DOCSLIB.ORG

Master Thesis Moland Hansen.Pdf (509.4Kb)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Identity, Votes and Violence Degree of Hindu-Muslim Conflict in Gujarat and Rajasthan Katrine Moland Hansen Master Thesis Department of Comparative Politics University of Bergen June 2008 Identity, Votes and Violence Degree of Hindu-Muslim Conflict in Gujarat and Rajasthan Katrine Moland Hansen Master Thesis Department of Comparative Politics University of Bergen June 2008 It has always been a mystery to me how men can feel themselves honoured by the humiliation of their fellow beings Mahatma Gandhi* Abstract The thesis explores variation in the degree of Hindu-Muslim conflict in the Indian states Gujarat and Rajasthan. Gujarat is characterised by Hindu-Muslim political conflict as well as endemic religious violence. In 2002 more than 2000 people, predominantly Muslims were killed in religious violence. The State Government, the Police and the Judiciary have displayed pro-Hindu and anti-Muslim sympathies. The government of Rajasthan is generally not perceived as biased, nor has the state experienced widespread religious violence. The religious conflict is manifest through party politics and the degree of conflict is moderate. The analysis of Hindu-Muslim conflict is two-fold. First, the states are compared in terms of degree of Hindu-Muslim polarisation in conventional politics. Cleavage theory is utilised to explore the relationship between crosscutting and overlapping cleavages and Hindu-Muslim polarisation. The role of actors in constructing religious identities and thereby influencing the degree of religious polarisation will be explored through a constructivist approach to identity. Second, states are compared in terms of violence, judicial and government bias. The role of elites in preparing, enacting and explaining violence is explored through an instrumentalist approach to violence, and the relationship between electoral incentives and Hindu-Muslim violence will also be discussed. Furthermore, the thesis also explores incentives and motivation behind violence and other forms of violation of Muslims. The study is a Most Similar Systems Design and it is explorative and case-oriented. The sources includes secondary data and 23 elite interviews. Empirical findings suggest that the Hindu community is more homogenous in Gujarat than Rajasthan due to socio-economic developments as well as the role of actors. The absence of cleavages that crosscut religious identities increases the religious divide in Gujarat. Violence is a deliberate strategy and large-scale violence involves civil as well as state actors. In Gujarat the government’s support for violence is partly related to electoral incentives, but electoral incentives do not explain the variation between states as this strategy has not been utilised under similar conditions in Rajasthan. Variation in the degree of conflict between the two states is related to ideological incentives and the adoption of a hard-line Hindu nationalist ideology. By combining cleavage theory and a constructivist approach this study argues that degree of polarisation influence the potential for mobilising on a Hindu nationalist agenda and the adoption of a hard-line ideology. Religious polarisation and nationalist ideology give incentives for utilising violence as a strategy. Political conflict and violent conflict are not unrelated. Exploring violent conflict in the context of political polarisation reveals conditions that favour the development of violent conflict. * quoted in Verma (2003, 292) i Acknowledgments First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Lise Rakner, who has been a source of inspiration. She has given me indispensable support and constructive feedbacks. I am also thankful to Trude Holme who supervised the first part of the writing process and provided helpful advice in the initial phase of the writing and helped me prepare for my fieldwork. Thank you both! I also want to thank the Christian Michelsen Institute (CMI) for giving me the opportunity to write my thesis in an inspiring environment. I am thankful to Kari Telle, Are Knudsen, Liv Tønnesen and Hilde Granås Kjøstvedt at the CMI who have given helpful comments on my writing. My thanks also go to co-student Frode Løvlie who has been helpful throughout the writing process and Torunn Olsnes who has read and commented on various sections of my thesis. I am indebted to Himanshu Ardawatia and his family and friends in India who made my stay in Rajasthan very memorable. My thanks also go to Sanjeev Prakash who provided me with contacts and shared his extensive knowledge. I am grateful to all my informants who took time from their busy schedules to meet with me and answer my questions. You have all been as source of inspiration and admire the work that you do. I am thankful to Gunhild, Frode, Torgunn, Carmeliza, Chandra, Kjersti, Inga, Kari, Liv, Hilde, Bård, Trine, Stina, Alessandra and Ida for support and amusing coffee breaks and lunches during my stay at CMI. Finally, thank you Erik for your support and patience. ii ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................................I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................. II LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................. IV GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS..............................................................................................................V GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS..............................................................................................................V CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1 THE AIM OF THE THESIS..................................................................................................................................... 1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONFLICT .................................................................................................................. 2 The Creation of Communal Climate............................................................................................................. 4 THE PUZZLE – DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES .............................................................................. 5 THE ARGUMENT................................................................................................................................................. 6 METHODOLOGY AND DATA SOURCES................................................................................................................ 7 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK – CONFLICT, POLARISATION, VIOLENCE AND DISCRIMINATION ............................................................................................................................................ 9 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK – OPERATIONALISING HINDU-MUSLIM CONFLICT ................................................. 9 IDENTITY AND POLITICS – STRUCTURAL APPROACHES.................................................................................... 12 CONSTRUCTION OF ETHNIC IDENTITIES – CLEAVAGE CONSTRUCTION ............................................................ 17 Instrumental Violence................................................................................................................................. 21 Vote-Seeking Violence................................................................................................................................ 23 Constructivism and Violence – Rational Action and Ideology ................................................................... 25 Summary – Cleavages, Constructivism, Violence, Votes and Ideology...................................................... 26 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND CASE SELECTION – EXPLORING THE DEGREE OF HINDU-MUSLIM CONFLICT ........................................................................................................................ 27 THE CASE-ORIENTED APPROACH – BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS .................................................................... 28 THE SUBNATIONAL MOST SIMILAR SYSTEMS DESIGN ..................................................................................... 30 CASE SELECTION ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Similar and Dissimilar Features ................................................................................................................ 34 SOURCES – POTENTIAL BIAS AND STRATEGIES FOR COLLECTING RELIABLE DATA......................................... 39 Data Collection .......................................................................................................................................... 41 Summary..................................................................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 4: CLEAVAGES AND CONSTRUCTIVISM – THE POLITICS OF IDENTITY IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN ......................................................................................................................
Recommended publications
  • "Demons Within"

    "Demons Within"

    Demons Within the systematic practice of torture by inDian police a report by organization for minorities of inDia NOVEMBER 2011 Demons within: The Systematic Practice of Torture by Indian Police a report by Organization for Minorities of India researched and written by Bhajan Singh Bhinder & Patrick J. Nevers www.ofmi.org Published 2011 by Sovereign Star Publishing, Inc. Copyright © 2011 by Organization for Minorities of India. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, digital, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or conveyed via the internet or a web site without prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Inquiries should be addressed to: Sovereign Star Publishing, Inc PO Box 392 Lathrop, CA 95330 United States of America www.sovstar.com ISBN 978-0-9814992-6-0; 0-9814992-6-0 Contents ~ Introduction: India’s Climate of Impunity 1 1. Why Indian Citizens Fear the Police 5 2. 1975-2010: Origins of Police Torture 13 3. Methodology of Police Torture 19 4. For Fun and Profit: Torturing Known Innocents 29 Conclusion: Delhi Incentivizes Atrocities 37 Rank Structure of Indian Police 43 Map of Custodial Deaths by State, 2008-2011 45 Glossary 47 Citations 51 Organization for Minorities of India • 1 Introduction: India’s Climate of Impunity Impunity for police On October 20, 2011, in a statement celebrating the Hindu festival of Diwali, the Vatican pled for Indians from Hindu and Christian communities to work together in promoting religious freedom.
  • Compounding Injustice: India

    Compounding Injustice: India

    INDIA 350 Fifth Ave 34 th Floor New York, N.Y. 10118-3299 http://www.hrw.org (212) 290-4700 Vol. 15, No. 3 (C) – July 2003 Afsara, a Muslim woman in her forties, clutches a photo of family members killed in the February-March 2002 communal violence in Gujarat. Five of her close family members were murdered, including her daughter. Afsara’s two remaining children survived but suffered serious burn injuries. Afsara filed a complaint with the police but believes that the police released those that she identified, along with many others. Like thousands of others in Gujarat she has little faith in getting justice and has few resources with which to rebuild her life. ©2003 Smita Narula/Human Rights Watch COMPOUNDING INJUSTICE: THE GOVERNMENT’S FAILURE TO REDRESS MASSACRES IN GUJARAT 1630 Connecticut Ave, N.W., Suite 500 2nd Floor, 2-12 Pentonville Road 15 Rue Van Campenhout Washington, DC 20009 London N1 9HF, UK 1000 Brussels, Belgium TEL (202) 612-4321 TEL: (44 20) 7713 1995 TEL (32 2) 732-2009 FAX (202) 612-4333 FAX: (44 20) 7713 1800 FAX (32 2) 732-0471 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] July 2003 Vol. 15, No. 3 (C) COMPOUNDING INJUSTICE: The Government's Failure to Redress Massacres in Gujarat Table of Contents I. Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 4 Impunity for Attacks Against Muslims...............................................................................................................
  • Three Years Later, When Cell Phones Ring

    Three Years Later, When Cell Phones Ring

    Best Breaking News THREE YEARS LATER, WHEN CELL PHONES RING Who spoke to whom, when Gujarat was burning Two CDs with more than 5 lakh entries have been lying with the Gujarat ** Using cellphone tower locations, the data also gives information on the police and are now with the Nanavati-Shah riots panel. These have records physical location of the caller and the person at the other end. of all cellphone calls made in Ahmedabad over the first five days of the riots which saw the worst massacres. PART ONE Two compact discs could change that. For, they contain records of all Tracking VHP’s gen secy on day 1,2 (published 21 November 2004) cellphone calls made in Ahmedabad from February 25, 2002, two days Vishwa Hindu Parishad’s General Secretary in Gujarat is a pathologist called before the horrific Sabarmati Express attack to March 4, five days that saw Jaideep Patel. He was booked for rioting and arson in the Naroda Patiya the worst communal violence in recent history. massacre, the worst post-Godhra riot incident in which 83 were killed, many of them burnt alive. The police closed the case saying there was not This staggering amount of data - there are more than 5 lakh entries - was enough evidence. Records show that Patel, who lives in Naroda, was there investigated over several weeks by this newspaper. They show that Patel when the massacre began, then left for Bapunagar which also witnessed was in touch with the key riot accused, top police officers, including the killings and returned to Naroda.
  • Interim Report

    Interim Report

    PROSECUTE MODI Interim report The interim report by amicus curiae Raju Ramachandran placed before the Supreme Court, January 20, 2011 Gujarat 2002; An ongoing rampage home, government of Gujarat. The subsequent investigation has been conducted by another officer, namely Shri Himanshu Shukla, DCP, and supervised by Shri YC Modi, IGP, and member, SIT. A further report has been given to this hon’ble court on 26.11.2010, recommending depart- mental action against the police of- ficials. 5. I had two meetings with Shri AK Malhotra and Shri YC Modi, in December 2010 and January 2011. I have had one meeting with Ms Teesta Setalvad and Ms Aparna Bhat. They have submitted a number of docu- ments which have also been exam- ined by me to the extent possible. Shri RB Sreekumar, former DGP, Gujarat, has also submitted some documents which have been consid- ered. 6. The major allegation in the complaint made by the complain- ant relates to the alleged involve- ment of Shri Narendra Modi, the Note by the amicus curiae chief minister of the state of Gujarat, in the communal riots which took place in the city of Ahmedabad (and elsewhere) 1. This hon’ble court vide order dated 27.04.2009 di- immediately after the Godhra incident. This is the first head rected the SIT to “examine” the complaint submitted by under which some of the allegations can be classified. The the petitioner on 08.06.2006. The SIT was to “look into the second head of allegations relate to the alleged role of the matter” and give its report to this hon’ble court.
  • 6 What Happened in Gujarat

    6 What Happened in Gujarat

    WHAT HAPPENED IN GUJARAT? THE FACTS The following narrative draws from various sources: newspaper reports, fact-finding missions and other reports which came out after the Gujarat carnage. It pieces together the sequence of events that occurred in and around Godhra before, on and after 27th February 2002 (the incident that allegedly sparked off the ensuing communal violence in the State of Gujarat), and details of the extent and nature of the terrible violence against Muslims in Gujarat in the months that followed. I. Setting The Context: Before 27 February 2002 History of Communal Tension in Godhra The town of Godhra in Gujarat has a long history of inter-community tensions stemming from the fact that in 1947, when India achieved independence and was partitioned to create Pakistan, thousands of Hindus fleeing Pakistan settled in Godhra, and vented their anger at Godhra’s Muslims, burning their homes and businesses with truckloads of gasoline. Since then, government officials have deemed the town one of the country’s most “communally sensitive” places in India. In the 1980’s and again in 1992, it was wracked by riots initiated by members of both communities. Today Godhra, a town of 15,000, is evenly split between Hindus and Muslims, most of whom live in segregated communities separated in places by train tracks. There is little interaction between them and both regard one another with suspicion. The Temple at Ayodhya: A Cause for Tension During the Kumbh Mela (an annual Hindu religious fair) in January 2001, the VHP (Vishva Hindu Parishad – World Hindu Council) ‘Dharma Sansad’ (Religious Council) decided that the construction of a Ram Temple on the site of the Babri Masjid (ancient mosque built on the site of a demolished temple, finally demolished by Hindu activists of the VHP and other right wing forces on 6 December 1992) would start on March 12 of 2002.
  • Hindutva Watch

    Hindutva Watch

    UNDERCOVER Ashish Khetan is a journalist and a lawyer. In a fifteen-year career as a journalist, he broke several important news stories and wrote over 2,000 investigative and explanatory articles. In 2014, he ran for parliament from the New Delhi Constituency. Between 2015 and 2018, he headed the top think tank of the Delhi government. He now practises law in Mumbai, where he lives with his family. First published by Context, an imprint of Westland Publications Private Limited, in 2020 1st Floor, A Block, East Wing, Plot No. 40, SP Infocity, Dr MGR Salai, Perungudi, Kandanchavadi, Chennai 600096 Context, the Context logo, Westland and the Westland logo are the trademarks of Westland Publications Private Limited, or its affiliates. Copyright © Ashish Khetan, 2020 ISBN: 9789389152517 The views and opinions expressed in this work are the author’s own and the facts are as reported by him, and the publisher is in no way liable for the same. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without express written permission of the publisher. For Zoe, Tiya, Dani and Chris Contents Epigraph Preface Introduction 1 A Sting in the Tale 2 Theatre of Masculinity 3 The Ten-foot-tall Officer 4 Painting with Fire 5 Alone in the Dark 6 Truth on Trial 7 Conspirators and Rioters 8 The Gulbarg Massacre 9 The Killing Fields 10 The Salient Feature of a Genocidal Ideology 11 The Artful Faker 12 The Smoking Gun 13 Drum Rolls of an Impending Massacre 14 The Godhra Conundrum 15 Tendulkar’s 100 vs Amit Shah’s 267 16 Walk Alone Epilogue: Riot after Riot Notes Acknowledgements The Big Nurse is able to set the wall clock at whatever speed she wants by just turning one of those dials in the steel door; she takes a notion to hurry things up, she turns the speed up, and those hands whip around that disk like spokes in a wheel.
  • When Justice Becomes the Victim the Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat

    When Justice Becomes the Victim the Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat

    The Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat When Justice Becomes the Victim The Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat May 2014 International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic Stanford Law School http://humanrightsclinic.law.stanford.edu/project/the-quest-for-justice International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic at Stanford Law School Cover photo: Tree of Life jali in the Sidi Saiyad Mosque in Ahmedabad, India (1573) Title quote: Indian Supreme Court Judgment (p.7) in the “Best Bakery” Case: (“When the investigating agency helps the accused, the witnesses are threatened to depose falsely and prosecutor acts in a manner as if he was defending the accused, and the Court was acting merely as an onlooker and there is no fair trial at all, justice becomes the victim.”) The Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat When Justice Becomes the Victim: The Quest for Justice After the 2002 Violence in Gujarat May 2014 International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic Stanford Law School http://humanrightsclinic.law.stanford.edu/project/the-quest-for-justice Suggested Citation: INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION CLINIC AT STANFORD LAW SCHOOL, WHEN JUSTICE BECOMES THE VICTIM: THE QUEST FOR FOR JUSTICE AFTER THE 2002 VIOLENCE IN GUJARAT (2014). International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic at Stanford Law School © 2014 International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic, Mills Legal Clinic, Stanford Law School All rights reserved. Note: This report was authored by Stephan Sonnenberg, Clinical Supervising Attorney and Lecturer in Law with the International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic (IHRCRC).

  • Individual Phone Graphs Who Spoke to Whom? Ahmedabad February 28

    Individual Phone Graphs Who Spoke to Whom? Ahmedabad February 28, 2002 28-Feb-2002 Shivanand Jha (9825048308) Additional Commissioner of Police, Sector I Calls Incoming/Outgoing 9 8 8 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 0 Total Calls * Accused ** Politician 28-Feb-2002 Sanjay Bhavsar (9825037432) CHIEF MINISTER’S OFFICE (CMO) OSD to the Chief Minister Calls Incoming/Outgoing Total Calls 3.5 3 3 3 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 2 1.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 0 Total Calls 28-Feb-2002 RJ Savani (9825049198) Deputy Commissioner of Police, Zone-V Calls Incoming/Outgoing 25 22 20 15 11 10 9 5 5 Total Calls 2 2 2 1 0 28-Feb-2002 Rajendra Singh Rana (9824001169) State BJP President Calls Incoming/Outgoing 3.5 3 3 2.5 2 2 1.5 Total Calls 1 1 1 1 0.5 0 A.P. Patel Maya Kodnani Jaideep Patel Bharatbhai K. C. Kapoor Baldevbhai Pandya 28-Feb-2002 PC Pande (9825048303) Commisisoner of Police, Ahmedabad Calls Incoming/Outgoing 16 15 14 14 12 10 10 10 8 6 6 4 2 2 1 1 1 Total Calls 0 28-Feb-2002 PB Gondia (9825049197) Deputy Commissioner of Police (DCP), Zone IV (His jurisdiction covered both the Naroda and Meghaninagar areas where the worst massacres took place) Calls Incoming/Outgoing 12 11 10 8 6 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 Total Calls * Accused ** Politician 28-Feb-2002 CHIEF MINISTER’S OFFICE (CMO) O.P.SINGH (9825048316) OSD to the Chief Minister Calls Incoming/Outgoing 4.5 4.0 4 3.5 3.0 3 2.5 2.0 Total Calls 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Sanjay Bhavsar Tanmay Mehta 28-Feb-2002 Nimish Patel (9824011111) Calls Incoming/Outgoing 12 10 10 8 8 6 Total Calls 4 2 2 1 0 Maya Kodnani PB Gondia KG Erda MK Tandon 28-Feb-2002 Narendra Modi (Residence No.

  • SACRIFICE, AHIMSA, and VEGETARIANISM: POGROM at the DEEP END of NON-VIOLENCE Volume I

    SACRIFICE, AHIMSA, AND VEGETARIANISM: POGROM AT THE DEEP END OF NON-VIOLENCE Volume I A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Parvis Ghassem-Fachandi January 2006 ©2006 Parvis Ghassem-Fachandi SACRIFICE, AHIMSA, AND VEGETARIANISM: POGROM AT THE DEEP END OF NON-VIOLENCE Parvis Ghassem-Fachandi, PhD. Cornell University 2006 This dissertation explores the relation of ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to sacrificial logic in post-independence Ahmedabad. It follows the transformation of ahimsa--from a protection of the sacrifier against the revenge of the animal victim; to a doctrine of renunciation, self-reform, and prohibition of animal sacrifice; to Gandhi’s famous tool for nonviolent resistance to colonial domination; and finally, to the ritualization of violence itself in the organized persecution of minorities in a secular state. Central Gujarat is often called the “laboratory of Hindutva.” Hindutva offers an interpretation of “Hinduism” as a historical subject threatened by Islam and Christianity. It portrays Hindus as victims of Muslim barbarism, slaughtered and humiliated, butchered and raped, and demands a response that redefines the relation of violence to ahimsa. Its electoral success can be traced to a claim to unify Adivasi, lower, and intermediary caste groups with the Savarnas (high castes) as “Hindus” in opposition to Muslims and Christians, who are positioned as foreigners. As ethno-religious identifications have become integral to representation in a secular democratic system, traditional practices relating to diet and worship are simultaneously reconfigured. This research investigates the embodiment and experience of disgust among members of upwardly mobile castes, who are encouraged both to externalize their own low caste practices and to distance themselves from Muslims and Christians in new ways.
  • State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat

    State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat

    April 2002 Vol. 14, No. 3(C) “WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU” State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat TABLE OF CONTENTS I. SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................4 II. RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................................9 To the State Government of Gujarat:............................................................................................................9 To the Government of India:......................................................................................................................10 To India’s Donors and Trading Partners: ....................................................................................................11 To International Lending Institutions:.........................................................................................................11 To International Humanitarian Organizations:.............................................................................................11 To United Nations Agencies:.....................................................................................................................11 III. MASSACRES IN GODHRA AND AHMEDABAD .................................................................................13 Godhra.....................................................................................................................................................13
  • Violence in Gujarat

    Violence in Gujarat

    April 2002 Vol. 14, No. 3(C) “WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU” State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat TABLE OF CONTENTS I. SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................4 II. RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................................9 To the State Government of Gujarat:............................................................................................................9 To the Government of India:......................................................................................................................10 To India’s Donors and Trading Partners: ....................................................................................................11 To International Lending Institutions:.........................................................................................................11 To International Humanitarian Organizations:.............................................................................................11 To United Nations Agencies:.....................................................................................................................11 III. MASSACRES IN GODHRA AND AHMEDABAD .................................................................................13 Godhra.....................................................................................................................................................13

  • Compounding Injustice: India

    INDIA 350 Fifth Ave 34 th Floor New York, N.Y. 10118-3299 http://www.hrw.org (212) 290-4700 Vol. 15, No. 3 (C) – July 2003 Afsara, a Muslim woman in her forties, clutches a photo of family members killed in the February-March 2002 communal violence in Gujarat. Five of her close family members were murdered, including her daughter. Afsara’s two remaining children survived but suffered serious burn injuries. Afsara filed a complaint with the police but believes that the police released those that she identified, along with many others. Like thousands of others in Gujarat she has little faith in getting justice and has few resources with which to rebuild her life. ©2003 Smita Narula/Human Rights Watch COMPOUNDING INJUSTICE: THE GOVERNMENT’S FAILURE TO REDRESS MASSACRES IN GUJARAT 1630 Connecticut Ave, N.W., Suite 500 2nd Floor, 2-12 Pentonville Road 15 Rue Van Campenhout Washington, DC 20009 London N1 9HF, UK 1000 Brussels, Belgium TEL (202) 612-4321 TEL: (44 20) 7713 1995 TEL (32 2) 732-2009 FAX (202) 612-4333 FAX: (44 20) 7713 1800 FAX (32 2) 732-0471 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] PURL: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/c6a310/ July 2003 Vol. 15, No. 3 (C) COMPOUNDING INJUSTICE: The Government's Failure to Redress Massacres in Gujarat Table of Contents I. Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 4 Impunity for Attacks Against Muslims................................................................................................................ 5 Inadequate Assistance for Victims and Continued Anti-Muslim Discrimination................................................. 6 Communalism as a Political Strategy .................................................................................................................. 7 II. Main Recommendations to Indian Authorities..................................................................................................