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AUTHOR Stevenson, Harold W.; Lee, Shin-ying TITLE International Comparisons of Entrance and Exit Examinations: Japan, United Kingdom, France, and Germany. INSTITUTION Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. Media and Information Services. REPORT NO ORAD-97-1110 PUB DATE 1997-09-00 NOTE 58p.; "In collaboration with Solange Carton, Margaret Evans, Samia Meziane, Naoko Moriyoshi, Ian Schmidt." PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative (142) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Admission (School); College Bound Students; *College Entrance Examinations; Comparative Analysis; Cross Cultural Studies; Developed Nations; Educational Attainment; Foreign Countries; *High School Students; High Schools; Higher Education; *International Education; *Student Educational Objectives; Test Construction; *Test Use; Vocational Education IDENTIFIERS *Exit Examinations; France; Germany; Japan; United Kingdom

ABSTRACT The roles of exit examinations (high school exit) and college entrance examinations in four industrialized countries are described. Information was obtained from reviews of educational systems and interviews with small samples of students (at least seven or eight students), parents, and teachers during 1993. All four countries studied, Japan, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, are experiencing a common problem in that their universities, built to educate a moderate percentage of the population, are being asked to accommodate increasing numbers of students. They are left with the alternatives of restricting enrollments to make the universities more elitist or expanding enrollments and watering down the value of the university degree. In all of these countries, entrance and exit examinations are based on a curriculum established by ministries of education. These examinations are closely tied to what students have studied in school. Parents and students expressed satisfaction with the examinations overall, although they noted problems with strong reliance on examinations. They were unable, however, to suggest more desirable procedures. Regardless of the approach taken by governments in these four countries, it seems likely that the number of students selecting a vocational track will continue to lag as long as economic and social advantages of a university degree persist. (Contains 25 references.) (SLD)

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U.S. Office of Department ofEducation EducationalResearch andImprovement

EST COPYAVAILABLE International Comparisonsof entranceandwrit examinations Japan, UnitedKingdom, France, and Germany

Harold W. Stevenson and Shin-ying Lee in collaboration with Solange Carton Margaret Evans Samia Meziane Naoko Moriyoshi Ian Schmidt University of Michigan

U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement

3 U.S. Department of Education Richard W. Riley Secretary Office of Educational Research and Improvement Ramon C. Cortines Acting Assistant Secretary Office of Reform Assistance and Dissemination Ron Cartwright Acting Director Media and Information Services Cynthia Hearn Dorfman Director

September 1997

4 Table of Contents

Introduction 1 Japan 3 Elementary and Secondary Education 3 Junior Colleges and Universities 4 Applying for University Entrance 4 Public and National Universities 5 Private Universities 5 Alternative Methods 6 Juku 6 University Expenses 6 Ronin 7 Reaction to the College Entrance System Need for Entering College 7 General Satisfaction Fairness 9 Factors Associated With Success 10 Stressfulness of the examinations 11 Role of Schools and Teachers 11 Role of Parents 12 Conclusion 12 The United Kingdom 13 The British Educational System 13 Primary and Secondary Education 13 Universities 15 Applying for Entrance 15 Reactions to the Entrance Examination System 16 Desire for Entering the University 16 General Satisfaction 16 Curriculum 17

iii Fairness 18 Difficulty 18 Limited Choices 18 Factors Associated With Success 18 Early Preparation 19 Choice of University and Degree 19 Personal Attributes and Work Experience 19 Stress 20 Role of Parents, Teachers, and Schools 20 Conclusion 20 France 23 Elementary and Primary Systems 23 The Academic Baccalaureat 24 Higher Education 25 Universities 25 Grandes Ecoles 26 Changes in the College Admission Process 26 Reactions to the System 26 Lack of Information 26 General Satisfaction 27 Curriculum 27 Fairness 28 Factors Associated With Success 28 Stress 29 Role of Parents 29 Role of Teachers and Students 30 Conclusion 30 Germany 33 Elementary and Secondary Education 33 Primary School 33 Types of Schools 34 Hauptschule 34 Realschule 34 6 iv Vocational School 35 Gymnasium 36 Gesamtschule 36 Forderstufe 37 University Education 37 Exit Examination 37 The Abitur 37 Preparation for the Examination 39 Reactions to the University Entrance System 39 Need for Entering College 39 General Satisfaction 39 Fairness 41 Factors Associated with Success 42 Stress 43 Role of Parents 44 Conclusion 44 Summary 47 Entrance and Exit Examinations 47 Reactions to Examinations 48 Criticisms of the Examinations 48 Conclusions 49 Endnote 51 References 53 Introduction

One of the most difficult questionsfacing students to pursue advanced levels of many contemporary societies is education. Even in these societies, however, deciding how to allocate their expenditures some institutions offer moredemanding for education. Should emphasis be placed on curricula than others. As a result, admission primary and secondary schools, or should to different institutions requiresdifferent colleges and universities receive higher levels qualifications. Other societies, allocating less of support? In a rapidly developing world, funding to higher education, are able to where technology and science play admit only a small percentage of the students increasingly important roles, will a society be seeking admission each year. As a result, in a better competitive position by entrance to colleges and universitiesin these emphasizing the basic primary and secondary societies is extremely competitive. school years, or by expanding the number of The United States is among the societies that students who attain degrees from post are examining the ways inwhich higher secondary institutions? education can yield the greatest benefit, both These decisions occupy a great deal of for the individual and for society in general. attention, but even more formidable One approach that may be helpful in this questions are raised once a decision is self-scrutiny is to find out how other highly reached: How should students be selected for industrialized societies handle these admission to successively more demanding problems. What is the structure of higher levels of education? If access to colleges is education in these societies and on what readily available, how can the quality of basis are students admitted to colleges and education be maintained or improved? On universities? Specifically, what roles do high the other hand, entrance to colleges and school exit examinations or college entrance universities becomes highly competitive if the examinations play in determining college society concentrates its expenditures on admissions? What do students, parents, and education at the elementary and early teachers think about the usefulness and secondary levels. Because the level of fairness of these examinations? Are the education attained by individuals is a critical results of the tests considered to be a variable in determining social and financial reasonable index of the students' knowledge status in all industrialized societies,these and potential for future success? How could questions take on important political, social, the examinations be improved? Do the tests and economic implications. strongly influence the high school curriculum? Information relevant to these The resources provided for education within and other questions is provided in this paper, a society are obviously an importantfactor which describes the role of exit and entrance influencing the ways in which education is examinations in four of the industrialized supported. Some societies are rich enough to countries with leading economies: Japan,the develop a wide array of institutions for the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. pursuit of higher learning, thereby making it possible for large percentages of their

1 The information presented in thispaper was not be indicative of the reaction of the obtained from reviews of the educational general population to the procedures used for systems in the four countries and from college entrance. interviews held with small samples of students, parents, and teachers during the The paper is organized accordingto each country. A general description of the last three months of 1993. Interviewswere educational system is followed by held in two locations in eachcountry and the an outline of the college entrance requirements. students selected for interviewswere in their last year of secondary school andwere Following this, the results of the interviews are discussed and some typical reactions are expecting to apply for admissionto some of presented. Finally, a comparison is made of the best known universities in theircountry. Attempts were made in eachcountry to the apparent strengths and weaknesses interview at least seven or eight students and revealed by the interviews held in the four countries. their parents, andsome of their teachers. Because of the small number of respondents and our selection of university-bound students, the results ofour interviews may

2 Japan

Elementary and Secondary competitive schools if they pass the examinations. Education Because the three years of high school are not Education in Japan is compulsory for compulsory, everyone who wishes to receive children between the ages of 6 and 15. an education in a publichigh school must These years encompass the six grades of take an entrance examination that is elementary school (shogakko) and the three administered by each prefecture or city. years of junior high school(chugakko). There Entrance examinations to national or private are two major types of highschools high schools are administered by each high (kotogakko): academic high schools/ and school. In 1994, 95.7 percent of the vocational high schools. Education begins for graduates of junior high schools applied to most Japanese children whenthey enter high school programs, and 95 percent of kindergarten (yochien) or day-care centers those were admitted. (hoikuen or takujisho), both of which may be Students who fail the examination or who do private or supported by the government. not qualify for admission tothe school they Yochien enroll children from the ages of three wish to enter may decide to wait another year children. to six; hoikuen accept even younger to retake the test, especiallyif they are highly In 1994, 64 percent of all Japanese motivated to attend a particular high school. first-graders had completed some form of Students who do not pass any of the preschool. Preschools affiliated with examinations may choose to attend other prestigious universities are often selective, types of schools. admitting children only after conducting tests and interviews; however, only around 1 Approximately three-fourths of the high percent of the preschools require someform school students in Japan enrolled in regular of admissions test (Kyoiku Deetarando, 1995). courses in 1994. Inaddition, there is a very elaborate system of alternative schools. Every child in Japan is required to attend Some, which are similar to Western elementary school, either a public school in vocational scho61s, include commercial, the student's residential district, or a private industrial, agricultural, home economics, be outside the or national school that may nursing, and marine high schools. district. This latter type of school is Approximately 26 percent of high school sometimes affiliated with a prestigious private students are enrolled in one of these types of or national university,and children are high schools. admitted only after they pass special entry examinations. In addition, there are technical schools (koto senrnon gakko), special trainingschools It is mandatory for all students to attend (senshu gakko), and miscellaneous schools three years of junior high school. As is the (kakushu gakko), which provide vocational or school, individuals may case with elementary technical education. Students in the choose to go either to local public schools technical schools receive the equivalent of a that automatically accept them, or to

3

1 0 BEST COPYAVAILABLk high school education plustwo years of well as providing a general education. The specialized classes inareas such as remaining 60 percent of the students engineering and marine studieson a attending some type of collegeprogram were junior-college level. The specialtraining enrolled in four-year colleges. schools offer ippan katei (generalcourses), koto katei (upper secondarycourses equivalent Individuals who wish to attend junior colleges to high school), and senmon katei (specialized or universities have to take and pass the courses in which the students receive the entrance examination administered by each equivalent of a postsecondary level of college. Certain universitiesmay waive the education or practical training). Thebroad examination requirement for a select number array of schools falling under the heading of of students who have attendedan affiliated miscellaneous schools offers short-term high school. Since entranceexaminations courses that are equivalent to those of the are held only once a year (usually from special training schools, buton a smaller January to March), students who fail the scale. Admission to theupper secondary examination must wait until the following courses requires the completion of the lower year to retake the examinations. secondary courses, and admissionto the Applying for University postsecondary levelcourses requires the completion of upper secondarycourses. Entrance Much emphasis is placed in Japanupon the Competition for admission to themost prestige of the university from which the prestigious Japanese universities isvery person graduates. Because it is important to intense. Part of the reason for thesevere attend a good high school in orderto gain competition is that the number of students access to a prestigious university, parental admitted to college has remained essentially concern about the high school the same over theyears, even though the entrance-examination process has increased number of applicants has increased dramatically over the past several decadesas dramatically. Universitiesare not allowed to entrance to universities has becomemore increase their enrollment without permission competitive. Graduating from high school from the Ministry of Education (Monbusho). qualifies a student to take the In 1993, about half of all males appliedto college-entrance examinations, althoughit is four- year universities. Of these, 36.6percent possible for non-graduatesto apply to college were enrolled. Among females, 23.5 percent if they pass a special qualifyingexamination. applied to four-year institutions and 19 There are no exit examinationsat the percent were actually enrolled. completion of high school. Before students are allowedto apply to a Junior Colleges and Universities university, they are expected to have completed the equivalent ofa high school Among the 1994 high school graduates,36 education and be at least 18years of age by percent were enrolled in some type of college the time they enter the university. Tomeet program. Among these students, 40 percent the first requirement, individuals needto were enrolled in the two-year programs graduate from a high schoolor an equivalent offered by junior colleges. Juniorcolleges are educational institution,or to pass an annually especially popular withyoung women, for the held University Entrance Center Exam. This programs prepare students for various jobsas test covers the material taught at high school.

4 Some students who are applying for The second set of tests taken by students are admission to the nation's top universities may the specific entrance examinations stay at home during partof their senior year constructed for and administered by each or earlier, in order tohave the free time they university. They are administered on one believe is necessary for adequate preparation day, or possibly two days, and each for the entrance examinations. examination lasts from one to three hours. The format for the examinations usually Once the two requirements are met, there is includes multiple-choice questions, questions that must be an established set of steps requiring short answers, long essays, and in followed in applying for university entrance. some cases, oral responses or interviews. Students may apply for admission to any Highly competitive universities will not number of universities and are limited only by accept applications for the second the dates of the examinations and the examination from students who do not score subjects that are included in the above a certain level on the first examinations. Some universities may not, for examination. The minimum scores required example, offer examinations in the subjects by various universities are made available to which the student wishes to study. The steps all students. for application vary somewhat depending on whether the student is applying to a public, a The total score of the first and second sets of national, or a private university. examinations is calculated (the weighting of the scores varies among universities), and Public and National Universities acceptance is based nearlyexclusively on the score that is obtained. Inorder to allow Individuals seeking admission to national or students to apply to more than a single public universities take two sets of university, some universities schedule the examinations. The first set, the Center second set of examinations on separate days. Examination (Center shiken), is administered These schedules allow students opportunities every January by the NationalCenter for that were impossible in earlier years, when all University Entrance Examinations. This national universities gave their examinations examination is given at the same time on the same day. throughout the country and includes a variety of subjects, such as mathematics, Private Universities science, history, language arts, humanities, and foreign languages. National universities A number of prestigious private universities generally require applicants to be tested on also require applicants to take the Center six subjects; private universities usually Examinations, but in only three or four require three or four. The Center subjects. Second examinations are Examination consists of multiple-choice administered by each university, and the total questions. score of the two tests, aswell as other qualifications, determines who is accepted. The correct answers to all the examination Private universities construct their own questions are listed in the newspaper the day examination questions, and students have to after the test, and students can evaluate their prepare themselvesfor each university's own performance. Based on the total score unique orientation. they receive, students must then decide the universities to which they will apply. Alternative Methods announced in the late fall, rather than in the spring after the examinations are given. In addition to entrance-examinationscores, other avenues are available for admissionto Juku both public and private universities. Students may be accepted bya university In response to the severe competition for through the recommendation (suisen)system, college admission,many children are sent to which currently accounts for nearly 20 special tutoring sessions knownas juku, in percent of the admissions. Japan's universities order to improve their academic abilities and consider two main types of recommendation: increase their chances of being admittedto a the "Allocated to School" recommendation top university. Many parents believe that the (Shiteiko suisen) and the "Opento Public" high school curriculum doesnot adequately recommendation (Kobo suisen). In the first prepare students for the rigorous university type, universities accept a small number of entrance examinations. This is especially students from certain highly regarded high true of parents of students at public high schools. Because these high schoolsare well schools, where the curriculum is directly known for their academic excellence, controlled by the Ministry of Educationor students recommended by the principals of regional boards of education. The Ministry these schools usually get accepted after sets required hours for each subject, making it procedural tests and interviews. Ifmore than difficult for teachers to have timeto prepare the allocated number of students apply for students for the college-entrance admission through thismeans, their teachers examinations. In such cases the teachers select the top studentson the basis of often acknowledge the necessity for students academic standing, personality, conduct, to attend juku to obtain such preparation. attendance, extracurricular activities, and Attendance at juku is widespread but varies leadership. The secondtype of greatly, depending on the grade level of the recommendation is open to all students, but student, the size of the city in which the students must find out which universities student lives, and the family's income. In accept students by public recommendation. some locations, only a small percentage of the They then ask their teachersto recommend high school studentsmay attend juku; in them by filling in relevant sections of the other locations, more than half of the college's application form. As with the first students in the second and thirdyears of high system, entrance to these universities school study academic subjectsat juku. Juku depends on more than grades, for other are privately owned and sessions are personal attributes also playan important role expensive; entrance fees can cost thousands in the teachers' recommendations. of dollars and monthly tuition several The recommendationsystem for admission is thousand more. especially beneficial for students who donot perform up to their capacity in highly University Expenses competitive examination settings. Theynot Attending a Japanese university, especiallya only are relieved of this competition,but the private university, can be quite costly. The stress for those who are successful is also enrollment fees and tuitionat private reduced by the fact that admissionsare universities are over four timesas high as at public or national universities, where the

6 13 enrollment fee is approximately $2,000 and Reactions to the College the yearly tuition is approximately $3,600. If Entrance System the universities to which the students are applying are not in their immediate area, it Need for Entering College may cost an additional$1,000 just to make the trips necessary to take the Most of the persons interviewed were college-entrance examinations. convinced that it is important for students to achieve a college education. Both parents These high costs have led to concern about and teachers indicated that it is not only the association between successful college important to attend a university, but that Without entrance and financial support. particular universities offered special for it is impossible money, choices are limited, advantages. One teacher pointed out that: for the child to attend juku or expensive private schools, or for the family to employ a graduates from prestigious universities tutor. There is growing uneasinesstherefore, are guaranteed higher positionsand that students of average academic abilities status in our society. They get better may be admitted to prestigiousuniversities, jobs, faster promotions, better marriages, because they have had access to and an all-around better life. That is opportunities and experiences that are why people aspire to being admitted to especially relevant for doing well on college those universities. entrance examinations. A few others thought that a college education was not alwaS a necessity. This Ronin view was expressed by one of the parents: Due to the highly competitive nature of I don't think that a college education is college entrance in Japan, many students are 100 percent necessary: Maybe 50/50. In not accepted into a university. This hasled the present system, even if people to the "ronin era," a phenomenon of graduate from college, they are not increasing frequency in which students wait prepared for special occupations or to retake the yearly examinations andplace skills. People can study by themselves other options on hold. Some students give for what is taught at college. I don't up all aspirations for entering acollege or think that my son has to go to college university and seek a job or enroll in special straight out of high school. If he knows training schools. Others may enroll in special What he wants to study in college, I training schools and wait until the university would encourage him and welcome such entrance examinations are given the a goal-oriented attitude. following year, when they can try once more to achieve a passing grade. Roninspend their General Satisfaction time preparing for the next round of entrance examinations. It is acceptable for sons to The teachers who were interviewed were maintain their status as ronin for two or more satisfied with some aspects of the overall years, especially if they are seekingadmission college-admission process. They commented to a leading university, but parents are favorably about the confidentiality of the unlikely to allow their daughters to adopt this examination questions and the way they were role for more than a single year. marked. They also agreed that students who study hard and do well on the examinations

7 14 have excellent chances ofgetting into a the arduous high schoolyears and those university. Some teachers, however, following college when students willenter the complained about thetypes of questions that labor force and once again will be faced with appear on the examinations. They intense competition. One of the teachers questioned the usefulness of paper-and-pencil explained it this way: tests. These tests, they suggested, required students to rely too muchon memory and too I think it would be better if the students little upon the abilityto apply this could get in their desired colleges, but information to the solution of meaningful that it would be more difficultto problems. A similar attitudewas expressed graduate. Japanese teachers tendto be lenient and merciful to slow-learning by one of the students:It onlyseems to assess techniques for takingexams. As for science students and it is difficult for themto subjects, weshould value theprocess of give a failing grade to those students. We should establish self-discovery and self-learning. I feel that I an organization am being tested only on accumulated that administers a university graduation knowledge. qualification test. Students who don't pass the test would not be allowed to Teachers also had seriousconcerns about the graduate. recommendation system. Thissystem was designed to benefit high school students who Most mothers who were interviewed accepted the present .college-entrance have studied hard but who, forone reason or system with few another, are not good at takingentrance questions. Their main concern was for their children to pass the examinations and examinations. Currently, however,many of to be the students seeking admission by accepted into a university, and fewwere recommendation simply want to get into critical of the procedures that currently exist. college earlier, with the result that students They considered theentrance examinations who would have benefited from the to be a necessary screening device, rather recommendation system are losing their than as a means for assessing the fitness of chances. One of the teachers complained: applicants to each university. In theirview, the present system might be subjectto Students adopt the strategy of aiming for criticism, but the necessity of usingsome type a recommendation from the time they of selection device dueto the limited capacity begin high school. The high school of each university seemedto be well accepted. experience becomes simply ameans of gaining the recommendation. This was not always thecase, however. Some parents worried that the demands of the Most of the teachers suggested thatJapan entrance examination were changing the adopt a system that makes it easierto be characteristics of Japanese students. Because admitted to college but harderto graduate. students spend so much time preparing for This, they proposed, would lessen the fierce entrance examinations, the parents were competition for university entrance while concerned that they were reducing the strengthening the incentive within each amount of time spent in group activities. student to study hard to graduate from Team play in the minds of theseparents is college. Such a change would bein response essential, and "Learning oriented toward the to the common charge in Japan that the individual does not fosteran ability to college years are a time of relaxationbetween cooperate with others. " It is in this way, they

8 said, that the present examination system is guessing. They appeared to be satisfiedwith changing the lives of Japanese students. the scoring and the reasonableness of the Center Examinations, but were not satisfied Parents were also highly critical of the with the fact that the second set of university system as it exists in Japan and examinations also stresses skill-oriented wondered whether profound changes in learning that often relies heavily on college curricula and admissions standards memorization. They were aware of theefforts might not be needed. One of the fathers being made to improve the system, and expressed these criticisms: seemed to believe that the present I wish the college education would foster examination system, despite its shortcomings, an ability the studentalready possesses is acceptable. and that students could graduate with a More than half of the mothers interviewed feeling of accomplishment. They should said they had not given any consideration to teach practical skills and knowledge, the fairness of the present examination things that are useful in the real world. system. One of the questionsthey raised It seems that the Japanese college dealt with the validity of requiring the education is a waste of money and input. mastery of a large amountof information. Students' academic levels may well be "The examinations," said one of the mothers, higher at the time of entry than that of "should select those students who will benefit the graduates. Graduates of Japanese most from college educationrather than universities cannot make use of their those who score well on memorization tests." college education in their occupations. In general, however, the mothers expressed This may be due in part Fairness very few criticisms. to the relatively passiverole played by parents Students' responses to the fairness of the in the college-entrance process. In most system varied. One said that "it isfair cases, students decidetheir own academic because if we study hard, we can get into courses and make their ownchoices about college, although the once-a-year chance the examinations they will take. might be a problem." Another felt that: Some students thought the examination competition is a natural outcome of the system was fair and acceptable;others fact that there is an excess in the pointed out its shortcomings, especially those demand for college entrance. In the real concerning the inability of the presentformat world, competition often involves more of the examination to evaluate relevant than the individual's abilities and personal characteristics. talented persons may not always get There can be no perfect system. I promoted or acknowledged. In that understand that some shortcomings fair since sense, the exam system is would always exist. But if possible, I entrance is determined solely on the would like to see an improvement in the basis of academic achievement.' selection process so that personal Some teachers criticized the multiple-choice characteristics would be given more nature of the Center Examinationsbecause consideration, rather than simply relying they could lead to scores that might be only on academic achievement. unduly high or low because of luck or

9 16 Some students commented on the content of give up easily on difficult problemsare likely the exams: "Ifsomeone is not good at one of to foster confidence within themselves and the subjects and fails thattest, he cannot get succeed on the exams." One teacher in regardless of his hard work." Anotherof emphasized: the students suggested: It is important not to be extremely bad I would not say that thepresent at one subject and to be good at one entrance exam system is a fair one. subject, preferably math,as it is Students cannotexpress their passion relatively easier to score higher and about a subject, their highmotivation to differentiate themselves from otherson enter a college, to exam administrators. the math test. Ofcourse, hard work is Nor does the testassess the individual's necessary. However, I think I can see knowledge in his or her special field of during the last year of high school that interest. those who are born with talent naturally The increasing role of jukuwas also criticized, excel others. As a teacher, I shouldnot primarily because attendanceat juku gives be saying this, but I can't deny that special advantage to students whose families inborn ability also playsan important can afford to pay the high tuition. Jukuare role in determiningsuccess. expensive and many families donot have the Mothers believed that effortwas an funds necessary for tuition; thus childrenin important predictor of success: "Without these families do not have thesame hard study, no luck works. Overnight opportunities for passing the entrance cramming is not enough." The importance of examinations as the well-drilled students mental factors, especially the abilityto keep from more affluent families. one's composure, were also mentioned. One In general, all interviewees (teachers,parents, mother described her feelings in the following and students) felt that thepresent entrance way: examinations are functioningas screening To maintain composure,we should be devices. The nature of thepresent selection prepared for every situation. If the process raised some concerns, but the weather turns out to be bad, resultingin necessity of having such screening dueto the a traffic problem, we should reserve a limited capacity of each universityseems to hotel room near the university. If be well accepted. students are late foran exam, it is going to make the students even more Factors Associated With Success nervous. As a parent, I want my child to Teachers associated successful college be in the exam room with enoughtime admission with several factors. Some and minimum worry. emphasized students' skills and achievements Students suggested effort, luck, and physical based on daily efforts and the abilityto and mental conditionson the day of the compete well. Others mentioned confidence examination as factors associated with and mental factors, suchas the ability to stay success. Students also commented that the calm and relaxed during the examinations. economic or family situation hadan indirect In general, most agreed with the teacher who effect on successful college admission.One said that "those who have developedpositive stated: attitudes toward studying and who donot

10 17 Individuals who have grown up in an addition, every class has a homeroom teacher environment of educational stimuli and who is responsible for guiding and taking care opportunities would naturally consider of the whole class. The 12th-grade teachers going to college. To enter a prestigious also help students prepare for the college, I have to go to a good high examinations by providing them with school and junior high school. Then to information in their specific subject areas. go to a good junior high, preparation To provide further assistance, teachers must begin during the days of schedule a meeting each semester with elementary school. students and their mothers. At this meeting they give out the report card and advise the Stressfulness of the Examinations student about his or her selection of courses. Most of the teachers, parents, and students Teachers also arrange for programs in which who were interviewed seemed to view stress all 12th-grade students and their parents are as an inevitable part of the college-admission given a lecture about college entrance process. Stress is a natural consequence, they examinations. seemed to believe, of the competition faced Another important source of information is by students, the pressure the students feel in the juku teacher. Juku teachers collect the trying to meet parental and self-expectations, students' estimates of the scores they received and the fact that graduating from certain on the tests and are able to provide students universities greatly determines the course of with a chart that indicates the distribution of their future lives. Some felt that the stress scores for all students enrolled in juku of a level could be lowered by applying to less particular company. Other students may prestigious universities or by accepting the receive the evaluation by payment of a fee. ronin life to study for another year. Students This information is especially helpful because did not dwell on the stress factor. As one the actual scores on the entrance student said, "We might be stressed. But we examinations are sent only to the universities can't feel it.If we feel we are stressed, that's and not to the students themselves. Knowing it. We have no room left to feel stress." this information, even though it may not be exact, places students in a better position to Role of Schools and Teachers make decisions about universities to which Some schools, usually private schools and top they are most likely to gain admission. urban public schools, prepare students for Because the examinations are based on the college entrance examinations by content of the national curriculum, it is occasionally giving practice examinations and imperative that teachers in all schools cover by providing extracurricular classes to help the entire curriculum. This is made students make up or review particular especially difficult because the examinations subjects. In addition, high schools have are given before the 12th grade is completed. guidance rooms for advising students about Schools respond to these problems in several future courses in which they might enroll. ways. Some schools may actually attempt to Teachers are available as a source of cover the entire high school curriculum in information for students, although most less than three years so that there will be time students seem to know what they need to do left over for preparing students for the college and only occasionally talk to their teachers entrance examinations. Other schools offer about the college-admission process. In extra classes during vacation periods in an

11 18 BEST COPY AVAILABLE effort to compensate for the lack of time to parents, and students acknowledged the fact complete the entire curriculum. In some that efforts are being made to improve the schools, where most students aim for the very overall college-admission process and the top universities, classes are offered according entrance examinations. They expect that to topic and university, so that there may be a there will be more changes in the future. In course, for example, labeled Tokyo contrast to an image of an over-zealous University/Humanities Course. mother, the impression of parents' role among those who were interviewed was one Role of Parents of passivity. They rarely take the initiative The mothers said that their primary with their children's academic lives, whether responsibility was to provide their children it is in the selection of high school courses or with a good environment for studying and to in attempts to help their children with the keep them in the best possible physical college entrance examinations. They condition by preparing nutritious meals and frequently responded with statements such as keeping them healthy. Some parents helped "I don't know" or "I never thought about it" their children determine which courses to when asked about their understanding of the take in junior high or high school, but not at procedures for entering the university. Their the college-entrance level: "At this age, we non-involvement sounded as if they did not have to leave it to them." Despite their lack believe this was their job or that they would of direct involvement, parents' high be expected to understand these procedures. motivation for their children's success on the It seems likely that these positive responses to entrance examinations is obvious. A high the present system characterize the parents score is a source of jubilation for the whole and teachers, as well as the students family; a low score is a source of gloom. themselves, when information is obtained from those who agreed to be interviewed, Conclusion who have high aspirations, and who have a high probability of being admitted to one of In general, most of the interviewees expressed the nation's top universities. Doubtless the some acceptance of the present educational reactions would be different if interviews were system and the manner in which students held with students who were not faring well gain access to higher education. Even so, in this system; that is, with students who there were serious criticisms of the college believed they did not have a chance of being entrance examination system, mainly the admitted to a prestigeful university, or who reliance on the tests of students' ability to had no plans for entering a university after memorize and the unfairness that results from graduating from high school. the inability of some students to obtain extra help in institutions such as juku. Despite some of the system's shortcomings, teachers,

12 I 9 The United Kingdom

The British Educational System which serve all ability levels. Although a few selective Grammar schools still remain, tudents in England, Wales, Scotland and currently about 90 percent of all 14-year-olds SNorthern Ireland follow an orderly route attend Comprehensive schools. through their school years. Compulsory Beginning at 14 years of age, British students education in Britain begins at 5 years of age and ends at 16; post-16 education continues begin the course work that will largely shape only for highly academically proficient their academic futures. It is at this age that students. The British educational system is they begin the two-year courses of study that culminate in the examinations given in June organized to serve the highly academic student well, but its rigorous path to of the second year for the General Certificate university entrance leaves out a large of Secondary Education (GCSE). Among percentage of the student population. In an 16-year-olds, nearly three-fourths were attempt to serve all students better, a number enrolled in a full-time course of study in 1993 - 94; this percentage dropped at age 17 to of legislative changes were introduced in the Education Reform Act of 1988. These slightly over half of the students and at age changes included the introduction of "schools 18 only one in five remained in a full-time of choice," the establishment of a national educational program. curriculum to be fully implemented by 1997, The GCSE is part of a single examination and a more coherent educational path for the system covering England, Wales, Scotland nonacademic student. The impact of these and Northern Ireland, and includes approximately 30 subjects. This two-year and other changes will not be apparent for period of study is very important because the several years, and may not directly affect final grades on the GCSE examinations those students aiming for the top universities. largely determine whether a student is able to Primary and Secondary proceed to the Advanced Level courses, which constitute the major gateway to a Education university education. Students planning to Infant and junior schools offer primary enter a university typically study 8 to 10 education to children between the ages of 5 subjects throughout the two years; less and 11; various types of middle schools offer academically inclined students study fewer secondary education to students until they subjects. reach age 14. In the past, students were Final grades are based on course work as well given an examination at age 11 designed to as students' performance on the final sort them into two ability levels: about 20 examination. Generally, students must percent went to Grammar schools, which achieve a grade of C or above on five or more served university-bound students; the rest GCSEs (grades range from A to G) to went to Secondary Modern schools. advance to the next educational level. Only Beginning ift 1965, however, this system was about a third of the 16-year-olds who take largely replaced by Comprehensive schools, the GCSEs achieve this level of performance,

13 20 and of this select group about 80 percent A-level students not only accumulate a high actually begin Advanced Level course work. degree of knowledge in their chosen subject, As a result, only about 25 percent of the but they also undergo a rigorous final students in this age group go on to post-16 examination of their ability to apply this education. The remaining 75 percent knowledge. Both the course of study and the generally follow one of three paths: (1) they examinations are set by external Examination enter the employment sector; (2) they pursue Boards, composed of professionals in technical or vocational courses; or (3) they education or with expertise in the relevant return to school to retake their GCSEs. subject area. Students are typically tested at The next level of accomplishment, which their own schools over a two- to three-week occurs between the ages of 16 and 18, is period during June of their second year. For assessed by the Advanced Level General each A-level subject there may be three or Certificate of Education (GCE). The four examinations, each lasting two to three Advanced Level GCE is a two-year course of hours or even longer. Of the examinations, study designed to prepare the most one is usually composed of multiple-choice academically able students for university questions; the others are in the form of long, entrance. Students aiming for the top open-ended essay questions, oral presentations, or laboratory demonstrations. universities generally take A-level courses in three of the 30 possible subjects over the two Grading is done by non-partisan external examiners engaged by an Examination Board. years; thus it is widely acknowledged that breadth is sacrificed for depth of knowledge. To qualify for university entrance, a student The traditional A-level course, which is must achieve at least two or more passes at highly rigorous and specialized, is designed to the A-level. Grades of A to E are given for qualify students for further specialization in each A/AS-level examination; points are their anticipated undergraduate degree areas. then awarded for each grade. It is the total Among young people between the ages of 16 number of accumulated points that and 25 years in 1991, 29 percent had determines whether a student will be A-levels, 33 percent had GCSEs, 30 percent accepted into a particular university course or had attained neither of these qualifications, program. and 8 percent had enrolled in an institution Of the estimated 18-year-old population in of higher education. 1992, roughly 21 percent of the students In order to broaden the curriculum, taking the examinations attained passes on Advanced Supplementary (AS) two or more A/AS-level exams; of this group, Examinations were introduced in 1987. They however, only 55 percent, or only 12 percent involve about half the work of A-level of the 18-year-old population, went on to a 3- courses and are designed to increase the or 4-year university. The remaining students number of subjects students can study during either sought employment, retook the A-level the two years. (A student may choose to take exams, or began vocational or technical two A-level and two AS-level courses instead courses. Although nontraditional routes to of three A-level subjects.) However, the AS college entrance exist, especially for Examinations have not been widely accepted universities offering vocational courses, the by students, teachers, or universities. highly academic A-level exams are the most important route to university entrance.

14 21 In 1993, the General National Vocational enrollment at the remaining universities Qualifications were introduced in order to seldom exceeds 2,000 or 3,000 students. develop the skills and knowledge of students Because of the small size of the universities, who intend to pursue a vocational course in most students are able to engage in areas such as business, engineering, and small-group instruction. The tutorial style of health care. The long-term aim is for half of teaching, in which a professor holds weekly the 16- and 17-year olds to take this test. seminars with one to three undergraduates, is Supplementing this effort, a National a feature not only of Oxbridge, but of many Vocational Qualifications Test for persons of the old universities as well. Most of the old who are already employed but seek further universities grant degrees based on a training was introduced in 1988. student's performance on examinations given at the end of the three-year period of study. Universities A student's course work and performance on Britain has 49 universities; of these, 31 were yearly or term examinations may also established after 1945, while 6, called the contribute to the final result, although this is ancient universities (including Oxford and more likely to be true at the new universities. Cambridge, jointly termed Oxbridge), were Another unique feature of the British system established between the 13th and 16th is that students who are accepted to a centuries. The universities offer both university are entitled to both free tuition graduate and undergraduate education; the and a grant covering living expenses. typical undergraduate is a full-time student Although this was designed to ensure that who obtains his or her degree in three years. high-ability students have access to a Students may also obtain degrees through university education regardless of income, the one of Britain's 29 Polytechnics. The amount of the grant has been frozen in recent Polytechnics, which were established in 1966, years, causing a financial hardship to some have a more vocational or technical emphasis lower-income students. and are often linked with industry and business. As of 1993, the majority of the Applying for Entrance Polytechnics were awarded university status; The application procedures for university they are now referred to as the new entrance changed in 1993 because of the new universities, with the original 49 universities status given to the Polytechnics. Apart from being referred to as the old universities. In Oxbridge, there is now a single application addition, Britain's Open University, which form (UCAS) for both the old and new has no entrance requirements, enrolls 72,000 universities. The application form includes part-time undergraduates in correspondence the following five parts: (1) the student's and broadcasting courses. academic record, especially the grades Britain's universities are relatively small. The received on the GCSE exams; (2) University of London, with nearly 40,000 recommendations from the students' tutors, students enrolled in its various colleges, is the including projected grades on the A-level country's largest residential university. Other exams; (3) a one-page personal statement than universities such as Oxford, Leeds, and describing reasons for applying, hobbies, and Manchester, each of which enrolls other interests; (4) background information approximately 10,000 students, the about the student and the student's family; and (5) a ranked list of eight universities to

15 22 which the student wishes to apply. The clearing house, where their applications are UCAS form must be completed by matched against vacancies in university mid-December of the second A-level departments. Other options include academic year. Teachers often help students repeating the A-level course in high school, with these forms and this project is a constant taking the year off and trying again the source of interest and activity in the last following year, enrolling in private quarter of the calendar year. "crammers," or taking a job that is combined The whole application process is somewhat of with a program that enables the student to do a gamble since students do not know their more vocational courses. A-level grades at the time of application. As a result, they must exert great care in Reactions to the Entrance choosing the list of universities to which they Examination System apply. The forms are sent to a central clearing house and copies are issued to all of Desire for Entering the University the universities chosen by the student. All the parents interviewed were supportive Promising candidates are interviewed by the of their children's decision to seek university universities and may be offered a conditional entrance. Many parents saw the degree as a or an unconditional offer. A conditional route to "more secure employment;" others offer is given when a student's acceptance is said it "doesn't necessarily mean you will get dependent on receiving certain grades on the a job." The latter made comments such as upcoming A-level examinations; those of the following two parents: unconditional offers, given to those students the universities want most, are not dependent a. I don't think going to college is on eventual grades. important. I wouldn't pressure any of them if they didn't want to do it. They Grades are a crucial determinant of college have a lot of fun; it's a good qualification admission.If grades are not acceptable, which may or may not get them a job. conditional acceptance is never granted; if It's a valuable experience- gets them grades turn out not to be sufficiently high, away from home. the conditional offer is revoked. A third factor that also influences the decision is the b. I used to think it was very important, a student's interests and skills, especially if they chance to think, to grow, to study are seen to be a potential asset to the something. Recently it's worse for the university. Entrance is granted to a particular graduates. It is not a passport; it doesn't academic department, such as physics or necessarily mean you will get a job. psychology, not to the university itself. General Satisfaction (Entrance procedures differ for Oxford and Cambridge. Students may apply individually Students generally explained that they to either of these universities, but not to thought the entrance procedure was fair. both, and they must decide the colleges One parent called it "a good system but hard within the university in which they would on the kids," but another complained that like to be enrolled.) "people are pitted against one another; there If students fail to get into the universities of is no room for the disadvantaged." Some their choice, their applications are sent to a teachers said that the narrow but focused curriculum served the universities better than

16 23 the students, although it did increase the students both expressed the belief that likelihood that students who enter a middle-class parents could help their children university would leave with a degree. with their personal statements and by The main concerns expressed by the counseling them about their academic interviewees centered around the system's careers. Teachers pointed out that this belief over-reliance on examinations and the degree is only partially correct, for teachers spend to which social class and ethnicity predicted many hours helping students with these university entrance. "If you are not good at matters. Gender also affected the perception examinations, you can mess up your whole of fairness; many females saw their career future." This sentiment was voiced by many choices as being restricted. interviewees, since the highly academic Curriculum A-level examinations form the main criteria for university entrance. Many also felt that The A-level curriculum was generally too much weight was placed on the GCSE regarded by students and teachers as both exams, since the only grades that appear on interesting and challenging. Students are the college application form are the projected expected to do three to four hours of A-level grades. Criticisms of the GCSE homework a night for the A-level courses. In examinations also dealt with the number of addition, the students meet with their form subjects covered. One student criticized tutor once a week and also obtain help from them in this way: their teachers. When the students were asked about their A-level subjects, they responded The GCSEs are a kind of fraud. You that they found them quite intellectually have to work so hard for the nine challenging and stimulating. They also subjects, then they seem like nothing. thought they were quite difficult. You don't use them again. You go on to do three A-levels and the rest are lost. Some students and teachers were not satisfied with the GCSE curriculum. Students Students from families in the professional described the move from GCSE to A-level and managerial sector are four times more course work as a "great jump" and a likely to apply to and be accepted at a "phenomenal gap." However, one reason for university than are students from families of this perception may be that the GCSEs have lower socioeconomic status. In addition, become somewhat less focused in recent years working-class students who do apply for in order to serve the school-leaver as well as university entrance often have trouble the student progressing to the A-level. Thus, coming up with the money needed for living this may be a criticism of the adequacy of the expenses. Not surprisingly, then, of the small GCSE examination as a foundation for the sample of students and parents interviewed, A-levels that follow, rather than of their those from working-class backgrounds were adequacy per se. less likely to view the system as fair. "There is no real support for poor families," said one Some teachers believed that the A-level parent. "Children are very expensive at that syllabi were too packed. "There are big time age. There is no grant to do A-levels. You constraints; too much material. People who can't afford to be poor." get A grades must be slavishly adherent to an The advantages held by middle-class students excellent teacher." Another teacher said that "there is not enough scope for the were not only related to finances; parents and

17 24 students to develop their own knowledge" universities, not only because they did not and "students who seek to understand the believe they could get in, but also because material can put themselves at a they expected that they would not like their disadvantage." A third teacher said of the fellow students. curriculum: "It is always challenging and stimulating; there are new ways of Difficulty approaching the subject and it is demanding The consensus was that the A-level intellectually." However, most regarded the examinations were hard and that getting a two-year A-level courses as very good high score depended on the student's preparation for university course work. knowledge. At the same time, both students Fairness and teachers complained that the GCSE examinations taken at 16 years of age did not In general, teachers said that the A-level adequately prepare the students for the level exams are a "rigorous method of selecting of difficulty or degree of commitment students who have the ability to absorb large required for pursuing A-level course work, amounts of information." They suggested especially in mathematics and physics. that the exams are "demanding and fair, though occasionally you get an unfair paper Limited Choices or question," and that "the exams are Nearly all of the parents and students, but generally a fair test of what the students not all of the teachers, commented should know, and sometimes are quite unfavorably on the limited choice of A-level ingenious." Teachers whose classes subjects. The A-level system appeared to be contained students of mixed social and geared toward those students, who, at age 16, ethnic backgrounds were more likely to be had developed a very focused interest in a critical. There was agreement that the particular subject. Although the newly disadvantaged are not served by this system. introduced AS-Level examinations were The teachers suggested that the designed to alleviate this problem by examinations are: increasing the number of subjects studied, not entirely fair to the number of most students did not take advantage of this students of this age who have difficulty opportunity. It was frequently suggested that sustaining themselves during the 16 was too young to be "picking out a future two-year A-level courses. The career, when you feel like sitting on the fence disadvantaged population is not served not dedicating yourself to any one subject." by this system, as they are not getting parental support. The amount of work Factors Associated with Success is large and cannot be accomplished When asked which factors are associated without a good background of support. with successful college entrance, responses Another said, "People are pitted against each included early preparation, the proper choice other, as if they all started at the same place" of university and degree, personal attributes, a condition that obviously is not met. There and work experience. was a feeling, too, that Oxbridge and some of the older universities were elitist and students sometimes chose not to apply to these

18 25 Early Preparation Personal Attributes and Work Early identification of possible career choices Experience and areas of interest was seen as being Students' personal skills and talents often helpful. Many parents, however, reported a play a role, though not necessarily a decisive feeling of "not knowing how to help," and one, in determining university entrance. "If considered the counseling services offered by you can show you have wide interests in a lot the schools not always to be effective. In of things, this is more appealing." Several fact, most parents and students did not think students and parents also mentioned the about university entrance requirements until importance of organized work experience or GCSE subjects were actually chosen when training, which most students undertook in the students were 14 years old. At this time the summer after taking the GCSEs. This students must identify possible career choices, experience was reported as being useful to for the courses chosen play an important part students, for it provided work experience for in preparing students for their later careers. their personal statements and also gave them Not only must a decision be made about relevant experience in choosing or rejecting whether to focus on the humanities or particular careers. sciences, but specific courses must be chosen. If, for example, science is not chosen at this Students, parents, and teachers also time, it is very difficult to take science emphasized the importance of hard work as courses at a later time. the means of attaining high scores on the examinations. Because parents and students Choice of University and Degree think the examinations are difficult, "students cannot get away with studying at Many of those interviewed said it was critical the last moment". In order to be successful, that students target the right universities by the students should, according to one parent, making full use of the ranking system on the "have an extremely organized mind, but not UCAS form.Students are limited to two be a workaholic." Teachers also emphasized final choices. This leads to difficult decisions. strong self-motivation and good thinking One teacher asked, "Do they choose a very skills. According to the teachers, the good university for the first choice, and an students must "show a genuine interest and intermediate university as a back-up? Then enjoyment of their subject;" "they should they have to take the second choice if they think clearly, have good analytical skills, fail to get into the first one." The top choices stamina, with the ability to sustain should represent a stretch for the student; the themselves through the course and work hard bottom choices (generally the new from the beginning." Other parents and universities) should be more attainable. students mentioned factors such as being able Additionally, many interviewees shared the to take tests well and having good sentiment expressed by one teacher that preparation, good early parenting, and high "science and engineering students can get in intelligence. A few mentioned creativity and anywhere but the humanities and imagination, but were divided as to whether professional schools are oversubscribed. The this would be a help or a hindrance. competition is very fierce for those students."

19

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 26 Stress minimal, but nearly all saw the students' success to be dependent on an implicit Parents and students regarded a single partnership between parents and teachers. assessment at the end of two years as particularly stressful and unfair, even though Teachers and schools seemed to play the this assessment is often spread over multiple major role in preparing students for university examinations. Although many students did entrance. For example, mock A-level not view the GCSE exams as excessively examinations are generally given in January stressful, most assumed the A-levels were and February of the second year. In these "going to be horrendous." practice sessions, teachers describe the examination, show students how to "read" If you are not good at examinations, examination questions, and teach students there is a problem; two years of work how to pace themselves throughout the could go down the drain in a matter of examination. hours if you had a bad day during the examination. Generally, there was little communication between teachers and parents about college Role of Parents, Teachers, and Schools entrance. Parents went to their child's school, they said, to demonstrate interest in Most parents reported playing a minimal role their child's education, rather than to obtain in helping with their children's schoolwork; specific information. On the other hand, they perceived their role to be mostly teachers were more likely to emphasize the supportive. One mother said that she did not importance of a partnership between parents have "the knowledge and expertise to help, and teachers in helping the student through and that worries me." Many of the parents this period of decision. had not attended university and, as one mother said, "I don't have a clue about the Conclusion entry requirements." The parents saw themselves as helping their child by reducing The British system of higher education is chores, setting aside a quiet place to study, highly selective and specialized, and many buying books, and providing financial students, parents, and teachers expressed support, rather than directly helping their discontent with some of its characteristics. child with the procedures involved in the First, because the Advanced-Level courses university applications. In only one family and examinations, the main determinants of was a tutor hired. This was considered to be university entrance, are taken by only a most unusual. quarter of the population, the system effectively excludes the majority from post-16 Although most parents helped their children education. Second, the standards set by these decide which GCSEs and A-levels to take, examinations are so high as to be called "the the actual process of gaining entrance to a gold standard," enabling youth with strong university was generally left to the students academic interests to pursue a subject to a and the schools. At school, students have degree of rigor almost unequaled elsewhere. both academic and form tutors. Academic But there is a cost. Because students generally tutors help students with A-level material; study only three subjects between the ages of form tutors discuss general issues and act as 16 and 18, students have great depth of guides to university entrance. Most teachers knowledge, but little breadth. Third, reported that parent-school interaction was

20 27 students have to make early choices as to content mastered of a U.S. master's degree. their future careers, often as early as 14 years Therefore, while the British system of higher of age. These three factors the elite nature education serves its top students very well, of the system, its lack of breadth, and the the majority of the student population is major choices required at an early age were effectively excluded from university entrance. causes of concern among those interviewed. Thus, the goal as seen by many in Britain is There was some discontent, too, with the to increase the number and diversity of types of persons selected by the examinations: students who are able to attain a university "The universities don't really look at what degree, as well as to develop more kind of a person the student is. You end up comprehensive programs for its with high fliers, such as doctors who are very non-academic students. Goals for training clever, academic types, but who lack social non-academic students by means of skills." vocational courses and experiences are high Most agreed, however, that the students who and the success in meeting. These goals may do complete their university education attain lead to less discomfort with the system than has characterized British education in the a high level of knowledge in the subject which they concentrate their studies. After past. three years of study most British students complete their degrees and leave the university with the equivalent in terms of

21 28 France

prior to entering elementary school, all in France's highly centralized educational four- and five-year olds in 1994-95 and system. 99.5 percent of three-year olds in France Students who are interested in technical or attend nursery schools, which are free but not professional training may enroll in technical obligatory. Between the ages of 6 and 16, high schools or in schools offering however, everyone must attend school. apprenticeship programs. In the technical Elementary and Primary Systems high schools, students may study various types of engineering, industrial production, The French educational system is divided computer science, and management; social into three levels: primary, secondary, and and health services; and dance and music. A superior. Primary school (e'cole e'le'mentaire) professional baccalaureat (baccalaureat is for children ages 6 toll; secondary school technDlogique) is administered at the end of is typically for 11- to 17-year-olds. Secondary the technical high school education. In school consists of four years of middle school 1994, 16 percent of the age cohort earned the (colle'ge), and three years of high school. In professional baccalaureat and 36 percent 1994-95, over 90 percent of the students at earned the general baccalaureat. age 16 in France were in school, but only 70 Vocational high schools prepare students for percent entered the last year of high school. employment. This is accomplished by a Although tracking does not begin formally course of study in high school and an until after the ninth grade, some separation apprenticeship that begins in the ninth grade. of students begins at the eighth grade, where Students can follow either one or both of two four kinds of classes are offered: general, paths within the vocational schools. The first technical, preprofessional, and preparatory offers training in a specific trade, such as classes for the professional examination. mechanic or beautican, leading to a diploma called the Certificat d'Aptitude Professionel At the ninth grade, students enroll in one of (CAP). The second leads to the Brevet three types of schools. Students interested in d'Etudes Professionelle (BEP), a general attending college enroll in academic high vocational certificate that provides a more schools (lyce'e). These high schools are extensive vocational background than the oriented toward the preparation of students CAP. Many more students receive the CAP for the baccalaureat, an examination given at than the BEP. In 1995, for example, the end of the last year of high school. approximately 248,000 received the CAP, Passing this "exit" examination has great while 84,000 received the BEP. In contrast, significance, especially for students interested over 281,000 received the general in pursuing further education. Responsibility baccalaureat. Approximately 45 percent of for the baccalaureat, as well as for such things the lyce'e professional students enter the as determining and paying teachers' salaries, workforce. However, in 1994, 17 percent lies in the hands of the national government reentered the academic track and 38 percent

29 23 began the two-year program of training that The total baccalaureat score combines the would lead to the baccalaureat professional. score from the French language bac with the student's score on the specialized bac, which The Academic Baccalaureat is taken at the end of the senior year. Each of During the years of secondary school, three specialized baccalaureats has a certain students must take one foreign language and level of prestige. "General" baccalaureats must have instruction in philosophy, French, have the greatest prestige and "technical" and mathematics. Most are also required to baccalaureats have the least. For example, take history and geography. At the end of the most prestigious is mathematics and the what would correspond to a sophomore year least prestigious are those oriented toward in American high schools, students must practical training for industrial jobs. In decide the subjects on which they wish to be addition to the examinations offered in these fields, there are optional examinations, such tested in thebaccalaureat, commonly called as those dealing with ancient languages, the bac. Their choices determine their computers, and dramatic expression. The academic schedules for the rest of their high goal in the examinations is to require the school education. students to use their intellect in analyzing Questions and topics for the examination are and synthesizing as much of their knowledge constructed by a committee composed of a as possible in their answers to the questions. group of university subject specialists, lyce'e The bacs are given to students across the teachers and school inspectors (local arms of country during the first three weeks of June. the Ministry of National Education). The Although the bacs vary from relatively short committee is also responsible for establishing oral examinations to four-hour written the criteria for grading the examinations. examinations, nearly all consist of a written Grading is done by teams of teachers test which always includes essay questions. throughout the country and if any problems The first test is in philosophy, followed by in the grading are discovered, a small review tests in the other areas; the last test involves committee evaluates the possibility that bias an oral examination. may have entered the grading process. Results are usually available two weeks later. All students must take a four-hour French There are three types of outcome. Students bac at the end of their junior year. This test may pass the examination; they may fail and taps the students' proficiency in the French have to wait to repeat the examination the language. It not only covers knowledge of following year; or they may obtain a sufficient literature, but also the students' ability to number of points to enable them to take express themselves in French. In this test, another examination immediately after they students choose one of three types of essays. receive their bac score that will yield a They can summarize a text and then write an sufficient number of points to complete the essay or they can explain a text through an bac. essay with three major themes based on the text. For the oral portion of the test, the It is generally accepted that without student is given 20 minutes for preparation successfully passing the baccalaureat, and then is expected to present a 15-minute examinations, jobs are difficult to find. For discussion of a passage that has been studied this reason, it is not uncommon for students during the previous year. who do not initially complete their bac to

24 30 repeat a year of secondary school. It is not live in the region. Entrance to certain fields, imperative that students take the such as law, political science, engineering, examination at the end of high school. and medicine, is also highly competitive. Persons of any age can take the examination Some types of schools, such as business and they may take it as many times as schools, tend to be private; thus the family's desired. It is not necessary to be enrolled in financial status may be a primary determinant school in order to take the examination, but of a student's ability to enroll. registration for the test is not automatic for Approximately a quarter of the students in anyone who is not attending school. France enroll in a university:54percent In1992,only73percent of the students who completed the senior year in high school, and took the examinations received passing among these,58percent (in1994-95)of the grades. The percentage ranged from 66 students passing the baccalaureat went on to percent in economics to83percent in enroll in a university. Students usually pay mathematics. Despite the fact that the minimal tuition to the university and most mathematics test is perceived to be the most study at one close to their home. In cases difficult, the percentage of those who succeed where students wish to concentrate on a is higher, probably because only the best specific subject that may not be well students attempt this examination. represented at a nearby university, they may travel to other parts of the country and Higher Education attempt to enroll in universities known to emphasize those fields of study; however, this After completing high school, French is not as easy as it once was, because some students must decide whether they will try to departments in universities are beginning to go on to advanced levels of study. There are be selective in their admissions due to the three general types of higher education: large numbers of applicants. universities, Grandes Ecoles, and technical institutes within universities. Of those who The courses in which one enrolls at the continue with their education,85percent university are primarily determined by one's enter a university, 10 percent attend France's area of concentration. While it is not Grandes Ecoles, and5percent go to technical necessary to concentrate on the field studied institutes. in high school, it is much more difficult to succeed in a field without this earlier Universities preparation. The first year of university study is a time of high attrition. Universities are The first requirement for entering a large and impersonal, and the examinations university is to possess a baccalaureat. This given at the end of the first year weed out forms the main basis for acceptance except at many students. the more prestigious schools, where grades may also be considered. Recommendations After two years at a university, students may are not used as a basis for this decision. earn a degree called the DEUG (Diplome Entrance to the top universities is getting d'etudes universitaires ge'ne'rales). In addition, increasingly competitive, both because the they have the option of earning a licence number of persons receiving the baccalaureat after three years and a maitrise after four has increased and because universities are years, degrees that are equivalent, beginning to limit enrollment to persons who

25 31 respectively, to the American bachelor's and The three general bacs are in science, master's degrees. humanities, and economics and social science. All students choosing one of these Grandes Ecoles general bacs will study French, philosophy, history, geography, and mathematics. The Grandes Ecoles, literally translated as the Whereas in the past the students' courses "great schools," are highly selective, and were currently determined by the baccalaureat admission to one carries a great deal of status. being pursued, the new system will allow Not only do students receive free education greater flexibility in the choices of courses. in state supported Grandes Ecoles, they are also considered to be government workers The nine technical bacs, many of them new and are paid accordingly. to the system, were designed for students who wish to study industrial technology, There are several types of Grandes Ecoles, laboratory technology, medical and social some offering concentrations in mathematics science, technology and science, hotel and engineering, but others offering management, music and dance, applied arts, concentrations in science, business, political environment and agronomy, and farm science, administration, literature, and produce. Students studying for the technical education. Admission is based on an bacs follow the same program through the additional entrance examination. Two to 10th grade as those preparing for the general three years of study at a preparatory school bacs. after the baccalaureat are generally required in order to prepare for the highly demanding Reactions to the System entrance examination. Those who succeed in graduating become members of a tightly Lack of Information knit network of individuals who Maintain contact with each other during later years. A major criticism that came up repeatedly in Graduates of these schools typically form interviews with the students was the lack of France's "elite," which includes many top information provided by teachers and political figures and heads of large schools regarding options after the corporations. baccalaureat. We are not well-informed at high school Changes in the College about choices after the baccalaureat. Admission Process Last week we had one hour of orientation and in the end we did not Changes in the French baccalaureat system understand it all. If we were better were implemented in 1995. There are three informed, we could better choose a general bacs, nine technical bacs, and a university or better fill out regulation number of vocational bacs. The new system forms and really choose what we want to is designed to give students in the general do. Imes more options in choosing courses and to provide students in the technical bacs greater Instead, students often have to figure out for opportunities for practical training that would themselves what options they have. lead to better chances for employment after I am finding that there isn't enough high school. specific information. That is to say that people are not informed about what 3P 26 happens after the bac. It takes initiative didn't get into a Grandes Ecoles, too bad. For to inform yourself about school or what me it's not an enormous catastrophe. I would interests you as a profession. It's true perhaps be a bit disappointed at not having that there are a lot of people who follow my first choice. My goal is to find something bad paths, at their university and get I like to do. I could go to the university." their DEUGs and then realize that It is the case, however, that students who wasn't what they wanted. seek entrance to a Grandes Ecoles take a Sometimes older siblings can serve as good rather large risk. They must spend time and sources of information: "I am lucky because I money during the years of preparatory school was given advice by my older sister who has and even then they may not be successful in already gone down the path - bac C, prep gaining admission to a Grandes Ecoles. school, and then the Grandes Ecole.I know a However, students who are admitted seldom little about how it works." fail to graduate. General Satisfaction Curriculum The overall system for gaining university The curriculum, which is determined by the entrance in France was perceived as fair by government, seems to challenge most most of the respondents. Passing the students, but this was not universally true. baccalaureat is the main requirement, and One of the students complained that, students may enter almost any university they I am trying to expand my horizons, but it choose. As one parent said, "The university is not so easy. I make an effort to is good because everybody can go. It is more cultivate myself scientifically, to read democratic." and review because we don't do that in The process for getting into the Grandes high school at all. We do scholarly Ecoles, however, was viewed as much more work, but don't venture very far from competitive, since these schools admit only the program. You do the program for students with the highest levels of academic the bac. achievement. One parent commented: There has been a close interplay between the The Grandes Ecoles can sometimes be bacs and the curriculum. The curriculum has very selective. One has to be the best of been specifically aimed at providing students the best at the intellectual level. There with the broad fund of knowledge necessary are Grandes Ecoles that are relatively to pass the bacs, but the content of the bacs, expensive. That is the problem. The in turn, has been directly tied to the children that go the Grandes Ecole are curriculum. This relationship should change, those that come from the most well-off however, as the educational reforms in the families, which is not fair. There are baccaluareat system become effective. some that come from modest families, Students will have a greater number of but this is more difficult. options in the courses they will take and the The students did not seem to be especially content of the bacs should be less closely tied concerned about the possibility that they to a specific array of courses. would be unable to pass the entrance examination for the Grandes Ecoles: "If I

27 33 Fairness easier than they were a few years ago and should not be considered as a real The students interviewed were not overly baccalaureat. One of the teachers occupied with passing the baccalaureat: "The commented that "No one knows what the bac is fair in the sense that if you have bac represents anymore in terms of level. In worked all year you will pass." Nevertheless, my opinion, it doesn't have the same value it almost everyone noted that although the did a few years ago. But in any case, if you baccaluareat seems to be a fair test, there is don't have one you are stuck." always the possibility that a student will fail due to nerves. One mother described the There was concern, too, that the percentage situation in this way: of students passing the bacs differs according to the region of the country, the family's If the student worked regularly, then socio-economic status, gender, and the normally they'd get their bac. But it's a school in which the student is enrolled. one-day exam and a precise moment and if the student doesn't feel well, then Factors Associated With Success they could fail. That's a problem of all exams. Generally, the factors that were believed to contribute to successful completion of the In general, most seemed to agree with the baccalaureat are the same as those that sentiment expressed by another mother: contribute to successful college admission: "Parents don't ask if the exam system is fair hard work, motivation, and good preparation. or not. They just worry about their children Many respondents commented that the passing." examination favors those students who work Some discontent was expressed about the systematically and who can remain focused unfairness that arises from the fact that and calm. As one student said, "Success is certain bacs allow students more flexibility based on a delicate balance of working hard than others. For example, it is easier for those without getting too stressed. The most who complete the bacs in mathematics to important factor is to be calm." change their concentration in the university There was general agreement that students to literature than is the reverse. All students who complete their schoolwork should be must study a fair amount of literature in able to pass the bac. The curriculum for the preparation for the French bac, but all French academic lyce'e is designed to prepare students do not spend an equivalent amount students for this examination. Therefore, of time studying mathematics. Additionally, work done during the course of the year in terms of specific examination questions, should provide students with a good several felt that the section on philosophy foundation. was unfair. Even though these tests were graded by professors, as are all sections of the Another important factor is the parents' baccalaureat, the students complained that ability to get their child enrolled in the right this section was often graded more lyce'e. Students must enroll in the subjectively than others. neighborhood lyce'e, but if the lyce'e is not of high quality families must try to enroll their There was also some concern that the children in a lyce'e of another neighborhood. baccalaureat examinations are being The only way that they accomplish this, devalued because the new technical bacs are however, is to demonstrate that their child

28 34 has a special curricular need that can only be all. Those who are a little stressed are those fulfilled by attending the alternative lyce'e. who didn't do their little exams and therefore Another approach taken by ambitious are a little anxious." parents is to have the student take German More typically, French students are said to as a first foreign language. Although English find the baccalaureat examination to be is considered to be more practical, German is stressful, especially the parts in which they considered to be more difficult. Because the must respond orally. Even the students who students' schedules are determined by the were interviewed mentioned the stress language they take, and because the better associated with the oral examination, students tend to take German, it is likely that primarily because they were not familiar with this group of students will be made up this type of test. "I am more afraid of the oral primarily of good students. Thus, although exam," confessed one student, "I am afraid of students are not supposed to be tracked, speaking to someone I don't know. I think I decisions such as this separate students will be stressed. I am naturally a little like according to their level of ability and,in that." turn, according to the educational level of For parents, the years during which their their parents. children prepare for the baccalaureat are very Stress stressful. They are anxious for their children to do well on the examination because that is The junior year in high school seems to be the key to a more secure future. "During all the time when most students notice this year everything is in preparation for the schoolwork becoming more difficult. "There bac. One only thinks of that." are a lot of students who suffer at that point because they aren't used to working. They Role of Parents have to realize quickly how to function and Most of the parents interviewed did not seem mobilize themselves," said one student. Since to be directly involved in the a student's primary goal is to pass the college-admission process, but this could be baccalaureat at the end of high school, most due to the fact that their children were doing orient themselves toward this objective. well in school. The parents did express a Those students who wish to read and learn strong desire for their children to succeed and about other areas must generally search to find interesting jobs, a task that is difficult outside of their academic curriculum. in France because of the high rate of Most of the students who were interviewed unemployment. for this study did not seem overly worried Since the students interviewed in this study about the baccalaureat. This may be were all doing well, their parents trusted attributed to the fact that the interviews were them to be responsible for themselves. "I held during the early months of the academic don't do much because my daughter works year; their stress may increase as the time of very hard, very independently, and therefore the examination approaches. I don't need to help her," said one mother. The teachers concurred with this evaluation For the most part, the role of parents is and explained why some students might feel considered to be purely one of support and slightly stressed. "The students I have," said encouragement. The father of one of the one of the teachers, "often are not stressed at girls described his experiences during his

29 BEST COPYAVA1LABLk 35 daughter's junior year: "I was worried last my school work. I don't prepare too year during the French bac and unfortunately much. I must prepare, at the most, one I made her stressed. I know I did badly. I hour every evening. wanted to motivate her, but I did the opposite." He then went on to say that he Conclusion has confidence that she would do well this Successfully completing the baccalaureat is year, but he did not want to tell her for fear it the main requirement for entering French would cause her to lose motivation. universities. Although the admission process Parents who have a high level of education for the Grandes Ecoles is much more may be able to guide their students in ways competitive, most of the students, parents, that less educated parents cannot. One of and teachers judged the overall process for the parents suggested that "Parents who lack college admission to be fair. The academic the necessary education, don't know how to high schools are oriented toward the tell their children what to take and what to preparation of students for the tests that will avoid. It is not easy for these parents." enable them to receive their baccalaureat degree. Because of this, students must Role of Teachers and Students develop activities outside of the high school if Teachers help prepare students for the they are to extend the scope of their baccalaureat through regular schoolwork. In education. Furthermore, students must addition, some teachers provide students with choose their areas of specialization at an early what is known as the "Bac Blanc." This age and they complained that they often two-day test simulates the real examinations, lacked the information necessary to make the allowing students to familiarize themselves wisest decisions when faced with this choice. with the test format and to have experience Those who suggested that there are problems in taking this type of test. with the college entrance system had few Because the French school system is designed suggestions about how the system could be to prepare students for the baccalaureat, it is improved. Parents generally professed not surprising that all the students felt that disengagement from the process of preparing they were being prepared for the their children for the examinations; examinations through their regular courses. nevertheless, they suggested that this time of This preparation begins during the preparing and taking the examinations placed sophomore year and continues through the great stress in the families. The highly rest of high school.In addition to their capable students who were interviewed gave regular schoolwork, most students also do no indication of being worried about the extra exercises or reading. The amount of possibility they might not pass the time that these students said they spent in examinations. actually preparing for the bac ranged from 30 One common recommendation was to make minutes to 3 hours per day. A typical the value of the different baccalaureats more description is the following: equivalent. Although various bacs carry I have lots of friends who have bought different degrees of prestige, they all have all sorts of things, books and all that to accomplished the goal of indicating whether prepare, but I've never really used those or not the student has successfully completed kinds of things. I prepare by working on the high school requirements. Others

30 36 suggested making the baccalaureat a more general examination, allowing students to become more specialized after high school. In general, despite the suggestions for improvement, most of these high achieving students and their parents expressed satisfaction with the overall system for university entrance and regarded the present system as providing a solid education.

31 37 Germany

The division of Germany into western and kindergartens. Enrollment is voluntary, and eastern sections after World War II depending upon their economic status, resulted in two different educational systems. parents pay varying amounts of tuition. West Germany continued the traditional Kindergartens are oriented toward social system of German education, but the system development of young children rather than in East Germany followed the Soviet model. upon training for later academic work. In The greatest difference between the two addition to the regular kindergartens, school systems has remained the tracking practices. kindergartens (Vorschule) are available for West Germany, with few exceptions, tracked six-year-old children who are old enough to students according to ability after 4th- grade, attend primary school, but for one reason or whereas East Germany only tracked after another are judged not to be ready for first 10th-grade. With reunification in 1990, the grade. school system in former East Germany was almost totally converted to the West German Primary School system, as was recommended by the Joint School is compulsory between the ages of six Education Commission formed in 1990. The through 18. All children enter school at the goal of this conversion was to have age of six and remain in primary school certificates and diplomas that would be (Grundschule) for four years. The hours of recognized throughout the nation. primary school are shorter than those in Differences do exist among all German states many other countries. First-graders attend in the organization and operation of schools. school only 20 periods a week; by third grade Although the Conference of the Ministers of the number of periods has increased to 25 or Education of the States (KMK) formulates 30. general educational policies, it grants a great The goal of the four years of primary school is deal of local autonomy to each state in the to provide the basis for secondary education. control over educational practices and This is accomplished through building basic organization. Rather than attempt to note all skills in the core areas of reading, writing, and of the differences, it seems most efficient to arithmetic, through fostering initiative, describe the general outline of the system self-reliance, and social cooperation, and found most commonly throughout the through increasing the joy of learning. Little country. emphasis is placed on competition and efforts are made to promote equality of opportunities Elementary and Secondary during the primary school years. Education Nevertheless, the later opportunities for education that will be available to the child Prior to entering school, a very high do depend on the child's performance in percentage of three- to five-year old German children attend kindergarten. In 1989 primary school. around 75 percent of three-year-olds and over 80 percent of five-year-olds attended

33 38 Types of Schools gap widens. Most students finish with a Hauptschulabchluss school-leaving certificate After completing primary school, students are after the 9th or 10th grade. In 1992, 26 enrolled in one of three tracks of secondary percent of the age cohorts received this school. Depending upon the students' grades certificate. These students must continue to in primary school, their interests, the attend some type of school on a part-time recommendations of their teachers, and the basis until they reach the age of 18. Some preferences of their parents, they are enrolled choose to attend a full-time vocational in a Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium, or school. Most combine part-time attendance Gesamtschule. In some states an integrated at school with an apprenticeship or with Hauptschule/Realschule is also an alternative. employment in public service. It is very Most states also offer the Forderstufe, a difficult, but not impossible, for graduates of non-tracked orientation level for the fifth and Hauptschule to achieve the university sixth-grades. entrance qualification. Evening classes or Hauptschule full-time adult classes present alternative routes to university education. The most basic schooling is offered in the Hauptschule, which prepares students through Realschule the ninth year of schooling (10th year in Realschule offer education for grades 5 some states). Admission is open to all through 10 (7-10 in some states) and are students regardless of their previous academic more advanced than Hauptschule in terms of performance and there are no final the rigorousness of the curriculum. Students examinations in the Hauptschule of most who have done exceptionally well in German states. The curriculum of the Realschule are able to transfer to a Gymnasium Hauptschule includes 26 to 33 periods of for the last three years of their schooling after classes a week in a German, English, 10th grade. A wide array of other mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, opportunities is also available for students geography, history, social studies, religion, art, completing the Realschule. The great music, physical education, and occupational majority attend a part-time vocational school studies. and obtain on-the-job training or find The percentage of students attending employment in a public service position. Hauptschule has been in steady decline since Others may choose to attend some type of World War II, from 79 percent in 1952 to 33 vocational or technical school. Graduates of percent in 1991. These schools are now Realschule typically do not anticipate having considered by some persons to be the last professional careers, but they may qualify for resort, schools for marginal and immigrant additional education, which can lead to groups. Non-German children made up 20 qualification for entering a technical college, percent of the student population in or in some cases a general university. Since Hauptschule in 1991, as opposed to 5 percent the Realschule offers students opportunities of the students in Gymnasium. both for later studies and for future employment, it serves a dual purpose. In Students who enter the Hauptschule in fifth 1992-93, 24 percent of 14-year-olds attended grade may still change to another school form Realschule. if their grades improve, although a transfer becomes harder over time as the curricular

34 39 Students in Realschule an choose to is devoted to general academic training than concentrate in one of three different areas: is the case in the part-time schools. These (1) mathematics, the natural sciences, and schools specialize in subjects such as technology; (2) business and economics; or commerce, technical trades, home (3) creative and artistic endeavors, domestic economics, tourism, and social welfare. science, or social studies. Realschulen, like Participation in vocational training has seen Hauptschulen, offer between 30 and 34 class a steady increase in the past 20 years, from 49 periods a week. The basic, traditional percent in 1975 to 73 percent in 1991 subjects such as German, mathematics, (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht, 1994). This physics, and chemistry are generally taught has not corresponded to increased for four periods each week, while others are attendance at the lower school forms, only taught for two periods. Hauptschule and Realschule. Rather, students In some states, Hauptschule and Realschule planning on attending the university are tracks are offered in one school, called increasingly changing course before entering Regelschule, Sekundarschule, or Mittelschule. the university, or completing an This is especially common in the new states apprenticeship before attending the of former East Germany, although some university. In 1992, 25 percent of first-year western states also offer this type of school. students at general universities had In 1992, 7 percent of 14-year-olds in completed vocational training. At technical Germany attended a combined universities (Fachochschule), 68 percent of Hauptschule/Realschule. Although students in entering students had completed vocational this school type are in the same building, they training. are still officially tracked into either the Upon graduation, students with the Hauptschule or the Realschule part of the Realschule leaving certificate may also qualify school. for admission to a technical institute Vocational School (Fachschule), where they receive more advanced training for middle-level staff Students who continue on from Realschule or positions. Because of the importance of Hauptschule to enroll in part-time vocational vocational training in the German schools (Berufsschule) usually attend class educational system, efforts are being made to once or twice a week for around 12 periods, give greater emphasis to these schools and to although they may choose instead to go to make their status more equivalent to those classes full-time for a few weeks each year. devoted to general education. Most of the classes are in vocational subjects Vocational extension schools devoted to specific trades; less attention is (Berufsaufbauschule) seek to provide paid to general education. This is known as additional opportunities for training before or the "dual system," combining part-time after on-the-job training begins. Technical schooling with an apprenticeship on the job high schools (Fachoberschule) provide two site. Full-time vocational schools years of education, during which students (Berufsfachschule), in contrast, require specialize in engineering, industry, full-time attendance for one to three years, agriculture, social studies, or design. They depending on the type of speciality being lead to graduation with the Fachabitur, a studied. Because students at these schools do certificate similar to the Abitur from the not hold apprenticeship positions, more time

35 Gymnasium. The main disadvantage to the total of 28 courses, 22 at the basic level and 6 Fachabitur is that it only allows students to at the advanced level. They must also choose study the subject they concentrated on four subjects, two of which they will study in during secondary school. Many graduates depth, from three general fields: language, from technical high schools continue on to literature and the arts; social sciences; and technical universities. mathematics, sciences and technology. At least one subject must be chosen in each of Gymnasium these fields. Two subjects must be at the The highest academic track at the secondary advanced (Leistungskurs) level and two at the level is the Gymnasium. Students who basic (Grundkurs) level. For example, a perform well in the fourth grade receive a student might study German and chemistry recommendation to attend Gymnasium in the as the advanced courses and social studies, fifth grade, where they encounter a biology, religion, sports, and history as the curriculum that is much more demanding basic courses. Another might study than the curricula of the other two types of mathematics and biology as the advanced secondary schools. The Gyrnasium track, in courses, and German, history, chemistry, contrast to the other two tracks, offers sports, and art as basic courses. The content students nine years of education, including a of the courses in each state is determined by six-year lower level (grades 5 through 10) and the ministry of education of the state, but a three-year upper level (grades 11 through there is agreement among the states that the 13). Successful completion of the lower level content must fall within the guidelines at 10th grade allows students to enter the developed by the KMK at a national level. upper level of the Gymnasium, called the Gesamtschule Oberstufe. In contrast to the declining interest in Hauptschule, attendance at In addition to the hierarchical system of Gymnasium has increased greatly during the secondary education represented by the three recent decades, from 11 percent in 1952 to main types of secondary schools, an 30 percent on 1992 among 14-year-olds alternative type of school, the comprehensive (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht, 1994). This schools (Gesamtschule), is also available in increase has been accompanied by an effort most states. Comprehensive schools to change Gymnasium from elitist schools to represent a new approach which involves schools that serve a broader segment of the bringing together students with a broad range student population. The classical of talent and interests in a single school. Gymnasium, with its emphasis on Latin, Comprehensive schools seek to incorporate Greek, and other classical subjects, still exists, many of the features of the Hauptschule, but the "modern" Gymnasium is vastly more Realschule, and Gymnasium in a popular. According to many critics, this has comprehensive curriculum, while attempting resulted in a decline in the quality of to do away with the structural hierarchy of education offered at Gymnasium. these three types of secondary school. At the end of the second semester of the Students enroll in the Gesamtschule between 11th grade of Gymnasium, students choose grades 5 and 10 and may then continue for the subjects on which they will be examined three more years. for university entrance. During the last two This approach has attained limited years of Gymnasium, students must take a popularity. In 1992-93, only 9 percent of

36 41 14-year-olds in Germany attended In disciplines where federal or regional comprehensive schools. Comprehensive restrictions are placed on the number of school attendance varies greatly among students who can be admitted, grades on the states, however; states that have promoted Abitur play a very important role. For those this type of school have attendance figures disciplines, students must apply to a federal or ranging from 13-22 percent of 14-year-olds, regional agency that admits a limited number while in states which have rejected it less that of students to each discipline. Depending on 1 percent are in attendance. their scores on the Arbitur, the length of time the student has waited, and in some fields the Forderstufe student's score on a specialized test, the Another type of school recently introduced in student will be offered admission when a Germany is the Forderstufe. This type, also vacancy arises, but not necessarily at the known as the "orientation level," provides university the student sought to attend. For non-tracked schooling for the 5th and 6th disciplines in which there are no restrictions, grades. Attendance varies between states, students can apply directly to the university but the Forderstufe has gained a fair amount itself. of acceptance. In 1992, 21 percent of all It is possible to complete admission fifth-graders in Germany attended a requirements for a university in Forderstufe. After the sixth grade, students non-traditional means. These alternative are tracked into the other secondary school routes (zweiter Bildungsweg) require that forms. adults enroll in evening schools at the Realschule or Gymnasium levels until they University Education have met the requirements for graduation. The evening schools are open to persons who Higher education in Germany is free. At one do not have the Abitur certificate, who are time, any student who completed the course employed, and who have completed their work in the Gymnasium and passed the high vocational training or have worked for at school exit examination (Abitur) was assured least three years. Even after completing these of admission to a university of the student's years of study, however, the student must choice. This is no longer the case. The pass the Abitur examination in order to number of students attending Gymnasium qualify for admission to a university. and successfully passing the Abitur has increased beyond the number that can be Exit Examination accommodated at German universities. As a consequence, students no longer have the The Abitur freedom of choice that was available earlier. Although some disciplines are still open to The Abitur examination is a anyone with an Abitur, in many disciplines curriculum-based examination, usually taken the student simply must wait for an opening during the student's last year of Gymnasium. at a university. For other disciplines, The Abitur exam itself consist of three additional tests and interviews are necessary written oral examinations. These even before the student can be put on a examinations constitute 36 percent of the waiting list. total grade represented by the Abitur certificate. The remaining 64 percent are derived from student's grades during the last

37 42 two years of Gymnasium. Although a total should contain. Ideally, the questions should score of only 280 out of a total of 840 points evaluate the students' knowledge of the facts, is a passing grade, grading is relatively strict ability to analyze, and then to think beyond in these classes, and low scores are easy to this to apply their ideas and to judge relevant come by. A high percentage of the students and irrelevant information. pass the Abitur examinations in recent years; The Abitur consists of four parts, two written approximately 95 percent of the candidates tests from the advanced level courses in have passed the test. Most students who which the student has specialized, one would not be able to pass the examinations written test on an optional subject, and an are encouraged or required to leave oral test in one other optional subject. The Gymnasium before candidacy, either to shift students' teachers administer the test, while to a lower school form, or after the 10th teachers from other schools are given the grade, when they already qualify for the responsibility for grading it. Realschule certificate. In 1993, 17 percent of all Gymnasium students finished school Questions at the advanced level are expected without their Abitur, most leaving with the to be more demanding and to require greater Realschule certificate after the 10th or 11th knowledge and keener analyses than those at grade. Researchers estimate that 31 percent the basic level. In addition, the tests at the of the Gymnasium cohort which graduated in advanced level generally are longer (four to 1990 `failed' to reach the Abitur, because they five hours) than those at the basic level were tracked to a lower school form or left (three hours). Gymnasium with a lower school-leaving This procedure is not without its critics, certificate. primarily those who point to discrepancies in Despite high failure rates in Gymnasium, the the difficulty of the questions and in the percentage of Abitur holders has continued to sophistication of answers expected in increase dramatically over the past 40 years. different states. These critics suggest that This has led to increased enrollments in because of the less demanding questions on German universities and restricted entrance some of the examinations, it is easy for in some fields. In 1991, 23.6 percent of the students from some states to achieve high age cohort passed the general Abitur scores, thereby giving them an unfair examination and of those, 69 percent advantage for admission to restricted areas of planned to enroll in a university within the study. Another source of criticism is the following two years. In the same year, 8.8 reliance on the tests and school grades, with percent graduated with the little attention being paid to the special Fachhochschulreife, which is a limited abilities or accomplishments of the students university entry qualification. or to letters of recommendation from persons who know the student well. This is partially The Abitur examination is constructed by the due to budgetary limits on university educational ministry within each state. spending for admissions offices, which are Questions are submitted by teachers and minimally staffed. reviewed by a group at the ministry that is charged with the task of organizing the Although these criticisms have apparently examinations. In addition to submitting the failed to stimulate reform, two other questions, teachers are also asked to provide critiques related to the Abitur are currently a detailed analysis of what good answers being discussed. First, there is dissatisfaction

38 43 with the length of the Gymnasium education. the university as a necessity. Mothers were Some are concerned that German students consistent in de-emphasizing the critical are at an international disadvantage because importance of a university education. The students in other countries finish at an earlier comments of four mothers were as follows: age. A proposal to reduce the number of It is not so that he must study at the years from 13 to 12 is under consideration. university. Second, many are concerned with the degree of specialization possible in the Abitur, and It depends what her talents are and what suggest expanding the number of subjects in she would like to do. For me it is not the examination from four to six. At present, important that she necessarily study at a students focus primarily upon the two university. advanced level subjects that will be tested in If his exam and overall grades are their Abitur examination, a practice that is mediocre to poor, I would suggest he not considered to lead to an unnecessary degree go to a university. If he does well on the of specialization during the high school years. exam and has good grades, then I would Preparation for the Examination encourage him. If she did not enter college, I would Two months before the time of the suggest that she do something where she examination teachers discuss how students could take advantage of her other talents. should prepare and provide them with She would take a job at a bank. examples of the types of questions that will appear in the examination. Because the The reasoning behind these comments is questions are similar to those that are probably related to the opportunities for discussed in their daily classes, students are alternative careers provided by not required to think about the materials in a apprenticeships and vocational training. If a totally new way. Teachers often have student chose not to attend a university or afternoon sessions in which they go over was not admitted, the possibility always exists previous examination questions and in many of enrolling in some type of vocational or schools, students and teachers go on weekend technical training program. In fact, efforts retreats where the students are given practice have been made recently to give greater examinations. Teachers also encourage prestige to vocational education. "For me," students to practice answering examination said one of the teachers, "a good craftsman is questions at home. This is easily done, for a thousand times better than a mediocre examinations from previous years are academic." available to the students. General Satisfaction Reactions to the University Discussions about the requirements and Entrance System procedures involved in the Abitur examination indicated satisfied, if somewhat Need for Entering College perplexed parents and students. There was general acceptance of the current procedures Despite the fact that the students were as being reasonable, but there was also enrolled in programs designed to prepare recognition of the difficulties involved in them for admission to a university, neither they nor their parents regarded entrance into

39 BEST COPY AVAILABLt4 4 attempting to correct some negative features important tests. First, the tests were viewed of the current educational system. as being similar to the kinds of daily exercises The Abitur examination was viewed as with which they had long experience. Thus, flowing naturally from everyday schooling taking the tests did not require a type of skill and as being a sensible means of evaluating' different from that which had been involved students' aptitude for a university education. in their regular school work. Second, by The comments of two of the teachers reflect including both the test results and the grades this satisfaction: for the last two years of Gymnasium in the total Abitur score, the test did not loom I would say that the system functions before them as the sole determinant of their quite well. The students know what is future opportunities. expected of them, and so if they really want to study at a university they have Students did complain that the whole the chance to get serious during the last educational system resulted in a narrow two years at high school. I really don't education: "For those subjects in which I will see any other way that would be better. be tested, I think that it shows my knowledge. For those subjects I no longer Of course, there is no perfect system. have, as of last year, it shows nothing. It is Small injustices are unavoidable, but all not representative of my wide range of in all, the German school system can be knowledge, but is very specialized." The called optimal. We prepare the students restriction of the Abitur to only two central for the final exam, we have trial and two optional subjects results in questions, some of them taken from specialization at too early an age, according exams from previous years. We have to some of the students. Moreover, some known the students for years; we know students were disgruntled that they had to where their weaknesses are and will choose and study subjects for the Abitur that work on these. However, those were irrelevant to their future course work at measures are mostly not even necessary, a university and to their career goals. For since the students who are preparing for example, a student interested in medicine the final exams are good, solid students. may be good at German and may decide to They are adults with mature goals, select that subject for the Abitur in an effort confident and motivated. Don't forget, to get a high score, even though the subject the German system offers alternatives to has little relevance for medicine. the Gymnasium which will qualify students to enter the university; for Another criticism, pointed out by parents, example, the so-called Fachschulen, and teachers, and students, was the failure of the others. So there are many options entrance procedures to pay attention to the special aptitudes and talents of individual available. students. "There should be some way to take Students also gave positive evaluations of into account the talents of students for the Abitur requirements. They were drama, arts, graphics, theater, and also especially positive about the fact that "from students' interests. Not just grades." the beginning one knows what subjects one However, those who suggested that changes will be tested on." This, plus several other should be made had difficulty in describing factors, reduces the worry that might ways in which these changes could be otherwise be associated with taking these accomplished.

40 45 Mothers were less likely than the teachers or Perhaps more entrance exams and a students to comment positively about the stricter numerus clausus is needed. The Abitur test requirements and their effect on numerus clausus is perhaps a bit harsh, but university entrance, but at the same time I don't think it 's so bad when one sees they were resigned to the fact that no clear how overfilled the classes are at the alternatives were apparent. A typical universities. comment was "Because there are so many Students also complained about the students who apply, the system has developed procedure of requiring students to attend a that way. It just has to be that way." university in which there was an opening, Although there was general acceptance of rather than allowing the student to enroll in the examination system, this did not mean a nearby university: "It is idiocy when one that all aspects of the students' education must move here to Munich from Hamburg were considered to be satisfactory. A major and someone from Munich must go to concern, especially of the mothers, was the Hamburg to study." overcrowded universities. Because there were more students seeking admission to Fairness certain fields than could be handled, an Because the percentage of students who pass admissions cut-off known as numerus clausus the Abitur is so high, there are few charges (NC) has been placed on entrance to certain that the examination is unfair. The only fields. Mothers made few suggestions about unfairness that was mentioned resulted from how changes could be instituted: "I have no the higher scores received by students in idea how one should solve the problem." "I states where examinations are less difficult wouldn't say that the system is so bad, with and standards for grading are lower than in the exception of subjects that have numerus other states. This means that students from clausus. I can't say how one would change these states have an unfair advantage in it." No one suggested that university university admission, both in the facilities should be expanded. Rather, some examination and in their grades, over mothers favored the alternative of making students from states with higher standards. the requirements in these fields even more In fact, because of differing standards among stringent. Three of the mothers commented states, the central university admissions as follows: agency gives students from some states grade As far as I am concerned, the scores point handicaps, while others receive grade could be even stricter so that only the point bonuses. Teachers as well as parents really qualified students get to the pointed out this problem. university. The numerus clausus could When asked whether or not the examination also be more generally applied or in a was fair, one mother said that students were stricter fashion; both of these measures responsible for their results. could then eliminate overcrowding at the universities. It rests on the shoulders of the student. By the time of the exam they are no I would like to see the Numerus Clausus longer children. It depends on the be made even more difficult, because young people themselves whether or not there are simply too many students who they want to do well. If they want to do apply to the universities.

41 46 well they can. They simply must have and studying on a continuous basis. A typical the will to do it. response made by one of the teachers is the She then discussed the problem of getting following: into university subjects with a score below Persons of average intelligence should be able the cutoff point: to do well in the examination, and students I don't know what he would do. If he who do not pass the examination do so for really wants to study, he can wait. I two reasons: they didn't try hard enough or have never heard of a case where a there were personal problems at home. If the student who wanted to study wasn't able students cover the curriculum thoroughly to. they will have little problem in dealing with the material. Parents and students often suggested that a standardized exam might be more fair. This theme was repeated by mothers. Rather than allowing students to choose the Success in the Abitur, they said, depends subjects on which they would be examined, a upon: common set of examinations could be Motivation, hard work, ability to prescribed by state ministries. A student concentrate, ability to endure, to put it made the following comments: together, to learn systematically. One can choose the courses that one Interest in school; interest in learning and will be tested on in the Abitur test and knowing; and stability in the household. so if a student is good in languages, they But most importantly, interest in the stop taking math and physics in the 12th material that is presented in school. grade. This means that one can achieve Hard work. Motivation. The child's a good Abitur average, because one intellectual abilities. In that order. could concentrate on the subjects that one is good at, but this is no test of The atmosphere of the school. The general knowledge. It has advantages ability of the teachers. The stimulation and disadvantages. I think it would be the child gets in the home. better to have obligatory subjects like It depends on the character of the German and history, then everyone individual. One must learn to would have the same chance. There continuously study and work toward a would be some subjects in which one goal. If this is done, then it should be no would be proficient and others in which problem. one would be not so proficient, and then one could compare Abitur test grades. Students agreed with the importance of But now you can't really compare. I studying, but they placed somewhat more don't think this is good. emphasis on intelligence than did the parents or teachers. The responses made by two of Factors Associated With Success the students are typical: Teachers and parents were very clear in Mostly motivation. If one really wants expressing their belief that intelligence is not to do well on the Abitur then one will be as important for the Abitur or for doing well sure to study a great deal and get good in Gymnasium as is hard work, motivation, grades. One must have a good outlook on school. One must see meaning in

42 4 7 school. So one does not learn for especially stressful for most of the students. grades, but that one learns for Two of the teachers summarized the attitudes understanding. One must like school to in this way: a certain degree. One must be As far as I know, the oral exam is the intelligent. One must be able to work, most stressful for the students. In to study. Also, one must be able to deal general, however, I would say that there with stress. During important phases is a certain amount of stress which one may not simply say that they don't comes with any test situation. I don't want to do it anymore. One must think that the stress level for the exit endure. exam is at all overwhelming. In subjects where a basis of knowledge It depends on the character of the is required and is built up over years like student. If one has done a fair amount math or the languages, it is very of work over the two years, then there is important that one have a firm absolutely no reason to be worried. If foundation and that one keep up with for one or two years one does very little the work from year to year. In subjects work, then there is reason to worry. In like biology where a basis in this subject my experience, it is seldom the case that is not very important, one must simply they do not pass, if the students are work hard over the last two years. One mature and do the work. There are must pay attention in class, but I think cases, but it's very rare. everyone does that, because they know the material is important for the Abitur. Students agreed with the teachers' appraisals: I think that one must be motivated. "The stress is tolerable, since one has been One must be ambitious and be sure that aware of the increased workload and what is one sits down and does the work. When at stake during the entire final school year." one does that, then one can do well. Mothers also failed to find the examination to be a source of great stress. Hard work did not extend to attending extra study sessions offered by the school. I have not felt or heard from my Teachers believed that the regular classes daughter that it's stressful. She takes provided sufficient information for the everything in stride. For many parents, students to do well on the examination, and however, the stress can come when it is they generally echoed the teacher who said, time for the child to go to the "The instruction within the school is Gymnasium, because it has become so absolutely sufficient." important in German society to go to Gymnasium. Then I would say that Stress grades become a concern for most parents in Gymnasium. There was a remarkable uniformity in the opinion that the Abitur was not especially Mothers suggested, however, that they stressful. Although some students said they believed that the exit examination would be experienced stress immediately before or much less stressful than being required to during the examination, and for some take an entrance examination to a university students the oral examination was somewhat where there is "a new atmosphere, with new stressful, the Abitur examination was not demands, and many competitors." Others

43 48 thought that deciding what to study would be they don't interfere and allow me to more stressful than taking the examination: choose what I want to do and that they "What is stressful is the choice of what to are not against any career that I might study. The question of whether or not one choose. If I had questions, they would will be accepted at a university is not so naturally help, but they don't try to stressful." Still another mother said: "I can influence me or say I must study imagine that it is stressful when the student architecture, you must. And they isn't able to study the subject they really want don't know as much as I about the to study." university system. In Germany, when one finishes high school one is old enough to Role of Parents decide for oneself. Mothers expressed little knowledge about the Parents are able to assume the supportive, whole examination procedure. In their but non-intrusive role in part because of their opinion, the only way they could contribute attitudes about their high school student: to their child's success in the examination She is an adult and responsible for her was to provide a good home environment, own life. We will of course help, if we make few demands on the student during the are asked, but we are confident that she time of preparing for the examination, and to is going to handle such a situation try to be as supportive and helpful in other perfectly fine and find an intermediate ways as possible. In general, the mothers solution until she is admitted to the indicated a remarkable degree of confidence university. in the maturity of their children and their ability to make wise decisions. Apparently, Another mother said, parents of superior students such as those We have never interfered. It is strictly who were interviewed assume no role in his decision, since it is his future life at helping their children prepare for the stake, after all. Nor are we involved in examination. The only parents who are his school performance, unless we are worried about their child's progress are the asked for advice or help. parents of weak students. Students agreed that parents showed little Conclusion involvement or interference with their The German educational system is studying for the Abitur. undergoing a period of great change as it They don't help me with my studies or seeks to modify educational practices in the anything like that. They try to make sure former East Germany and to respond to the that demands on me around the house ever-increasing demand for entrance to aren't too great, so I have time to study. I universities and higher-level occupations. hope they will give me peace and quiet While the apprenticeship system for which during my preparation. There are some German schools are known throughout the books around the house which will help world is still thriving, questions arise about me in history, but I have to do the how to increase its prestige so that attending preparation myself., vocational schools is perceived as a I don't talk with my parents so much satisfactory alternative to attending about university. I think it's good that university, and not just an addition, to

44 49 attending university. There is alsoconcern necessarily comparable, nor are the grades in that the lower secondary school forms, courses, the two contributors to the total Hauptschule and Realschule, are suffering Abitur score. Since this score is the basis for continuing devaluation. selecting students for numerous clausus The exit examination given at the end of the subjects, students from some states have a 13th year of schooling is generally regarded as more difficult time of meeting the criterion a fair and defensible means of selecting for admission than do students from other students for university entrance. The major states. difficulty is that passing the examination no No attention is paid to the special abilities of longer assures the student of a place at the students in selecting them for admission to university of his or her choice and in the the university. As a result, there is always the subject in which the student is interested. A risk that students who have achieved the common criticism of the Gymnasium is that, required score for admission to a particular because of the Abitur examination, students program may not have other qualities that must select two subjects to study in depth are desirable for effective performance in that and two other subjects for less intensive profession. study. This results in a narrower type of Another problem in the university admissions education than students might desire. process is the fact that it disregards Another source of irritation is the fact that specialization in Gymnasium. Each student students are sometimes sent to far-away chooses two advanced courses for the Abitur, universities because an opening exists in their and thier choices are generally based on a subject. In some fields, depending upon the combination of interest and strategic student's score on the Abitur, it may be planning - the latter with the goal of necessary to wait for several years for such an obtaining the highest possible overall grade opening to occur. This situation arises point average on the Abitur. Since admission because students are accepted to study ina is determined overwhelmingly by grade point discipline rather than at a particular average, theoretically someone who had university. concentrated in German and French in German mothers display a surprising lack of Gymnasium could achieve the grade point information about the procedures required necessary to study biology, while a student for college entrance. They place the who may be better in biology could have responsibility for obtaining such information fallen short of the requirements. This can on their children and in general have great also result in some students spending vast confidence in their children's maturity and amounts of time studying material that will ability to make wise decisions. be of no value in their university studies. The states are given major responsibility for The German educational system currently carrying out the curriculum and for faces several pressing questions. Some major developing and scoring the Abitur concerns are increasing comparability of examination. A major concern about this Abitur results between states; whether to policy arises in relation to the different reduce the years of schooling from 13 to 12 standards adopted by various states, since for the college track; correlating subject reduces comparability among students. choice among students to the fields in which Scores on the Abitur examination are not personnel are needed, rather than to fields

45

5 0 BEST CopyAVAILABLP with higher prestige; and improving the university admissions process to reflect factors beyond grade point average and test scores.

46 a. Summary

The purpose of this paper has been to decision is made varies widely. For the review educational practices and policies countries that route students into different related to high school exit examinations and paths during the early years, effortsare made university entrance examinations in four to provide students with a strong academic countries: France, Germany, Japan, and the component to their vocational training. United Kingdom, and to describe the When the decision is made later, the goal reactions of students, parents, and teachers seems to be to provide a strong academic regarding these policies. The four countries program before vocational training begins. are experiencing a common problem. Their Vocational students have opportunities to universities, built to educate a moderate switch to an academic track, but this is nota percentage of the population, are being asked common occurrence. Further differentiation to accommodate increasing numbers of of students enrolled in the academic track is students. Unable to increase the size of their based on scores obtained on exit or entrance enrollment without an expansion of their examinations; admission to universities, as budgets, universities are left with two well as to particular fields of study, is strongly alternatives: restricting enrollments with the influenced by these scores. consequence that they become more elite institutions, or expanding enrollments with a Entrance and Exit Examinations resulting decline in quality of education. The first alternative is unacceptable tomany Entrance and exit examinations in these citizens because it exaggerates hierarchical countries are based on a curriculum structure of societies, and the second is established by ministries of education at the unacceptable to others, because itmay water local, regional, or national level. Rather than down the value of a university degree. imposing some arbitrarily defined standard of achievement, the examinations are closely Not only are universities experiencing tied to what the students have studied in increases in the number of students seeking high school. Because teachers areaware of entrance, they have also been forced to cope what students are expected to know in with the fact that some fieldsare much more examinations, it becomes their responsibility attractive to students than are others. It has to equip students with the information and not been sufficient, therefore, to adopt skills needed to pass the examinations. strategies for controlling admission to These examinations typically include universities; they have had to find ways for open-ended questions that require selecting the most promising candidates for organization and application of knowledge, various fields of study. and oral examinations that require the These countries have relied on two students to express themselves verbally. A mechanisms for responding to these persistent question asked about the problems. They separate students, sometimes curriculum-based examinations is whether at an early age, into an academic track and a they take into account the characteristics vocational track. The age at which this that will be most relevant for the students

2 47 success at the university level and intheir Criticisms of the Examinations later careers. Although the examinations were considered Reactions to Examinations to be fair and of high quality, two major problems were pointed out. Because the Parents and the students themselves often examinations often cover only a few subjects, professed ignorance of the procedures students may graduate from high school with involved in admission to universities, with a little breadth of knowledge, even though they resultant frustration on the part of students have great depth of knowledge in a few and passivity on the part of parents. subjects. This tendency is heightened when Nevertheless, they generally gave the college early specialization according to field of study entrance procedures a positive evaluation. is required. Although they were satisfied that the examinations were fair, parents and students A second problem arises when regional rather acknowledged that there were problems with than national examinations are used. the strong reliance on examinations. They Inequalities among students within or were unable, however, to suggest more between regions of a country occur when there is neither a national curriculum nor desirable procedures. national guidelines. Students perceive this as There was consistent agreement that the being unfair, especially if there are differences major determinant of success on the exit or among the regions of the country in termsof entrance examinations is the motivationof the quality of high school education and in the student to study in a consistent fashion. the rigor with which the tests are scored. As Parents indicated that they had little direct a result of these regionaldifferences, students involvement in students' preparation for the with high scores derived from lower standards examinations. This was the case even in the may be less qualified foradmission to families interviewed, where academic training universities than students from other regions is stressed and the parents had above-average that have higher standards. amounts of education. Parents explained that the major way in which they helped their Members of all four societies also commented from differences children was through providing a on the inequalities resulting psychological support and physical in the social and economic status of the environment conducive to study rather than students' parents. Middle-class parents with by becoming directly involved in offering a good education are able toprovide academic assistance. economic, personal, and intellectual advantages that are not readily available to Students reported that they did not find the students from less privileged families. examinations especially stressful. Because Students from poor families lack access to they were aware of what they should know in tutors, books, and other academic resources the examinations, they were able to reduce at home, and their parents are notsufficiently the possibility of stress by adequate knowledgeable about academic matters to preparation. Stress was also reduced when offer their children guidance and counsel. As their high school exit scores did not depend a result, these studentsoften sit for the solely on the examination, but also included examinations with less information and fewer consideration of their grades. skills than do those from more privileged homes.

48 53 Respondents also questioned the wisdom of differ according to the track in which the relying on test scores or on a combination of student is enrolled. test scores and grades as the criteria for admission to universities. In order to It seems likely that efforts will be madeto maximize their likelihood of receiving a high attract larger numbers of students vocational score on the examinations, students may training programs in the coming decades. concentrate their studies on subjects in The need for physicians, lawyers, teachers, and other professionals cannot which they have special strength rather than grow as fast as the number of students who seek direct their efforts to subjects whichare more entrance to relevant to their career goals. Respondents these professions. Efforts have been madeto raise the prestige and economic status of also pointed out that relianceon test scores vocational programs and thereby attempt and grades also fails to give considerationto to attract a higher percentage of students to students' skills and talents whichmay be important in their professional lives, but may vocational tracks. Even so, itseems likely not be directly related to academic course that the number of students selecting the work. vocational track will continue to lagas long as the economic and social advantages of Finally, questions were raised about the possessing a university degree persist. desirability of requiring such early decisions The reactions and evaluations made by the about career paths. This problem ismore characteristic of the European countries than respondents in this study represent the views of special groups of students in each of Japan, but in all four countries thesystem country, students who have done well in school and is relatively inflexible. Once the decision is made to follow the academic or vocational who seek entrance to their country's leading track, it is difficult for students to modify universities. It would also be of value to their studies so that those in the vocational know more about the response of less successful students and of students who do track can become competitive forentrance to a university. not aspire to a university degree. In developing policies that govern entrance to Conclusions universities the reactions of these groups must be heard. Procedures adopted for admission of students to universities have ramifications for a country's total educational system. It is inevitable that parents should consider the type of junior high school that will lead to an appropriate high school, or the type of elementary school that willprepare the student most effectively for admissionto a junior high school. Although policy makers in all four countries have attemptedto establish an egalitariansystem of elementary school education whereby all children receive a comparable level of education, high schools are highly hierarchical in that the curricula

49 54 Endnote

1.In Japan, interviews were conducted in 3.In France, interviews were conducted in Tokyo and Hiroshima with eight 12th- Paris and in the region of Cannes with grade students, 10 mothers, 8 of whom one boy and seven girls preparing for bac, were mothers of the students interviewed all of whom were anticipating professional and 1 father of the students; and 8 careers ranging from television journalist teachers from the high schools attended to judge. Three of the students' mothers, by the students. The teachers taught one father, and two teachers were also mathematics, English, science,or social interviewed. The students consisted of science courses. The students, four boys one boy and seven girls. and four girls, were concentratingon 4. liberal arts or professional-oriented In Germany, interviews were held in Munich and Furstenfeldbruck with subjects (law, engineering,or medicine). seven Additional information was obtained senior students, seven of their mothers from a professor of educational and one father, and with five of their psychology and the director of the teachers. The teachers specialized in College Management Research Inc. languages, history, mathematics, physics, physical education, and computer 2.In the United Kingdom, interviewswere science. The students were conducted in London and in the Isle of concentrating on mathematics, science, Wight area with nine 12th-grade Latin, English, biology, chemistry, and students, (four from humanities and economics. science and mathematics, four from science and mathematics, and one from humanities); six mothers and three fathers; and six teachers (two from humanities and four from science and mathematics).

55 51 References

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