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Home , Artabanus I of Parthia, Babylonian calendar, Phalguna, Sudhakara Dvivedi

REPORT

OF THE REFORM I:DMMITTEE

GOVERNMENT OF

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Old Mill Road, • New Delhi. 1955 REPORT

OF THE l:llLENDAR REFORM l:OMMITTEE

· GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Old Mill Road, New Delhi. 1955 Pub~shed by The Council of Scientific and Industrial Reaearch, Old Mill Road, New Delhi.

Printed by Sri Hari Narayan Dey, Sree Gopal Printing Works, 25/IA, Kalidas Singhee Lane,· Calctitta-9. M E S S A G E.

I am glad that the Committee has started its lab~urs. The Government of India has entrusted to it the work of examining the different followed in this country and to submit proposals to the Government for an accurate and uniform calendar based on a scientific study for the whole of India. I am told that we have at present thirty different calendars, differing from each other in various ways, including the methods of time reckoning. These calendars are the natural result of our past political and cultural history an1 partly represent past political divisions in the country. Now that we have attained independence, it is obviously desirable that there should be a certain uniformity in the calendar for our civic, social and other purposes and that this should be based on a scientific approach to this problem. It is true the.t for governmental and many other public p~poses we follow the , which is used in the greater part of the world. The mere fact that it is largely used, makes it important. It has many virtues, but even this has certain defects which make it ·unsatisfactory for universal use. It is always difficult to change a calendar to which people are used, because it affects social practices. But the attempt has to be made even though it may not be as complete as desired. In any event, the present confusion in our own calendars in India ought to be removed. ""'' I hope that our Scientists will give a lead 1n this matter.

New Delhi, February 18, 1953. .MEMBERS OF THE CALENDAR .REFORM COMMITTEE

CHAIRMAN

Prof. M. N. Saba, D. Sc., F.R.S., M.P., Director, Institute of Nuclear Physics, 92, Upper Circ~lar Road, Calcutta-9.

M~ERS Prof. A. C. Banerji, M.A., M. Sc., F. N. I., Vice-Chancellor, Allahabad University, Allahabad.

Dr. K. L. Daftari, B. A., B. L., :p. Litt., Mahal, Nagpur.

Shri J. S. Karandikar, B. A., LL.B., Ex·Editor, The Kesari, 568 Narayan Peth, Poona-2.

Dr. Gorakh Prasad, D. Sc., Reader in , Allahabad University, Beli A venue, Allahabad.

Prof. R. V. Vaidya, M.A., B. T., Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Madhav College,., 78, Ganesh Bhuvan. Freegunj, Ujjain.

Shri N.C. Lahiri, M.A., SSA, Raja Dinendra Street. Calcutta-6.

Shri N. C. Lahiri acted as the Secretary of the Committee.

C.R.-B TRANSLITERATION

, The scheme of translH:eration. of alphabets into Roman script adopted in this publication is the same as generally followed. The corresponding scripts are given belo~ :-

VOWELS CONSONANTS

a "ifi" k 'q' p ' ' a:. 'ta kh li, ph iT' g 11' b ' ' 'CI' ... gh ll bh : ·~ . ' i ~ ... :b. ~ m i

'"i!. c ~ y . i;J. ch ,..~ r u if • II;•• 'at u ;;;r .,. j ~ 1 ~ jh '!. v ii ~ r ~., .. ' ~ 1••• 1

I t Sf s e ·" ' .. ·l{ e 0 .... th· ... ~ '6' Q. ~ s ai .... ' '-... Q.h h ~· .. "·' ~ ~ .. I}.

·~ 0 .~ ... au f; 1'!:· m ·' . ; 1!1' th h ' d s dh "~. 'i{ n

N. B. Diacritical marks h~ve ~ot~ generally been used in names of persons belonging to · recent times as well as in well-known ge~graphlcal ~a~¢s~ • · . ' . · PREFACE

The Calendar Reform Committee was appointed suggested by Dr. Hashim Amir Ali of the Osmania in November, 1952, by the Council of Scientific and University, and Janab Mohammed Ajmal Khan of the Industrial Research (of the Government of India) with Ministry of Education. It is for the Islamic world to the following terms of reference : give its verdict on these suggestions. If these sugges­ "To ex:1mine all the existing calendars which are being tions are accepted, the would fall in followetl in the country at pre,;ent and after a scientific line with other luni-solar calendars. stn.ly of the subject, submit proposals for an accurate and As these two important systems of calendars had uniform calendar fot· the whole of India". to be left out, the Committee's labours were confined In accordance with its terms of reference, the .to an examination of the different systems of calendars' Committee (for personnel, see p. 4) has scientifically used by Hindus, Bauddhas and Jainas in the different examined all the c.alendars prevalent in India (vide states of India, chiefly for the fixing up of the dates Part C. Chap. V), vix.,- and moments of their religious festivals, and for certain civil purposes as well. Gregorian Calendar ... which is used for civil and administrative purposes (vide For the purpose of examining all the existing p. 170) all over the world. calendars of India, as per terms of reference, an appeal was issued to the Pancailga .(Almanac) makers for Islamic Calendar ...... used for fixing up the dates furnishing the Committee with three copies of their of Islamic festivals (vide Pancailgas. In reply to our request 60 Panca:Iigas p. 179). (Almanacs) were received from different parts of the Indian Calendars country and were examined (p. 21). To facilitate or Panc:IIigas ...... used for fixing up dates and examination of the calendars, a questionnaire was moments of Hindu, Bauddha issued to which 51 replies were received (pp. 23-31). and Jaina festivals in different In addition to the above, 48 persons offered their States of India, and in many suggestions (pp. 32-38) fo~ reform of the Indian cases for civil purposes also. calendar. These views were very divergent in They are about 30 in number. character. Some quoted ancient scriptures to prove (vide Chap. V, p. 258). that the earth is flat, with a golden mountain in the It has been pointed out (p. 171) that the Gregorian centre round which move the and the planets, calendar, which is used all over the world for civil others tried to refute the of equinoxes. and administrative purposes, is a very unscientific and All opinions were taken into consideration in arriving inconvenient one. The (p. 173), at the ~ecisions of the Committee. proposed by the World Calendar Association of New Principles followed in fixing up the Calendar :-The York, has been examined and found suitable for calendar has got two distinct uses-civil and religious. modern life. The proposal for its adoption by all the The Indian calendars are used not only for fixing up countries of the world for civil and administrative the dates and moments of religious observances but purposes was sponsored by the Indian Government also for the purpose of dating of documents and for before the U.N. 0. and debated before the ECOSOC certain civil purposes not only by the rural, but also (Economic and Social Council) at Geneva in June, · by a large section of the urban population. There is 1954 (p. 173) and its recommendations have been great divergence in practice in different parts of the transmitted to the Governments of the World for country in this respect. Therefore a unified solar their opinion. It is hoped that the World Calendar calendar has been proposed for all-India use for civil will be ultimately adopted. It will lead to a great purposes. This has been based on the correct length simplification of modern life. of the year (vix. the tropical year) and the popular The introduction of the World Calendar in place -names, vix., Caitra, Vai~akha, etc. have been of the Gregorian is a matter for the whole world, retained (see p. 6). which has now to look for decision by the U. N. 0. Calendars are based partly on SCIENCE which The Islamic (Hejira) calendar has been discussed nobody is permitted to violate and partly on on p. 179, along with some proposals for reform CONVENTIONS which are man-made and vary from viii PREFACE

place to place. The Indian calendars put up by (scientific) astronomy evolved by Indian astronomers almanac-makers commit the violation of the following on the basis of old Indian calendaric conceptions, . principles of science :- which were put on scientific basis by blending with They take the length of the year to be 365.258756 them astronomical conceptions prevalent in the West, days (p. 240. Part C of Report) as given by the Sut·ya­ from the third century B.C. Siddhiinla about 500 A. D. ; while the correct length The era is also used exclusively for horoscope of the tropical year# which alone can be used according making. a practice introduced into India since the to the Sut-ya-Sidd1W.1Jta and modern astronomy for first century A.D. by the Sakadvipi Brahmai}as. calendarical use, is 365.242196 days. The difference The Calendar Committee has devised a solar of .01656 days is partly due to errors of observation# calendar with fixed lengths of for all-India use, not infrequent in those days. and to their failure to ·in which it has been proposed to give up the recognize the precession of equinoxes. As the Surya­ calculations of the Surya- in which the Siddhanta value of the year-length is still used in solar months vary from 29 to 32 days. almanac-makin~ the year-beginning is advancing by Religious Calendar--The Committee's task resolved .01656 days per year, so that in the course of nearly itself into a critical examination of the different 1400 years. the year-beginning has advanced by 23.2 Indian local calendars, about .30 in number, which days# with the result that the Indian solar year, use different methods of calculation. This produces instead of starting on the day following the vernal great confusion. equinox# i.e.. on March 22, as prescribed in the Surya­ Siddhanta (see Chap. V. p. 239), starts on April 13 or As already stated the Siirya-Siddhanta year being 14. The situation is the same as· happened in Europe longer than the tropical year by about 24 mins., the due to the acceptance of 365.25 days as the length of months have gone out of the the year at the time of Julius Caesar ; the Christmas to which they conformed when the Siddha:ntic rules originally linked to the winter solstice preceded it · were framed ; as a result, the religious festivals are by 10 days by 1582 A.D., when the error was being observed not in the seasons for which they were rectified by the promulgation of a bull by Pope intended but in wrong seasons. The Committee felt Gregory XIII. By this. Friday. October 5 was that the error should be corrected once for all and proclaimed as Friday, October 15, and new leap-year the months brought back to their original seasons. rules were introduced. But with a view to avoiding any violent break in the present day practices, the desired shifting has not Unlike Europe, wher~ the Pope in the medieval been effected. but any further increase of the error has times possessed an authority which every one in been stopped by adopting the tropical year for our Catholic Europe respected. India had a multiplicity of eras and year-beginnings due to her history during religious calendar also (see p. 7). the years SOQ-1200 A. D. But for calendaric calcula­ Before the rise of Siddhanta Jyoti~a ( 400 A.D. ), tions, our, astronomers -all over India have been using India used only the calculated according only the era since (500 A.D.) certainly to the Vedanga Jyoti~a rules and most religious, festi- and probably from much earlier times. and in local vals (e.g. the Janma~tami, the birthday of Sri K~~I}a) almanacs other eras are simply imposed on it. The ilsed to be fixed up by the lunar calendar which used Calendar Committee has therefore recommended :- only and nak~atra. The Calendar Committee That for all official purposes, the ,Central as well could not find out any way of breaking off with the as State Governments should use the Saka era along lunar affiliation short of a religious revolution and with the dvil calendar proposed by the Committee has. therefore, decided to keep them. For this (p.6). It is suggested, that the change-over may take purpose, the lunar year is to be pegged on to the solar place from the Saka ye.ar 1878. Caitra 1 (1956, March year by a number of conventions. The Committee has 21). If,this is accepted. the last .atonth of the year, ~ix .• adhered to the ancient conventions as far as possible. 1877 Saka, the solar Phalguna. which has a normal But the erroneous calculations of and nak~atras length of 30 days, will have an extra number of 6 or have been replaced by modern calculations given in 7 days. the nautical almanacs and modern ephemerides, and The pre-eminence of the Saka era is due, as the religious holidays have been fixed for a central historical evidences cited on pp. 228-238 and 255-257 station of India ( t:ide page 40 ). show, that it was the earliest era introduced in India , . , The present practice is to calculate the tithi for b}l' Saka ~ling powers. and have been used exclusively each locality and the result is that the same tithi by the Sakadvipi · Brahmins (forming the astrologer may not occur on the same day at all places. The ~aste) for calendar-making on the basis of Siddhantic Calendar Co~ittee has found that the continuance PREFACE-. ix

of different lunar calendars for different places is a (ii) But there are other holidays, which are given relic of medieval practice when communication was according to the position of the Sun (vide difficult, the printing press did not exist and pp. 117-118). astrologers of each locality used to calculate the (iii) Others which are given according to the luni- calendar for that locality based on Siddhllntic rules (pp. 119-124). · and used to proclaim it on the first day of the year (iv) Holidays for Moslems and Christians {pp. 125 to their clients. In these days of improved communi­ and 126). cation, free press, and radio, there is not the slightest It is a task for the Central as well as State Govern· justification for continuance of this practice and the ments to calculate in advance dates for the holidays it Committee has fixed up the holidays for the central gives. This is_ done on the advice of Paficari.ga-makers station ( 82° 30' E, 23° 11' N, see Report p. 40 ); attached to each Governmq,1t. In addition, numerous an:i recommended that these holidays may be used for indigenous pafica:ri.gas are prepared on the Siddhantic the whole of India. The dates of festivals of the system of calculations, the elements of which are now Hindus, Jainas and Bauddhas have been determined on found to be completely erroneous. There is a wide the above basis. This will put an end to the calendar movement in the country first sponsored by the confusion. great savant, patriot and political leader, the late The confusion is symbolic of India's history. Lokamanya B. G. Ti]ak, for making the paficanga While all Christendom comprising people of Europe, calculations on the basis of the correct and up-to Asia and America, follows the Gregorian calendar, date astronomical elements. As a result, there are and the whole of the Islamic world follows the Hejira almost in every State different schools of pafica:ri.ga . calendar for civil and religious purposes, India uses 30 calculations, differing in the durations of tithis, different systems for fixing up the same holidays in nak~atras, etc., and consequently in the dates of different parts of the country and frequently, two religious festivals. The problem before the Govern­ rival schools of pafica:ri.ga-makers in the same city fix ment is : which one of the divergent systems is to be up different dates for the same festival. This is a adopted. The Committee has suggested a system of state of affairs which Independent India cannot calculations for the religious calendar also, based on tolerate. A revised national calendar, as proposed most up-to-date elements of the motion of the sun and by us, should usher a new element of unity in the moon. Calendars for five years from 1954-55 to India. 1958-59 have been prepared on this basis showing The Committee has therefore gone deeply into the therein inter alia the dates of important festivals of history of calendar making in all countries from the different States (vide pp. 41-100). The lists of holidays earliest times particularly into the history of calendar­ for the Government of India and of each separate making in India (vide Chap. V) and has arrived at their State for the five years have also been prepared from conclusions. Its recommendations are entirely in this calendar for the use of the Governments. The agreement with the precepts laid down by the Siddhan­ Committee hopes that the Government of India as well tic astronomers, as given in the Surya-Siddhanta and as the State Governments would adopt these lists in other standard treatises (see p. 238 et seq.). declaring their holidays in future. The Ephemerides Committee which has been formed by the Government The Committee has also compiled a list of all reli­ of India, consisting of astronomers versed in th~ gious festivals observed in diffirent parts of India and principles of calendar-making would act as advisers to listed them under the headings (i) Lunar, and (ii) Solar, the Central as well as State Governments. It may be with their criteria for. fixing the dates of their obser­ assisted by an advisory committee to help it in its vances (pp. 102-106). deliberations. Where does the Goremment come in : Though India The responsibility of preparation of the five-yearly is a secular state, the Central Government and the calendar and the list of holidays on the basis of State Governments have to declare a number of ­ recommendations adopted by the Committee has been days in advance, a list of which will be found on pages shared by Sri N. C. Lahiri and Sri R. V. Vaidya, 117-154 for the Central Government as well as for the aided by some assistants and !':everal pandits of note, States. These holidays are of four different kinds, amongst whom the following may be mentioned : viz. :- Sri A. K. Lahiri, Sri N. R. Choudhury, Pandit (i) Holidays given according to the Gregorian Narendranath Jyotiratna, and Joytish Siddhanta calendar, e.!!.. Mahatma Gandhi's birthday, Kesari Venkata Subba Sastry of Madras. which falls on Oct. 2. These present no We have received great help from C. G. Rajan, problem to any government. B.A., Sowcarpet, Madras. He has kindly furnished X PREFACE

us with valuable . suggestions regarding 'Rules for · We have reproduced ·figures from certain books.. fixing the dates of festivals for South India'·. and our acknowledgement is due to the publishers. It· We are indebted to the Astronomer Royal of Great was however not possible to obtain previous permission Britain, Sir Harold Spencer Jones, and to Mr. Sadler, from them, but the sources have been mentioned at head of the Ephemerides divison of the Royal the relevant places. Observatory of U. K. for having very kindly supplied It is a great pleasure and privilege to express our us with certain advance data relating to the sun and gratitude to our colleagues of the Calendar Committee the ~oon which have facilitated our calculations. We for. their active co-operation in the deliberations of the have to thank the great oriental scholar, Otto Neuge-. Committee, and ungrudging help whenever it was bauer for having helped us in clearing many . obscure sought for. points. in ancient calendaric astronomy; We wish to M. N. Saba express our thanks to Prof. P. C. Sengupta for helping Calcutta, Chainnan 1,1s iri clearing many points of ancient and medieval The lOth Nov., 1955. . N. C. Lahiri Sec1·etary CONTENTS

l'AGE l'AGE Message from the Prime Minister iii Government of India Holidays 127 Members of the Calend~r Reform Committee v List of Holidays for different Tra.nsli teration vi States of India- Preface vii Assam Holidays 128 Bihar 129 " 0 PART A Bombay 130 " Madhaya Pradesh Holidays 131 Introductory 1 Madras 132 Appointment of the Committee 4 " Orissa Final Recommendations of the Committee 6 133 East Punjab 134 " ... ANNEXURE: Uttar Pradesh 135 " West Bengal 136 !-Proceedings of the First Meeting " Hyderabad 137 of the Committee 9 " Jammu & Kashmir 138 II-Proceedings of the Second Meeting " of the Committee 15 Madhya. Bha.ra.to 139 Mysore 140 HI-Proceedings of the Third Meeting of " tbe Committee 17 Patiala & East Punjab States IV-A Summary of reasons for the dissen- Union Holidays 141

ting note by Dr. K. L. Daftari 18 Rajasthan Holidays 142 0 V-List of Paiicailgas received 21 Saurashtra 143 VI-Questionnaire 22 Travancore-Cochin . 144 " Replies to questionnaire 23 Ajmer 145 VII-Summary of suggestions for Indian Bhopal 146 " Calendar Reform received from Bilaspur 147 " different persons and institutions 32 Coorg 148 " Delhi . ~ . 149 Himachal Pradesh 150 " PART B Kutch 151 " Manipur 152 Explanation 40 " Tripura 153 REFORMED CALENDAR OF INDIA for each month " Vindhya Pradesh 154 of the five years 1876 to 1880 Saka 41-100 " General rules for religious festivals 101 Lunar festivals 102 Solar festivals 106 PART C Criteria of some festivals for South India 106 History of the Calendar in different countries Certain special tithis and combinations 107 through the ages Certain special Yogas 108 Tithis, Nak!)atras, Muhurtas and their CHAl'TER lords 109 !-General Principles of Calendar Making 157-163 Yogas & Karaoas 110 1.1 Introduction 157 Alphabetical list of festivals 111 1.2 The natural periods of time 157 Sunrise and sunset for certain important places 116 1.3 The problems of the Calendar 158 1.4 Subdivisions of the day 159 LIST OF HOLIDAYS 117 1.5 Ahargal}a or heap of days : Julian Consolidated list of holidays for all States days 161 of India-- A-Fixed holidays & Solar festivals 117 li-The Solar Calendar 164-173 B-Lunar festivals 119 2.1 Time reckonings in ancient Egypt 164 ~1oslem festivals 125 202 Solar calendars of other ancient nations 165 Christian festivals 126 2.3 The Iranian Calendar 166 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE CHAPTER PAGE ~.4 The French Revolution Calendar 167 Appendix : ~.5 The Boman Calendar 168 4-A-Newton's explanation of the 2.6 The Gregorian Calendar 1'10 precession of the equinoxes 207 2. 7 The World Calendar 171 4-B-Stars of the lunar mansions 210 ·m-The Lwrl-Solar and Lunar Calendars 1'/4-180 1'14 3.1 Principles of luni-solar calendars V-lndian Calendar 212-2'10 3.9 Moon's synodic period .or lunation : Empirical relation between the year · 5.1 The periods in Indian history 212 and the month 1'15 5.2 Calendar in the ]lg-Vedic age 2U 3.3 The lnni-solar calendars of the Babylonians, 5.3 Calendaric references in the Yajur-Vedic the Macedonians, the Romans and the literature 218 Jews 176. 5.4 The V edailga 1 yotitfa. Calendar 221 3.4 The introduction of the era 1'17 5.5 Critical review of the inscriptional 3.5 The J ewisli Calendar 1'19 records about calendar 226 · 3.6 The Islamic Calendar. 179 5.6 Solar Calendar in ~he .Siddhanta. J yotitfa. period 234 IV-Calendaric Astronomy 181~211 5.7 Lunar Calendar in the Siddhanta. Jyotitfa. 4.1 The 'Moon's movement in the sky .•. , ~; ~ 181 period 245 4.2 Long period observations of the moon:·· 5.8 Indian Eras 251 The Chaldean Saros 184 4.3 The 188 ' . Apptmdix: 4.4 Night observationS ·: the celestial 5-A-The Seasons 259 pole and the equator 190 5-B-The Zero-point of the Hindu Zodiac .•. 262 4.5 · The apparent path of the sun in the sky : 5-0-Gnomon measurements in the Aita.rey11o The 191 Brahmal.).a. 266 ·4.() The Zodiac and the Signs 192 5-D-Precession ·of the Equinoxes amongst 4:.7 Chaldean contributions to astronomy : Indian Astronome_rs 267 of planetary and horoscopic Rise,. 5-:&--The Jo-ria.n years 270 astrology 194 4.8 Greek contributions to astronomy 201 Corrigenda. &J?.d Addenda. .... 271 4.9 - DisCovery of t~e precession of the Bibliography 272 1 equinoxes ....~:. 20! Index 274: BIBLIOGRAPHY . -

Achelis, Elisabeth (1955}-0f Time an~ the Cale~dar, Haug, Dr. Martin-Ai~arP.ya BrahmaJ}.a of the Rig-Veda. _ ~ew York. H~rzfeld (1932)-Sakasthan, Archaeologische Mitteilungen ans Iran. Alter, ll." & Cleminshaw, C. H. (1952)-Pictorial Astronomy, Jacobi, Prof. Hermann (1892)-The computation of Hindu NewYotk. dates in inscriptions, Eph. Ind. Vol. I, p. 403. Aryab11atiya of 4~ryabhata--translated with notes by W .. E. Clark, Chicago, 1930. Jones, Sir H~ Spencer (1934, 1955)-General Astronomy, London. Anuwican · Ephet~z.eris J'; Kautical Almanac for the years (1952)___:Calendar, Past, Present & Future 1954: and 1955. -a lecture delivered at the Royal Society of Arts, Bachhofer, Dr. L. {1936)-Herrscher and Munzen in· London, 1952. spaten K~shanas, Joumal of American Oriental (1937}- The measurement of time, published in the Society. Vol. 56. Reports on Progress in Physics, Vol. IV, London. (1941} On Greeks and in_ India, Journal of Journal of Calendar Reform, New York. American Oriental Society, Vol. 61 _p. 223. _ 1 Keith, Dr. Berriedale-The Veda of the Black Yajur School Basak, Dr. :Radhagovinda (1950)-Kautiliya Artbasastra, entitled Taittiriya Samhita, Part. 2. Bengali translation, Calcutta. KhaJ).qakhadyaka of --Eilited with an Bhandarkar (1927-34)-Inscriptions of Northern India, introduction by Babua Misra-translated by P. C. Appendix to Epigraphia Indica, Vols. XIX-XXII. Sengupta (1934), Calcutta University, 1934. Brennand, W. (1896)-Hindu Astronomy. · Konow, Dr. Sten {1929)-Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, -Burgess, Rev. E. (1935}-Tbe Surya-Siddhanta, English Vol.II, Karo!}thi Inscriptions. translation: with ~n introduction by P. C. Eengupb {Republished by the Calcutta University). Krogdhal, Wasleg. S.-The Astronomical Universe, P. S. A. Clark, Walter Eugene (1930)-The of Arya­ Lahiri, N.C. (1952)-Tables of the Sun, Calcutta. bhata, English tra.nslation with notes, Chicago. LUders (1909-10)- A list of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Couderc, Paul (1948)-Le Ca.lendrier, France. earliest times to 400 A.D. Appendix to Epigraphia Cunningham, Alexander (1883)-Book of Indian. Eras with Indica, Vol. X. (The references are given, e.g., tables for calculating Indian dates, Calcutta. LUders 942, which means inscription No. 942 of Debevoise (1938)-Political History of . LUders). Deydier (1951)-Le date de Kaniska. etc. Journal Asiatique, Maj~der, N: G. (1929}-Inscriptions of Bengal, Rajshahi, VoL 239. Bengal. Digha Nikaya (1890), Vol. I, Pali Text Book Society, Majumdar, R. C. {1943}-The History of Bengal, VoL I. ~it, S. B. (1896)-Bharatiya Jyoti8astra (in Marathi). Dacca University. Discovery (1953), VoL XIV, p. 276, Norwich (Eng.). Nautical Al1nanac (British) for the years 1935 & 1954 to 1956• • Dreyer,_ J.L.E. (1953)-A from Neugebauer, 0. (1952)-The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, Thales to Kepler, Dover Publications, Inc. Princeton, New Jeresy, Dvivedi;Sudhakara{1925}-The Suiya. Siddhanta, translation · (1954) Babylonian Planeta.ry Theory, Proceedings of -, :under his editorship, Asiatic Society of Bengal, CaL the Anz,erican Philosophical Society, Vol. 98. No.1,. EncycloPaedia Britannica (14th edition)___:Articles on 1954 · , Chronology, Calendar and Ea!::ter. Newcomb, Simon (1906)-A Compendium of Spherical Encyclopaedia of Religion tt Ethics-Vols. I, II & III, New Astronomy, New York. York (1911},-Articles on Calendar and Festivals. Norton, Arthur P. (1950)-A Star Atlas, London. Pannekoek, Antone (1916)-Calculation of Dates in Baby­ Epigr.aJJhia Indica, Vol. XXVII. lonian Tables of Planets, Proc. Roy. Soc. Amst. Flamma.rion, C. & Gore, J. E. (1907)-Popular Astronomy, I, 1916, 684. London. (1951}-Tbe Origin of Astronomy, M. N. R. A. S.,. Fotheringha.m, Dr. J. K. (1935)-The Calendar, article 'd Vol. III, No.4, 1951. · published in the Nautical Al-manac, .London 1935. (1930)-Astrology and its influence upon the· Ginzel, F. K. (1906)-Ha.ndbuch der Mathema.ti~chen nnd development of Astronomy-Jr.R. A. S. of CanadiJ,. Technischen Chronologie, Bd. L Leipzig. April, 1930. BIBLIOGRAPHY 273

Pa.nth, B. D. (1944)-Consider the Calendar, New York. Sewell, R. S. & Dik~it, S. B. (1896)-The Indian Calendar, Pilla.i, L. D. Swamikannu (1922)-An Indian Ephemeris, London. Vol. I, Suptd. Govt. Press, Madras. Shamasastry, R. (1936)-Vedailga. Jya.utisha-edited with Rapson (1922)-The Cambridge IIistory of India, English translation & Sanskrit commentary, Vol. I, Ancient India. Mysore. Ray Chowdhury, II. C. (1938)-Political History of Ancient Sirka.r, D. C. (19!2)-Select inscriptions bearing on Indian lndin., 5th edition, Calcutta. University. history and civilization, Calcutta. University. Roy, J. C. (1903)-Amluler Jyoti~.lo 0 Jyoti~i (Bengali). Sky If Telescope, Vol. I, 19!2 & Vol. XII, 1953, Cambridge, Calcutta. Mass .•. U.S. A. Rufus, W. Carl (1942)-llow to meet the fifth column in Smrtitirtha., Pt. Radha.vallabha-Siddhanta SiromaQi of Astronomy, Sky If Telescope, Jan,1942, Vol. I, No.3. Bhaskarl'icarya.-Bengali translation in 2 Vols. Calcutta. Russell, H. N., Dugan, R. S., & Stewart, J. Q. (19!5)­ Astronomy, 2 Vols, U. S ..\. Svami, Vijiianananda. (1909)-Siirya Siddhanta, Bengali translation with notes, Calcutta. Sa.chau, Edward C. (1910)-Alberuni's India, English tran­ slation in 2 Vols., London. Thibaut, G. (1869)-'Ihe Paiica Siddb:intika-the Astrono­ mical works of Varlihamihira, edited by G. Thibaut Sachs, A. {1952)-Babylonian Horoscopes,-Reprinted from & Mm. Eudhakara Dvivedi, Banaras. the Journal of Cunieform Studies, Vol. VI, No.2. Tilak, B. G. (1893)-0rion or Researches into the Antiquity Saba., M. N. (1952)-Reform of the Indian Calendar, Science of the , Poona. ,f Culture, Vol. 18, 1952. Universal History of the World, Vols. I & II, edited by (1952)-Calender through Ages and Countries, J. H. Hammerton, London. Lecture delivered at the Andhra University, 1952. (1953)-Different methods of Date recording Vander "\Vaerden-Science Awakening. in Ancient and l!edieval India. and the origin of Van Lohuizen de Leeuw (1949)-The Scythian Period, the Saka. era-Jounal of the Asiatic Society, Leiden, (shortly called L. de. Leeuw or Leeuw with Letters, Vol. XIX, No. 1, 1953. p:~.ge following).

Sarton, George (1953)-A History of Science, 0.;\:ford -Brhat Samhita, Bengali translation by Pt. University Press, London. Pancanana Tarkaratna·(1910), Calcutta. Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. III. - Panca. Siddhantika-edited by G. Thibaut & hlm. Schmidt, Olaf (1951)-0n the Computation of the AhargaQa, Sudhakara Dvivedi, Banaras, 1889. Centaurus, September, 1952, 2. Copenhagen. Watkins, Harold (1954)-Time Counts, London. Scientific American, 188, 6-25, 1953, New York. Webster, A. G.-Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid Sen, Sukumar (1941)-0ld Persian Inscriptions of the Elastic & Fluid bodies. Achemenian Emperors, Calcutta University. Winternitz-History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, Calcutta Sengupta, P. C. (1947)-Ancient Indian Chronology, Calcutta University. University. Woolard, Edgar W. (1942)-The Era of Nabonassor, article Articles published in the Sri Bhiirati ( Bengali ) published in the Sky tt Telescope, Vol. I. No.6, April, (1925)-Khat;uJakhadyaka of Brahmagupta edited 1942. with an introduction, Calcutta. University. Yampolsky, Philip (1950)-The Origin of the Twenty-eight Sewell. R. S. (1924)-The and the Indian Lunar mansions, published in Osiris, Yol. IX, 1950. Calendar. Zinner, Dr. Ernest (1931)-Die Geschichte der Sternlnmde, (1912) -The Indian Chronography Berlm. INDEX

.Abbe Aiastrofini,171 Artemidorus o£ Pu~kaliivati, 230 Bralmzatzas, 193, 214, 221, 241, 245 .Abd al-Rahamiin al-f;llifi, 206 .Art!la§astra of Kaulilya, 235,236 Brahmi,~27,229,231,232,233 .Achelis, Miss Elisabeth,12,171 .Aru\}odaya, 100 · Brhat Sa,h/titti, 226, 267 ., 179 · .Aryabhata I. 204;234, 236, 237, 238, 240, 252, Brown,193 .Addaru,175,176 . 253,2~267 Buddha, 231, 235 ; .Adhika (=mala) month, 7, 247, 250 Aryabha\3 II, 238, 268 nirvii.\13 of, 256, 257 .Agni, 216 .AlyabllaUya of Aryabhat.a, 162 238, 253 views on astrology, 235 .Aharg~a,9,11,161,162,163 .A.rya Sangami.kii., 232 . Budhagupta, Gupta emperor, 234 .Ahoratm, 157, 160 .bya Sidd/Uit~fa, 1, 214, 251, 268 Burgess, Rev. E., 238, 253, 262, 263 .Aitat·rya Bralm1at1a, 189, ~U6, 219,221,266 .AryaVas~lii., 23"2 1lkber,1,159,214,251 AS<>kachalla Deva, 256 .Ak~aya trtiyii., 18, 19 .A6oke,177,212,~27,228,252 Calendar, defined,!, 157; .Al-Battani, 2C4, 206, 240 ; :-'1r .Assouan papyri; 179 civil,6, rate of precession, 206 ;t • .A:;fiidhya!ft, 214 compilation according to S. S., 1 ; JJberuni,198,204~237; .Astrolatry, 235, 236 confusion in Indian, 10 ; .Al-Bitruji, 206 llstrology,l2,194,196,205,206,235,236,256 Egyptian, 164 ; .Alexander· of Macedon, 202, 213, 234, 235 .Atllarca Sa1hllitii, 217,218 . French revolution, 167 ; Al-Farghiini, 206. .Atllarro Veda, 214, 217, 218 Fusli, 248; .Almagest, 204, 206, 238, 24.0 .Audayika system, 254 Gregorian, I, 3, 11,170-172; .Aloysius Lilius, 171 .Angust Compte, French positivist philo!?Qpher, Hejira, 1, 166, 179, 180, 214 ; .Altekar, Prof., 254. . 171. history of reform movement, 10, 11 ; .Al-Zalquali, 206 .Augustus, 168 Iranian (Jelali) I, 166 167 ; .Aminta month, 101, 157, 177, 247 llyananrusa,5,7,16,1'l,20,268,269; Islamic,179,180; Ammonia clock, 12, 159 .amount of ace. to Aryabhata II, 268 Jewish 179; .Anaximll!lder of Miletus, 188, 202 ; amount of fixed, 16,17 lunar,3,179,245,247; gnomon,202 (see also calendar for five years) luni solilr, 1, 3, 174,249,251; .Ancietlf h1dian Chronology, 215, 253, 266 definition, 268 calendar in Siddhii.ntas 245-251 ; · .Andau (inscription), 233 rate of,''l of Babylonians, Macedonians, Romaa .Antiochus Sorter, 203 rate of BhaskaraCii.rya, 269 a·nd the Jews, 176,177; .Antiochus I, II of , 228 value of, 7,17 principles of 174; .Anubis, E.,C7)'Jltian god, 164 llyanas,267,268,269 Siddhii.ntic rules for 247; .Anuvatsara, 225 .Azes, 256 National, 12-14; .Anyanka Bhima Devaof Ganga dynasty, 25'1 .Azes I, 230, 233, 256 Paitamaha Siddhan_ta, 223, ; A~a,1oo .Azes II, 230, 233,-256 problems of the, 158, 159 ; · Apastamba Sar;Jma, 218 .Azilises, 230, 233 Reformed, 4 ; .Aphelion, 242 ; movement of, 243 Religious 7 ; .Apollonius of Perga, 203 Roman,I68; La (inscription), 230 Babylon, 225,226,228; latitude of, 225 Seleucid Babylonian,229; ' .Arachosia, 229, 230 B.achhofer, Dr. L., 230, 231, 232 Siddhanta Jyoti~a period, 245, 246 ~yaka,214 , Badami (inscripti('n), 233, 253 Solar, 1, 2, 164-173, 245 ; .Arehebius of Taxila, 230 Bailey,253 Siddhii.ntii. Jyo~a period, 234-245 .Archimedes of Syracuse, 203 Balarama, 227 'l'arikh-i-Jelali, 166, 167; .Arehytas of Tarentum, 202 Banerjee, late R. D., 212 'l'ii.rikh-Ilahi, 1, 214, 251, 257, 258 ; .Ardeshir I of Persia, 232 Bentley, 253 Vedii.i:lga Jyoti~a, 9, 221,222,223 ; Ardharatrika 'system, 1, 253, 254 Berossus, Chaldean priest, 203 World, I, 171-173 .Ariana, He~t regions, 229 Bhiiratiya JyotiSastra, ll, 160, 219, 225, 236, Calendar of India, Reformed (as recommended . (zodiacal sign), 192,193 267. by the Committee), 41-100; .Aries, first point of; 157, 192, 199,207,239, 24.0, Bhii.skaricarya, 238,246,262,267,268,269; explanation of terms used, 40 262,268; ayana calana, 269 Calendar Reform, Hipparcho"s, 200,205,206; Bhiisroti 160 suggestion received, 5 ; movement o~ 200, 205, 206 ; Bhattotpala, 237 summary of suggestions, 32-38 position in different times, 200 (fig). Bhoga (celestial longitude), 262 Cii.likya V allabhesvara, 233 Ptolemy's, 200 Bija (correction), 3 Caliph Omar, 167,179 .Aristarchos of 8amos, 203 Box lid (inscription), 230 Calippos, length of , 175,261 .Armellini, 171 Brahma, Creator in Hindu mythology, 223, Canakya,213,235,236 ., 199 (fig.), 263 • 236,238,239,240 • , first point of, 192, 199 .Arsaces of Parthia,178 Brahmagupta, 223,237,238,240,253, 267, ~68, Candragnpta,Maurya,213,236,257 .Artabanus I of Parthia,213 269 Candra.:,rrupta II, Vikramiiditya, 254, 255 Artabanus II of Parthia, 256 Brallma Sidd/Uinta, 1, 214 , first point of, 192 INDEX 27S.

Cnro, corrcction, 268 Dccad,164 Era-c<»ita. Cardinal days, 189 D' Eglantim•, 167 Christian,170, 251, 258; Cardinal pointR, 189, 190, 219 ; Declination, 192,204,263 current, 251 ; determination of, 190 Demetrius, 213 Diocletion, 162 ; Ca~tana, ~aka Satrap, 233, :!56 Democritos of Abdera, 202 elapsed, 251 ; Crniauru~. 163 Dcwai linRcription), 229 Tasli, 257, 258; Central Station, 3, 4, 7, 14, 40 Dharma Sindhu, 19, 101 French Revolution, 167; Chn

c. R.-43 276 INDEX

.Festivals, Religious--cotltd. Holidays, list of-contd. Introduction to the History of Science, 159 Lunar-general rules for,102-105; · Bombay, 130 ; Isis, Egy}ltian god, 1M. 165 dates of, ll9-l24 Christian festivals, 126 ; Moslem, 125; Coorg,l48; Solar-general rules for,106; Delhi, 149 ~ Jacobi,215 dates of,ll7-118; East Punjab, 134 ; J aikadeva, 254 South Indian-general rules for 106; Fixed holidays & solar festivals, ll7, US; Jai Singh of Amber, 10 Fotheringham, Dr. J. K., 165 Govt. of India, 127 : Jimotika, Saka king, 233' Himachal Pradesh, 150 ; Janma~tami, 19 Hyderabad, 137 ; Jatakas, 239 -Galilio, 159 Jammu & Kashmir, 138; Jayanti, names of, 107 Gandhara, 225, 226, 229, 230 ; latitud!l of 225 Kutch,lol; Jayaswall, 255 .Gane&a caturthi, 100 Lunar festivals, 119-124; Jehonika, 230 {}.wnges,river,157 Madhya Bharat, 139 ; Jelaluddin, Melik Shah, 166 Gangooly. P. L.,238 Madhya Pradesh, 131 ; Johann Werner, 206 Garga, 226 ; receding of solstices, 226 Madras, 132 ; Jones, Sir Harold Spencer, 6, 12, 158 Garga Sa1illzita, 226 Manipur, 152 ; Jovian cycle, 257 -Gargasrota, river, 2"26 Moslem festivals, 125 ; Jovian (Barhaspatya} years, 270; Galqlll (miina), 247, 248 Mysore, 140 ; names of, 270 -Geminu."', 197 Orissa, 133 ; . Juliandays,161,162 {}eneral.Astronomy, 158 Patiala & East Panjab States Union, 14l ; Julian days of important events, 162, 163 .Qeocentric theory, 204, 239 · Rajasthan, 142 ; Julian period, 162 -George Washington, birthday of, 161 Saurashtra, 143 ; Julius Caesar, 2, 10,159,165,168, 24l Gesh (division of time), 160 Travancore-Cochin, 144 ; Junction stars, of nak~atra, 184, 210,211, 2-20; ~hati)ri, 160 Tripura, 153 ; 262-265; Ghlrshman, 232 Uttar Pradesh, 135 ; dhruvaka of, 2M, 265 ; Ginzel, F. K. 162, 193 Vindhya Pradesh, 154 ; latitude of (1950), 2-20, 2M, 265 ; Gnomon,l59, 174,188,189,202,219,223,268; West ,Bengal, 136 " (1956), 184, 210, 2ll ;

measurement in .Aitareya BrahJDa\1&1 266 Hora,236,266 long. of (1950), 220, 264, 265 ; Gondophernes, 1'78, 230 Horoscope,l96,205,256. ., (1956), 184, 210, 211 ; . Gorpiaios, Greek month, _231 Horoscopic astrology, 194, 196, 2(}.1, 256 . magnitude of, 210, 211, 2M, 265 Great Besr (Saptar~i), 190 Hour circle, 191 Jupiter, planet, 194, 195,203,239; Greek Olympiads, 1'78 , Hsiu, Chinese lunar mansion, 182, 183, 210, sidere3;l period of, 270 . Greenwich time (U. ~.), 14 2ll,224; Jya (chord), 204 Gregl}ry XIII, Pope, 2, Iq, 11,170,171 names with component stars, 210, 2ll ; Jyoti.~a Kara~u!a, 223 Gupda (inscription), 234 starting of, 183 Guptas, 254, 255, 257 Huviska, 231 Hypatia, 204 Kahishah, ISO Kadamba, pole of the ecliptic, 192 Hajj,180 Kala or liptika, 160 Hammnrabi, Babylonian king, 175 Ibn Yunus, 206 Kaliiloka Praka5a, 223 1Iarappi, 212 ' Idavatsara, 225 Kalasang (inscription}, 229 llar§a V ardhana, 254 ldes,168 ~tami,100 Hashim, Amir Ali, 180 ldvatsara, 225 Kaldarra (inscription), 229 .Hang,In.~n,216- lliml, 201 Kalends, 168 lleliacal rising, 1M, 191 ' bulwn Calendar, 246 Kalhal}a, Historian of Kashmir, 252 lleliooentric theory, 203 bulian Ephemeris, An, 101 Kali, 162 ; long. of planets at Kali beginning H~eld, 232, 255 Indian Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, 253 Hesiod,201 5, 8, 12, 14, 17 . ' Kalidas3,7,261 Hidda (inscription), 230 Indra, Indian god, 199, 215, 216 Kalpa, 162,175,214,240,268,269 Hipparchos of Nicaea, 165, 166, 177, 1'78, 192, · Indus. river, 157 Kalpadi, names of, 107 . 197' 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 226, 235, Intercalary month ( =malamasa), 175, 176, Kandahar, 229 237,240; 245, 245; Kani~ka, 230, 231, 236, 256 catalogue of stars, 203; Babylonian calendar, 176; Kani~ka I, 231 discovery of_ precession, 205, 267·; calculation of, 246, 249 ; Kani~ka II, 232 first point of Aries, 200, 205, 206; definition of 247 ;· Kani~ka III, 231, 232 . . geometry & spherical trigonometry, 203, eight-year cycle, 202 ; 204. K~ka Casket (inscription), 230 Islamic calendar, 180 ; Kaniza J)heri (inscription), 231 Hippocrates of Chios, 202 Jewish calendar, 179; Kil}va,213,228 History of &i~rrce, 206 list of ace. to modern calculations, 250 ; Kapi~thala Katha Sarhhita, 218 Hoang Ho, river, 157 list of according to S, S., 250 ; Kapsa.230 Holidays, 5, 6 ; list of, ll7-154; 19-year cycle,176,200,202,229,245,246; Ajmer,145; Karal}&, 163 Paitamaha t:iiddhanta,223; Karal}lls, definition, names and calculation of, Assam,l28; ~g-Veda, 216, 218 ; · 110 ; lords of, llO · Bhopal, 146; Romaka Siddhanta, 237 ; Kathaka, 218 Bihar, L'>9; Siddhanta Jyoti~, 246, 248 .; Bilaspur,147; Kaurpa (name of a sign), 193 Vedanga J yoJi~a, 223; 224, 225, 246 · INDEX 277

Month, Solar-conld. Kau~ilya, viewR on aRtrolo~y, 236 Mi\Qikillla (inscription), 230 Keith, Dr. Berriedale, 218 ?.Li.Qsehrn. (inscription), 229 Iranian names, 166 ; Kendra, 236. 266 Manvii.di, names of, 107 length of, 211, 242-246, 251 ; Kepler, 2, 206. 242 l\Ianzil, Arabian lunar mansion, 182, 183, length recommended by the KPtu (notll'). 186 210,211; Committee 2, 5, 6, 13, 15; Khalat~e (in~cription). 229 naml's with component stars, 210, 211 ; names in French ·Revolution Illmtufakh~rlurll;n of Brabma~upta. 162. 240, starting of, 183 calendar, 167 ; 2.-)3 Marguz {inBcri!,)tion), 229 names in Yajur-Veda, 218; Kharo~tbi (in~criptinn}, 229. 230. 231. 233 Mars, planet, 194, 193, 203, 239 ; names of, Indian 5, 6, 7, 14, 15; Kbotani Saka (language), 231 retrograde motion of,194 names, Persian 166, 167 ; Kidinnu, 200 1\lasakrt, 174 number of days in Vedii.i1ga Jyoti~a~ Konow, Dr. Sten, 229. 231. 235 Matins,139 225; Kranti (deelination), 262 Maues, 230, 233 variation in length, 1 Krttik:is, 182, 219, 2j2 Mauryas, 228 Synodic period. 197, 2'23 K~aya month, 247,243 250 Max Miiller,1&1, 214,213 Moon, crescent of, 182 ; Kugler. 176, 196,223 Maya,236,238 deviation of path from the ecliptic, 192, mehi, 6 Mean solar day, 157,158 208 j Kumhha yoga, 108 Mean solar time, 158 inclination of path to the ecliptic, 201 ;. Kurram {iu~cription), 230 Meghadiilct of Kii.lidasa, 261 limiting values of true motion, 197; Kuruk~ctra, Jat1tutle of. 225 Melik Shah the Seljuk, 159 mean daily motion, 197; Ku~:ii,IB~. 213, 230-234,236, 252, 256 ?.lenander,213,229,235 motion of, 182 ; Menelaos (Greek astronomer), 204; movement of, 31.181, 182; Spherical trigonometry, 204 rate of motion over the sun, 184; Lagadha, 214., 22'3 Mercedonius, 168 sidereal period of, 182 ; Laglmmanasa of l\Iniijala, 162,267 Mercury, planet, 194, 195,203,239 synodic period of. 182 Lagna {orient ecliptic point), 237, 263 Meridian passage, 57 Mount Banj !inscription), 229 Lagrange, 167 1\le~adi, 239 Mucai (inscription), 229 Lalla, on precession 267 Me~iidi, sidereal, 16,17, 40 Muhiirta, 100, 108, 160 ; lords of, 109 Lambaka (co-latitude), 239 Meton of Athens, 176,202; Mukhya mana, 247, 249 Lanka, Greenwich of ancient India, 239, 253 nineteen-year cycle, 20'2 Mul.Apin, Babylonian astrological text, 19S Laplace. 167 , 162, 1'16 Munisvara, commentator, 267 Latitude, celestial, 192, 203, 204, 210, 211, 264 Milinda Panho (philosophical treatise), 229 Muiijala Bhata, 11, 259 265; 1\fithra {Persian god), 167, 170 on precession, 267-269 polar, 192, 263, 26!, 265 1\fithradates I, 213, 255 Mural quadrant, 203 , 6, 13, 15; of Islamic calendar, 180; Mithradates II, 213, :~55 . of Reformed Calendar of India, 186 :Mitra, Indian god, 215 Nabu Nazir, 177 Leonardo of Pisa, 160 Moga, Saka king, 230 Naburiannu, 200 Leeuw, Mrs. Van L<>huizen, 232,255,256 Mohammed Ajmal Khan, 180 Nadir,157 , first point of, 192, 199, 239, 262, 268 Mohammed, Prophet, 159,179,180 Nii.gabhata, 257 Liptika,160,236,263,266 Mohenjodaro, 212 N ahapana. 233 Lockyer, Sir Norman, 190 Moise of Khorene, 232 N ak§atra, average length of, 224 ; Lokavibhaga of Simhasuri, 233 Month, anomalistic, 197 ; beginning of, 14, 229 ; Longitude, celestial, 7, 192, 203, 210, 211 204, beginning in Babylonian calendar,185; calculation of (ace. to the recommenda· 253, 264, 265 j definition of,157,158, 185; tions of the Committee), 5, 7, 16, 17; polar, 192,263,264,265 draconitic, 186, 197; component stars of, 210, 211 ; Longitudes of planets at Kali-beginning, 253 intercalary (see intercalary month); def. of in earliest times, 183, 218, 227 ; Liiders, 228, 232 Lunar, 220,221, 2"25, 245, 246 ; def. of in Vediillga Jyoti{la, 183, 223-225;. Lunar eclipse, 185 commencement of as recommended designation of, 182, 183 ; Lunar mansions. 182 ; by the Committee, 7 ; division of, 183, 184, 219 ; of ~g Veda, 217; junction-stars of, 184, 210, 211, 220~ stars of, 210, 211 names of Indian, Chaldean and 264,265 j Lunar year, beginning of, 220.221 Jewish,177; :Macedonian,177, 229; length of Islamic, 180; lords of, 109 ; Lunation, duration of, 158, 174, 175,246; meaning of Indian, 182, 210, 211 , length of, 164, 248 interpretation of month names, 221 ; length ace. to S. S., 246 names of-general210, 211, 263 ; reckoning in Mahii.bhlirata, 185 ; , ., Tamil, 109 ; ~ladhylibna,101,108 relation between draconitic and synodic; , , -Yajur Vedic with presiding "lialtablulmla, 170,183,185,219, 221, 227, 228, 186 j deities, 220 ; 239,252 j sidereal, 223 ; number of, 182 ; month reckoning in, 185 ; Solar, causes of variation in length, 243 ; ~g-Vedic, 183; time of compilation, 226, 252 commencement of, 7 ; shifting of the beginning of, 18, 19 ; Mahadvlidasi, defined, 107 definition of, 242 ; starting of 182,183 ~hayuga,160,162,217,254 different conventions in beginning Nandsa Yupa inscription, 254 . Maira (inscription), 229 of, 244; Napolean Bonaparti,168 Jlaitriiyatli Sarhhita, 218 duration of, 243; N arseh, Sassanid kin~, 232 l\lalamlisa, 246, (see also intercalary month), Egyptian, 164 ; Nasatya, 215 Mamane I)herl (inscription), 231 first month of the year, 5, 6 ; Nasik,228 278 INDEX

National Observatory, 5, 8, 12, 14 Phraates I, 213 Puskalivati, 230 J\~autical AlmaNile, 3, 165 Pictorial.Astrollomy, 194, 195 Pythagorean number, 198 ;(fig.) Nept.hys, 1M Pillai, s. K.,-101, 223 Neugebauer, 0., 3, 160, 1'15, 185,189,192,197, PiD.gala,214 198.199. 201, 203, 204 Planet, 169 ; order of dislance, 203 ; Quartz clock, 12, 159 ~tew Testa11rem, 169 references in R.g-Veda, 212; Question!iaire, regarding calendar, 22 ; Newton, Isaac, 2, 193, 206, 240, 259 ; Planetarium, 203 replies to, 23-31 precession of the equinoxes, 2fJl Planetory Astrology, 169, 194-196 N":~ght, ~finition of, 157 Plato, 200, 203, 2"28, 229 ; geometry, 202 Nile flood, 158, 1M, 165, 174, 189 Pl~,l82,190,195,199,219 Rii, Egyptian sun-god, 164 Nineteen-year cycle, 176, 200 Polar axis, 200 Rahu, ascending noie, 186 Niray&\18, 259, 260, 262, 268 Polaris(~ Ursae Minoris), 190, 2fJl, 239 Ramiiyatza, 261 .i\'irtra!J(J Sirulku, 101 Pole, celestial, 191, 192, .207 ; · " Rampiirva (inscription), 227 Nirnkta, 214 definition of, 191 ; Railganitha,233 Nirvi\l&, Buddha, 235, 257 motion of, 2fJl ; Rapson,255 ,l61,1'10, 175, 1'(8, 1'19, 2"29 observation of, 190, 191 ; Refraction, 225, 226 ; effect of, 225 Nwtha,100 precessional path of, 207 Retrograde motion, 169, 194, 195 Nodes,18:i, 186, 187,269 , Pope, Gregory XIII, 159, 1'1"2 ~g-Sarilhita., 217,218 Nona, !59 Pra~vrata; lffi Rig-Vedas, 183, 212, 214, 216, 217, 218, 2"21, Nones,168 Prahara, 160 2"22; . Numa Pompilius, 168 Praiapati, 217 calendaric references in, 216-218 ; Nut,16! .Pratia (division of time), 160 description of, 215 ; Nut.ation, 200 Priital]., 100 . . Ribhus,216 J'iyeldhemeron, 157, l59 Precession of the equinoxes, 2, 7, 8, _193, 200, Right ascension, 192, 2(}1 2~206,237,238,240,253,259,267; Riza Shah Pahlavi; 167 AI-Batt.a.ni's rate of, 206; ltomaka,236,239 -Qbliquity, of the ecliptic, 158,191,207, 2{l:J, 225 among Hindus, 226 ; &me, Era of foundation of, 178 amount of, 191 ; among Indian ~tronomers, 267 ;. · Rotation of the earth, 157, 158 definition of, 191 ; amplitude of precessional oscillation Rudrada.man, Z33 ~is,1?6 according to S. 8., 268 ; Rudra Simha, Saka satrap, 231, 236 Oclavious Caesar, 168 ;. Bbaskal"3ca.rya's rate of, 269 ; Ody&.--ey, 201 consequences of, 205, 206 ; Olympiads, 1'18 discovery of, 204, 205 ; Sachs, A., 199, 201 {)mar .Khayyam,l66, 1'1"2, 240· effect in Indian calendar, 7, 11, 18 ; Saha, Prof. M. N ., 173, 232, 252, 256 -Qmina, 195, 235 effect in Indian Siddhantas, 226 ; Sahdaur .A (inscription), 2"29 Orbit, of the earth, 20'1 .. explanation by N ewtou, 207, 2ffi ; · Sahdaur B (inscription), 2"29 Orion,1S9 Hipparchos's rate of, 205 ; . Sahni, Dayaum, 232 Orion,l90,195 motion of (preoo>sional), 200, 268 ; Sakas,213,230,233,236 Osiris, Egyptian god, 16! Muiijala Bhata"s rate of, 268 ; Sakadvipi Brahma!J.lLs, 214, 236, 256 · numerical value of, 200 ; Saka samvat, 255 physical explanation of, 207, 200 ; Sakasthan,213,233 Pai.kuli [m.scription), 232 .. Prthiidaka Svami's rate of, 268 ; Sakendra kila, 255 PaitamaluJ Siddh:iitrla., 223 Ptolemy's rate of, 205 206 ; Salivahana Saka, 255 l'aia (inscription), 2:...">9 rate of annual, 200 ; Samarkand,IO ~kp, 2?'1-:-231 j rate of lunar, 200, 200 ; Siirna Veda, 214, 218 · · kf§v.a or vahu.la, 15, 221, 228, 233, 247 ; ra:te of solar, 200. 200 ; SaiD.hita.s, 214,218 sukla, 15, 221, 228, 247 ; Siirya Siddhanta's rate of, 268 · · SaiD.kranti, 2, 7, 239,244; ~!l)a.,160 Prthiidaka Sviimi, 259, 268, 269 Mahavi~uva, 215; Pii.l.as,257. Proclos, on precession, 206 ,215 Pallavas, 256 Ptolemy, Claudins, 161, 165,166, 177.178, 185, rules of, 244,247,259; · ~aDcaD.."''lS, list of, 21, 22 . 192,200,201,203--206,214,2"28, 238,240, Uttaraya'.la, 215 ; Pcl.iiM Sidrlh:inlil:::i of. Varahamihira, 158; 162, 263,266; Sampat calana, 269 197,223,226,236,237;238 on astrology, 205; Samudragupla, 255 Panemos, Greek month, 230 · , evection, 204 ; Samvatsara, 255, 270 Pi9ini,214 ., rate of precession, 205 ; SaDgava,lOO Panjtar {inscription), 229 . , theory of planetary motion, 204 ; Sanku {gnomon), 188 Pannekoek, Dr. Anton, .. 17!, 146, 178, 185, 194, ·Ptolemies, 213 Sara (celestial latitude), 262 196; 197 J Ptolemy, Euergetes, 165 Sargon I, 215 Paraviddha, 101, 100 ; rules for, 100 Pulakesin I, 233 Saros,184,185,2~2,217 Parivatsara, 225 . Pulakesi::. II, 253 ~n.~rge,159,188,203,20!,206 Pa~v~r fast, 170 Pulastya, 236 Sastry, Mm. Bapudev, 259 .. , Pataliputra, 10, 213, 234, 252 ~.101,252 Sastry, Prof. Mm. Bidhusekhar,,~35 Paulisa Siddhiima, 201 . Piir¢lnanta, 'mOnth, 157, 227, 230, .231, 233, · sa.takal1l.i, 228, 233 . Paulus of Alexandria, 204, 237 247,256 Satananda, 160 . . Perihelion, 2.t2; movement of 243. :· ... ' ...... -. Purn~pur, 232 Satapatlza Briihmatza, 18, 189, 219 . Peshawar Museum (inscription), 229, 230 Piirviihna, 101, 108 ' ' Satav,iihanas, 212,213,,227-2311 233, 234;?55 , Philhellens, 213 pl.linet,.i9J, 19:5, 239 .-:~ ·~ ... Piirvavidd.ha, 101! 100 ; , rules for,·l~ S~turu", 2~, INDEX 279.

Saura day, 197 Somakara, ZZJ Tithi. 183, 218, Z27, 228, 230, 23!, 23G, 248 ; Savana,2,157,223,224 Soligenes, 1GB average do ration of, 2Zl, Z.'2, 224, 248; SaywJDa, 1C6 Sothic cycle, 165 comparison of Siddhantic and modern, 3 8aynna, 1, 11, 12,.13, 217,239 t:lripati, 11, 24G defined, 3, 221 ; · Scaliger, Joseph, 9, 11, 161 ~ri"eQ.a, 237 ; on precession, 267 definition in Aitareya BriihmaQ.a, 221 ; Scaligcr, Julius, 162 Stone-henge, 189, 190 · , , Siddhantas, 221; Schmidt, Dr. Olaf, 163 Sudi, 247,248 , , Vediilga J yoti~a, 224, 225 ; Schrader, 215 Suddha, 7, 247 duration of Vedic tithi, 221; Scientific ..tl.merican, 190 Sui Vihar linscription), 230 error in the old method, 3, 14 ; Scorpion, 193, 195, 198 Sii.lva-Sutras, 190,214 lords of, 109 ; Scythian Period of Indian Hi8tory, 232,255 Sun, distance from the earth, 2C6 ; measurement of, 248 ; Seasons,157,158,174,189,216,217,227,230,239 entry into nak~atras, 15,40; names of, 222 ; causes of, 259 ; mags of, 2C6 ; numbers of, 15, 221, 22"2 determination by gnomon, 189 mean daily motion, 197 ; Tithitatoam, 101 error in counting, 260 ; semi-diameter of, 225 Trepidation, thoory of, 20!, 200. 207,· 238, 240, length of, 174, 175,261; Sun-dial, 159 259,2138,269 moving back of, 18 ; Sun-1~se. 15 ; . Toladi, 239 names of Indian, 217,241,260; timings of certain important places, 116 Tycho Brahe, 206 position of, 1, 6, 260 ; Sun-set. 15 · relation of months with seasons in Vedic timings of certain important places, 116 ; age, 216, 218 ; Sunga,213,~28,235 llliulu, 176 ' in :{{g-Veda, 216,217 SUrya Prafiiapti, Z23 Ulugh Begh, 10 Seb, Egyptian god 164 , 1, 2, 158. 189, 19-2, 203, 214, Umbra Extensa, 204 Scleucus,178,213,228 236-240, 242-46, 250, 251, 253, 262-264, Umbra Versa, 204 Senas, Hindu ruling dynasty, 237 267' 268, 270 ; Und (inscription), 231 Sencca,225 calendar in, 239, 240 ; Upani~ads, 214, 215 Sengupta, P. C., 183, 215, 221, 227, 238, 253, description of, 238, 244 ; Uranometry, 205 2G6 error in length of year, 2, 241 ; Usavadata, Saka prince, 233 Set, Ebryptian god, 164 length of the year, 2, 240,241; Utl.:alakalika, 101 t:iewell, .R. S., 246 star positions of, 264, 265 ; Utkramajya, 204 Sexta, 1j9 theory of trepidation, 268 Uttaraya~a, 189,219,224,~26,239,260 Shahpur I lSassanid king), 232 Sii.tras. 214, 215, 221 ; Shama Sastry, Dr. R., 223, 224 Srauta, Grhya, Dharma, Sii.lva, 214 Shin Kot linscription), 229 Synodic period, 158, 175, 18'2; Vadi, 247,248 SiJdhiinta Jyoti~a, lG1, 221 revolution of planets.aec. toP. 197 S., Vaidya, Prof. R.V., 2G3 Siddhimtns, 1, 2, 3, 163, 234, .236, 237, 238, Syntaxis or ..tl.lmagest, 192, 201, 203, 20£ 245; Vaidyanatlw Dik:sitiyam, 101 Arya, 238, 242, 251 ; Vajasaneyi Sarhhita, 218 Brahma, 238,242,251; Vajheska, 231 definition of, 234 ; Van iler Waerden, 160 Paitamaha, 236-238 ; Taittiriya Briihnuttla, 18'2 ; Varahanlllllra,2,7,192, 193,197,~23,Z26, 23~ Pauli6a, 236-238 ; Taittir1ya Sarhhita, 218, 220, 221, 260 237,238,240,252,255,267 Romaka, 236, 237, 240; Takht-i-Bahi (inscription), 229 Varu~a, Indian god, 215,216 Siirya, 236, 238-244; Tantra, 163 Vasi~ths, Indian sage, 236 VasiHha, 236, 237 Tarn, Z29, 255 Vasi.~tha Siddhanta, 236, 237, 267 Siddhanta Sekhara of , 162 Taxila,213,228,230,256 Vasudeva I, 231, 232 Siddlliinta Siromatli of Bhaskaraciirya, 238, Taxila copper plate (inscription), 229 Vasudeva II, 231, 232 269 Taxila silver scroll (inscription), 229 Vedas, description and literature, 214 ; Sidereal time, 158 Taxila silver vase (inscription), 229 age of its literature, 214, 215 Signs, of the zodiac, 192, 193, 194, 196, 206, Telephos of Kapsa, 230 Vedangas,214,215 223,Z24,237,239,240 Tertia, 159 Vedailga Jyoti~a, 161,217. 224, 226, 237, 240, Sik~a, 214 Tetrabiblos, 201, 204, 205 241, 245, 246 ; Sircar, D. C., 228,231, 233,234 Thabit-ibn-Qurra, 206 description of,.221-~25 Sirius, 164 Thales of llliletus, 20'2 V ehsadjan, 23"2 Sivaratri, 1C6 prediction of solar eclipse, 20'2 ; Ventris, 20'2 Sliy and Telescope, 177 Theaitetus of Athens, 20"2 ; Venus, planet, 194, 195, 198,203,239; Solar day, mean, 157, 158; Theon of Alexandria, 204, 206, 240 ; heliacal rising and setting of, 6, 15 division of, 11i9; on trepidation, 206, :MD ( see also Calendar for five years). Solar cycle, 162 ; Thibaut, Dr. G., 197,223,225,237 Vernalequinox,2,158,Z26,239,241,267 Solar time, mean, 158; Thirteen-mouth calendar, 171 Vernal point, 1, 158,205; Solstices, 188, 189, 22G ; Thoth, Egyptian god, 164 · movement of, 193, 194, 205, 267 determination by Yedic Hindus, 266 ; Tigris, river, 157 Vespers, 159 observation in Aitareya BrahmaQ.a, 266 Tilak, B. G., 11, 189, 215, 216 Vidyasagsr, Pandit Ishwar Chandra, 260 summer, 188, 189, 192, 226, 266; Time, natural divisions of, 157-160 Vighati, 160 winter. 13, 189, 19"2, Z23, 224, Z26, 241, Timocharis, 205 Vikramiiditya, 254, 255 259; Tiridates, 178 Vik~epa, 192, 262-265, 267 Solstitial colure, 22G Ti~ya, 217, 227 Virapuru~adatta, 228 . 280 INDEX

Y"~\lU Candra, 237 ; on precession, 267 Year, 216; beginning of, 1, 4, 6, 13, 1'15; Year-cofltd. '~uvan,216,219,221,266 beginning of in Briihmar.tas, 241, 245 ; · starting day of the solar, 241 Vi~uvin&a, 262 beginning of lunar, 221 ; ,~ Yoga, names and lords of,llO; ' Vogt,203 ,. "ll in Paitiimaha, 223; calculation of, 110 •• ,, in 239 Vrddha Garga, 25? s. s., Yoga tAra Gunction star), 183, 184, 210, 211 VyikaraJ;l.a, 214 , • . :: ~~~~~~:l~~.d;,ri,2:15j; , 21'1; of Romaka Siddhinta 237 u '' Solar, 2, 241 ; of Vedallga Jyoti~a, 223, 224; Wardak (inscription), 230 " "Vedai1ga Jyoti~a, 241,245; Yugadi, 107 · Water-clock,157,159- '' '' Vedic Aryan, 2}6, 218 ; Webster, A. G., 207, 200 . • definition of, 157, 158; .. ,169, 170,203,2-23,234.251,252; ilra.conitic (eclipse), 186 ; Zarathustra, 167 ori.,ain and invention of, 169.170 error in beginning of, 1, 13, 15, 241 ; Zeda (inscription), 230, 231 · Wmternitz, 214, 215, 218 ' · error in beginning of Indian solar, 2 ; Ziggurat, 196 . " . World Calendar Assocmtion,10,12,1'll first month of, 4, 6, 241, 242, 251 ; Zinner, Dr. Ernest,_164, 196 Worlds' dsy,1'1'2, 173. • · Jovian (Biirhaspatya), 270 ; Zodiac, definition of, 192, 193, 202 ; first point of, 14 ; · !ength (average) of Babylonian1 161, 177 ; length-of as found by ancientastronomers, lunar, 18'2, 183, 223, 226 ; Yajiiavalkya VajasaneyR, 218. .':.:• ·' 174,261·; Arabian, 182, 183 ; YajurVed&,'182, 183,214,218-222; · !' -''·Brahmagupta, 162; Chinese, 18'2, 183 ; . Black, 218 ; '' " Gregorian, 12, 13 ; Indian ( see nak§atra) ,Sukla, 218 . " • " Paitamaha, 2"23, 240.; place of origin, 183 ; Yijurveds Sailihita, 218 • · '' . · "Ptolemy, 240 ; . ~g Vedi(:, 217; YiiuLi Jyo~a. 222 ., " sidereal, 158, 205, 240, 246 ; poSition through ages, 200 ; Yania, divisi()n of day, 100 · " · '' solar, 2-23 ; · . . · signs of the, 193 ; Yamakoti, 239 '' · '' Sliry'a~ddhinta, 2,240, 241, 246~ . ' starting.point of, 193; Yiimirjlha, 1M ' " ." tropical, l, 2, 4, 12, 158,.174, 175, zero point of the· Hindu, 262, 266, 267, Yaska,214 ' 205, 24(), 246 ; 269; . Yavanapuri, 23r " ·. '' V:ariba~, 240; Zodiacal signs, different n,ames of, 193 (see al!C). Y~vanas, 213, 256. · '' Voo.ic Aryan, 216; signs of tlie zodiac).