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The Shape of Dark Matter Haloes II. the Galactus HI Modelling & Fitting

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The Shape of Dark Matter Haloes II. the Galactus HI Modelling & Fitting Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 000, 1{14 (2015) Printed 15 August 2016 (MN LATEX style file v2.2) The Shape of Dark Matter Haloes II. The Galactus HI Modelling & Fitting Tool S. P. C. Peters1, P. C. van der Kruit1?, R. J. Allen2 and K. C. Freeman3 1Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, P.O.Box 800, 9700AV Groningen, the Netherlands 2Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA 3Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics The Australian National University, Cotter Road Weston Creek, ACT 2611, Australia Accepted 2015 month xx. Received 2015 Month xx; in original form 2015 Month xx ABSTRACT We present a new HI modelling tool called Galactus. The program has been de- signed to perform automated fits of disc-galaxy models to observations. It includes a treatment for the self-absorption of the gas. The software has been released into the public domain. We describe the design philosophy and inner workings of the program. After this, we model the face-on galaxy NGC 2403, using both self-absorption and op- tically thin models, showing that self-absorption occurs even in face-on galaxies. These results are then used to model an edge-on galaxy. It is shown that the maximum sur- face brightness plateaus seen in Paper I of this series (Peters et al. 2015a) are indeed signs of self-absorption. The apparent HI mass of an edge-on galaxy can be drastically lower compared to that same galaxy seen face-on. The Tully-Fisher relation is found to be relatively free from self-absorption issues. Key words: galaxies: haloes, galaxies: kinematics and dynamics, galaxies: photom- etry, galaxies: spiral, galaxies: structure 1 INTRODUCTION velocity contours showed the mean velocity of the gas at each position in the galaxy (Rogstad & Shostak 1971). With the Modelling of the distribution and kinematics of the neu- assumption of a thin disc, it is then possible to measure the tral hydrogen in galaxies beyond our own, and the most rotation of the gas in rings centred on the galaxy. The posi- nearby systems M 31 and M 33, took off in the 1970s, with tion angle and inclination could be varied as function of the the addition of spectroscopic capability to the Westerbork rings. Assuming a rotation curve, Rogstad et al. (1974) used Synthesis Radio Telescope (Allen et al. 1974). This new tool it to model the peculiar velocity field of galaxy M 83, and gave observers sufficient spatial and velocity resolution to found the presence of a warp. Bosma (1978) improved this resolve the structure and kinematics for a large number HI by minimizing line of sight velocity residuals for different of galaxies. In edge-on galaxies, it thus became possible to rotation velocity in order to fit a rotation curve to the data. trace the outer envelope of the position-velocity (XV) dia- This method proved quite successful at modelling galaxies. gram in order to get the rotation curve of the galaxy (San- It has been extended by many authors into many software cisi & Allen 1979). Various strategies for this exist, such as packages (Begeman 1987; Schoenmakers 1999; Spekkens & fitting for the peak intensity or fitting a one-dimensional Sellwood 2007; Krajnovi´cet al. 2006). We refer to J´ozsa Gaussian with fixed velocity dispersion to the outer edge of et al. (2007) for a detailed discussion on tilted-ring fitting the XV-diagram (e.g. Garc´ıa-Ruiz et al. 2002). We refer the to velocity fields. reader to O'Brien et al. (2010) for a detailed treatment on The ever-continuing technological improvements led to the various methods for deriving the rotation curve from a ever-higher quality observations, which led to ever-better XV-diagram. resolved galaxies, both spatially as well as in velocity. A For face-on galaxies, fitting the structure and kinemat- natural consequence of this was the attempt to model the ics was first done by modelling the zeroth and first-moments HI data cube itself. This was first attempted by Irwin & maps, based on the channel maps in the HI data cube. These Seaquist (1991, 1993), who developed the Cubit code1. Cu- gave rise to the famous spider diagrams, in which the iso- bit offers the user parameterized functions, which could be ? For more information, please contact P.C. van der Kruit at [email protected]. 1 Which can be found at www.astro.queensu.ca/∼irwin/ c 2015 RAS 2 S. P. C. Peters et al. Figure 1. A cartoon illustrating the generation of the galaxy coordinate system. The model demonstrate the generation of an edge-on galaxy at a position angle of 135◦. The boxes on each side represent the outer edges of the voxels. From top-left to bottom-right: The initial coordinate system. Centering the coordinate system (Equation 1). The shift parameters can be used to move the central position of the galaxy along the horizontal and vertical axes (Equation 2). The position angle is applied by rotating along the z axis (Equation 3). The inclination is applied by rotating along the y axis (Equation 4). In the final step, we switch to cylindrical coordinates. automatically fit to the galaxy. The program has later been A fully automated three-dimensional fitting routine FAT for expanded to fit more properties of galaxies (Irwin 1994). Fully Automated TiRiFiC (Kamphuis et al. 2015) and Another software package is GALMOD, designed by another routine, called 3DBAROLO that also estimates ve- T.S. van Albada and F.J. Sicking, and incorporated into the locity dispersions (Di Teodoro & Fraternali 2015) has be- GIPSY data reduction system, (van der Hulst et al. 1992). come available. Based on a tilted-ring geometry, galmod randomly projects In Paper I (Peters et al. 2015a), we presented the HI a very large amount of `clouds' in the HI data cube. As these observations for eight edge-on galaxies. One of the key con- clouds follow the specified kinematics and distribution, after clusions of that paper was that self-absorption could well sufficient samples have been drawn, the HI data cube has play an important role. The effect of HI self-absorption has been built and the only task remaining is scaling the cube to long been a topic of concern, for example in the work by San- the desired intensity. Galmod does not support automatic cisi & Allen (1979) and of Braun et al. (2009). The latter fitting and users thus have to fit a cube using the hand-and- estimated quite significant corrections for self-absorption in eye strategy. the case of the Andromeda Nebula M 31. Yet in most of the 2 TiRiFiC is another code, which can automate the fit publications featuring models of neutral hydrogen in galax- to a cube (J´ozsaet al. 2007). It is based on a tilted-ring ies, the assumption remains that of an optically thin gas. model, but is expanded compared to galmod, to account None of the above software packages supports modelling for inhomogeneity in galaxy discs. Recently, it has used to of self-absorption of the gas. This, combined with some other fit features resembling spiral arms in edge-on galaxies (Kam- research questions we had concerning the neutral hydrogen, phuis et al. 2013). such as the behavior of the velocity dispersion as function of Finally, we note the GalAPAGOS project, which height above the plane, led us to develop a new tool for gen- can automatically fit rotation curves in galaxies (Wiegert erating data cubes that could treat for self-absorption. 2011). Out of all software codes currently publicly available, HI Rather than using a tilted-ring model, we model the galaxy TiRiFiC seems to be the only one under active development. as a single plane on which harmonic offsets above or below the central plane represent the warps. The code was de- 2 Currently available at www.astron.nl/∼jozsa/tirific/index.html veloped in the Python and C++ programming languages, c 2015 RAS, MNRAS 000, 1{14 The Shape of Dark Matter Haloes II. 3 with the computationally most intensive parts implemented 2.1 Generating the Galaxy Coordinate System as multi-threaded. The software is called Galactus. It has We start with the coordinates x; y; z assigned to the grid been publicly released under an open-source license and is of voxels5. We first shift the coordinates, such that position listed in the Astrophysics Source Code Library as Peters (0,0,0) aligns with the centre of the model, i.e. (ascl.net/1303.018, 2013). The code can be downloaded at sourceforge.net/p/galactus/. 0x1 0x − max(x)=21 The purpose of this paper is twofold. In Section 2, we @yA = @y − max(y)=2A : (1) present the inner workings of Galactus. Section 3 discusses z z − max(z)=2 some important features of the tool in more detail. In Sec- tion 4, we explore the effective spin temperature in more When performing a fit, the actual galaxy is often not detail. We test the program on face-on galaxy NGC 2403 in perfectly aligned with the centre of the HI data cube. It is Section 5, using both an optically thin and a self-absorbing thus necessary to shift the coordinates, based on parameters model. In Section 6, the fits from NGC 2403 are projected shiftx and shifty, to an edge-on galaxy to show that the maximum surface „ « „ « x x − shiftx brightness profiles seen in Paper I should indeed have been = : (2) y y − shifty higher. We test how self-absorption can lower the apparent total HI mass, depending on the inclination, in Section 7.
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