R.KAVITHA, M.PHARM, LECTURER, DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICS, SRM COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, SRM UNIVERSITY, KATTANKULATHUR. CHEMICAL METHODS OF DISINFECTION: Disinfectants are those chemicals that destroy pathogenic bacteria from inanimate surfaces. Some chemical have very narrow spectrum of activity and some have very wide. Those chemicals that can sterilize are called chemisterilants. Those chemicals that can be safely applied over skin and mucus membranes are called antiseptics. Classification of disinfectants: 1. Based on consistency a. Liquid (E.g., Alcohols, Phenols) b. Gaseous (Formaldehyde vapour, Ethylene oxide) 2. Based on spectrum of activity a. High level b. Intermediate level c. Low level 3. Based on mechanism of action a. Action on membrane (E.g., Alcohol, detergent) b. Denaturation of cellular proteins (E.g., Alcohol, Phenol) c. Oxidation of essential sulphydryl groups of enzymes (E.g., H2O2, Halogens) d. Alkylation of amino-, carboxyl- and hydroxyl group (E.g., Ethylene Oxide, Formaldehyde) e. Damage to nucleic acids (Ethylene Oxide, Formaldehyde) ALCOHOLS:

Mode of action: Alcohols dehydrate cells, disrupt membranes and cause coagulation of protein. Examples: Ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol and methyl alcohol

Application: A 70% aqueous solution is more effective at killing microbes than absolute alcohols. 70% ethyl alcohol (spirit) is used as antiseptic on skin. Isopropyl alcohol is preferred to ethanol. It can also be used to disinfect surfaces. It is used to disinfect clinical thermometers. Methyl alcohol kills fungal spores, hence is useful in disinfecting inoculation hoods.

Disadvantages: Skin irritant, volatile (evaporates rapidly), inflammable ALDEHYDES: Mode of action: Acts through alkylation of amino-, carboxyl- or hydroxyl group, and probably damages nucleic acids. It kills all microorganisms, including spores. Examples: Formaldehyde, Gluteraldehyde Application: 40% Formaldehyde (formalin) is used for surface disinfection and fumigation of rooms, chambers, operation theatres, biological safety cabinets, wards, sick rooms etc. Fumigation is achieved by boiling formalin, heating paraformaldehyde or treating formalin with potassium permanganate. It also sterilizes bedding, furniture and books. 10% formalin with 0.5% tetraborate sterilizes clean metal instruments. 2% Gluteraldehyde is used to sterilize ` thermometers, cyst scopes, bronchoscopes, centrifuges, anaesthetic equipments etc. An exposure of at least 3 ` hours at alkaline pH is required for action by Gluteraldehyde. 2% formaldehyde at 40oC for 20 minutes is used to disinfect wool and 0.25% at 60oC for six hours to disinfect animal hair and bristles.D PHENOL: ` Mode of action: Act by disruption of membranes, precipitation of proteins and inactivation of enzymes. ` Examples: 5% phenol, 1-5% Cresol, 5% Lysol (a saponified cresol), hexachlorophene, chlorhexidine, chloroxylenol ` (Dettol) ` Applications: Joseph Lister used it to prevent infection of surgical wounds. Phenols are coal-tar derivatives. ` They act as disinfectants at high concentration and as antiseptics at low concentrations. They are bactericidal, fungicidal, mycobactericidal but are inactive against spores and most viruses. They are not readily inactivated by organic matter. The corrosive phenolics are used for disinfection of ward floors, in discarding jars in laboratories and ` disinfection of bedpans. Chlorhexidine can be used in an isopropanol solution for skin disinfection, or as an ` aqueous solution for wound irrigation. It is often used as an antiseptic hand wash. 20% Chlorhexidine gluconate solution is used for pre-operative hand and skin preparation and for general skin disinfection. HALOGENS: Mode of action: They are oxidizing agents and cause damage by oxidation of essential sulfydryl groups of enzymes. Chlorine reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid, which is microbicidal. Examples: Chlorine compounds (chlorine, bleach, hypochlorite) and iodine compounds (tincture iodine, iodophores) Applications: Tincture of iodine (2% iodine in 70% alcohol) is an antiseptic. Iodine can be combined with neutral ` carrier polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone to prepare iodophores such as povidone-iodine. Iodophores permit slow release and reduce the irritation of the antiseptic. For hand washing iodophores are diluted in 50% alcohol. ` 10% Povidone Iodine is used undiluted in pre and postoperative skin disinfection. Chlorine gas is used to bleach water. Household bleach can be used to disinfect floors. Household bleach used in a stock dilution of 1:10. ` In higher concentrations chlorine is used to disinfect swimming pools. 0.5% sodium hypochlorite is used in serology and virology. ` Used at a dilution of 1:10 in decontamination of spillage of infectious material. ` Mercuric chloride is used as a disinfectant. ` Disadvantages: They are rapidly inactivated in the presence of organic matter. Iodine is corrosive and staining. ` Bleach solution is corrosive and will corrode stainless steel surfaces. ` HEAVY METALS: ` Mode of action: Act by precipitation of proteins and oxidation of sulfydryl groups. They are bacteriostatic. ` Examples: Mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, copper sulphate, organic mercury salts (e.g., mercurochrome, ` merthiolate) ` Applications: 1% silver nitrate solution can be applied on eyes as treatment for opthalmia neonatorum (Crede’s method). This procedure is no longer followed. Silver sulphadiazine is used topically to help to prevent colonization and infection of burn tissues. Mercurials are active against viruses at dilution of 1:500 to 1:1000. ` Merthiolate at a concentration of 1:10000 is used in preservation of serum. Copper salts are used as a fungicide. ` Disadvantages: Mercuric chloride is highly toxic, are readily inactivated by organic matter. SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS: Mode of actions: They have the property of concentrating at interfaces between lipid containing membrane of bacterial cell and surrounding aqueous medium. These compounds have long chain hydrocarbons that are fat soluble and charged ions that are water- soluble. Since they contain both of these, they concentrate on the surface of membranes. They disrupt membrane resulting in leakage of cell constituents. Examples: These are soaps or detergents. Detergents can be anionic or cationic. Detergents containing negatively charged long chain hydrocarbon are called anionic detergents. These include soaps and bile salts. DYES: Mode of action: Acridine dyes are bactericidal because of their interaction with bacterial nucleic acids. Examples: Aniline dyes such as crystal violet, malachite green and brilliant green. Acridine dyes such as acriflavin and aminacrine. Acriflavin is a mixture of proflavine and euflavine. Only euflavine has effective antimicrobial properties. A related dye, ethidium bromide, is also germicidal. It intercalates between base pairs in DNA. They are more effective against gram positive bacteria than gram negative bacteria and are more bacteriostatic in action. Applications: They may be used topically as antiseptics to treat mild burns. They are used as paint on the skin to treat bacterial skin infections. The dyes are used as selective agents in certain selective media. TESTING OF DISINFECTANTS:

A disinfectant must be tested to know the required effective dilution, the time taken to effect disinfection and to periodically monitor its activity. As disinfectants are known to lose their activity on standing as well as in the presence of organic matter, their activity must be periodically tested. Different methods 1. Koch’s method 2. Rideal Walker Method 3. Chick Martin test 4. Capacity use dilution test (Kelsey-Sykes test) Rideal -Walker Chick-Martin Volume medium 5.0 ml 10.0 ml Diluent for test disinfectant Water Yeast suspension Reaction temperature 17.5±0.5ºC 30ºC Organism Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus Sampling times 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 min. 30.0 min. Calculation of coefficient Dilution test killing in 7.5 min divided by same for phenol Mean concentration of phenol showing no growth after 30 min. divided by same for test