and the Ambivalence of Agricultural Botswana………………………….222 Michael’s Ambiguity in Coetzee’s Life & Times………………………………………232 Coda: By Way
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