Fire today ManagementVolume 70 • No. 3 • 2010
From the Ground up: Wildland Fire Fuels
also inside: • OpiniOns On Wildland Fire smOke • recruiting a diverse WOrkFOrce • trail cameras capture Fire BehaviOr • imprOving radiO discipline
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Addendum In Issue 70(2), page 31, the article, The National Park Service: A History of Wildland Fire in Resource Management, by Roberta D’Amico and Bill Halainen should have included the following references:
Rothman, H.A. 2006. A Test of Adversity and Strength: Wildland Fire in the National Park System. Available at
Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Tom Vilsack, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
Thomas L. Tidwell, Chief Monique LaPerriere, EMC Publishing Arts Forest Service Managing Editor
Tom Harbour, Director Mark Riffe, METI Inc., EMC Publishing Arts Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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September 2010
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Fire Management Today 2 Fire Management today Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010
On the Cover: cOntents Anchor Point: Looking to the Future ...... 4 Tom Harbour
Pitching Theories From the Duff Mound ...... 5 Emily C. Garlough and Christopher R. Keyes
Estimating Crown Fire Susceptibility for Project Planning ...... 8 David C. Powell
Characterizing Hand-Piled Fuels ...... 16 On the Cover: Clinton S. Wright, Paige C. Eagle, and Cameron S. Balog Duff mounds like these, formed in high-elevation ponderosa pine The Results of a Brief Web-Based Questionnaire on at the Meadow Smith old-growth Wildland Fire Smoke ...... 19 restoration project on the Flathead National Forest, MT, often form at A.R. Riebau and D.G. Fox the base of mature trees. Prolonged smoldering in duff mounds can Firefighters Visit Seattle Schools: Recruiting Realizes Results . . . 25 lead to decreased vigor, enhanced Renee Bodine susceptibility to bark beetle attack, and potentially tree death. Photo: A High-Quality Fuels Database of Photos and Information . . . . .27 Christopher Keyes, University of Montana, Missoula. Clint S. Wright, Paige C. Eagle, and Diana L. Olson Modeling Post-Fire Soil Erosion ...... 32 The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Esther Godson and John D. Stednick Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of wildland Using Trail Cameras To Understand Fire Behavior ...... 37 fire management: Karen Ridenour and Rich Gray • Innovation: We will respect and value thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of Failure To Communicate: Improving Radio Discipline on the Fireline . .42 those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. Ken Frederick and Mike Tuominen • Execution: We will do what we say we will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. short Features • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. How Big Was Dodge’s Escape Fire? ...... 24 Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. 2010 Photo Contest ...... 47
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 3 by Tom Harbour Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service, Washington, DC lOOking tO the Future
ne thing is certain in our busi ness—if we wait long enough, Othings will change! This seems to be the case in everything we do. Fire Management Today (FMT) is not immune. Over the past year, I made a decision that I hope will make the publication a more “nim ble” periodical. FMT has moved from a subject-specific magazine to one that will allow its authors to write about those topics that are current and relevant to what is happening now. It will no longer be necessary to wait until a particular edition is being prepared.
I have been the Director of Fire and Aviation Management (FAM) for the Forest Service for more than 5 years. All along, I have said Smoke from the Deep Harbor Fire levels off at sunset. Wenatchee National Forest, WA. that it is my goal to be an effective Photo: Eli Lehmann, Forest Service, Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest, Concrete, WA, 2004. Director for a decade before I step down. In the last 5 ½ year period, I sion with professional ethics, a acy items” in depth, beginning next have seen my share of changes and code of conduct, philosophy, and edition with a discussion about the have had input into many of the professional qualifications; creat “cohesive strategy.” changes that have directly impacted ing equity and opportunity in fire “you,” as an employee, and “us,” as and aviation management; better Until then, as we approach our an agency and partner in the world aligning the expectations of the work each day, make risk manage of wildland fire management. As I land with ecologic fire dynamics of ment the priority every day in every ponder the future and think about vegetation; and building a strong action we take. Apply the concepts the things that are important to me FAM team, the next 4 ½ years will of doctrine to your actions. Let’s as the Director—building a “cohe go quickly! think about how we make deci sive strategy” with recognition of sions, how we apply those deci the need for a national intergov In the upcoming editions of Fire sions, and how we can improve our ernmental wildland fire framework, Management Today, I will take you profession. If you do, each of us continuing implementation, adap along on my journey through the will return safely to our loved ones tion, identification, and evolution remainder of my tenure as Director at the end of the day—nothing is of doctrine and risk management; and discuss each one of these “leg- more important! building a wildland fire profes
Fire Management Today 4 pitching theOries FrOm the duFF mound Emily C. Garlough and Christopher R. Keyes
rown fires, fire whirls, blow ups, conflagrations—presented Prolonged smoldering combustion in duff Cwith these eye-catching phe mounds at the base of trees causes cambial nomena in the dynamic field of fire research, garnering attention for injury and fine root mortality. smoldering duff mounds is a chal lenge. Whereas extreme fire behav ior leaves immediate and promi nent scars, the deleterious effects of duff mound consumption may take several years to become appar ent. Yet if the goal of prescriptive burning is to protect large trees and improve forest health, then this rather unsung subject deserves some attention. The benefit to fire managers is a better understanding of fuel factors and the avoidance of unintended consequences.
Relatively little is known about duff mounds as a unique fuel type other than that excessive duff mound consumption often leads to injury and mortality for large trees (Ryan and Frandsen 1991, Swezy and Agee 1991, Stephens and Finney 2002, Varner et al. 2007, Hood et al. Duff mounds like these, formed in high-elevation ponderosa pine at the Meadow Smith 2007). Prolonged smoldering com old-growth restoration project on the Flathead National Forest, MT, often form at bustion in duff mounds at the base the base of mature trees. Prolonged smoldering in duff mounds can lead to decreased vigor, enhanced susceptibility to bark beetle attack, and potentially tree death. Photo: of trees causes cambial injury and Christopher Keyes. fine root mortality, but it is unclear which of these processes ultimately injury, but we have yet to deter reduced vigor, enhanced suscep leads to tree death. Previous studies mine how tree survival is affected tibility to bark beetle attack, and have shown that tree death can be by the combination of cambial potentially tree death (Ryan and predicted by the amount of cambial death and fine root mortality. Frandsen 1991, Swezy and Agee 1991, Miyanishi 2001, Varner et al. Emily Garlough is a senior firefighter for Until this relationship can be 2007). the Forest Service Lolo Hotshots, based in Missoula, MT. She was a graduate research established, informed burning assistant in the College of Forestry and decisions must be based on what Duff Mound Smoldering Conservation at the University of Montana, we do know—that smoldering Missoula, when she completed this Combustion combustion in duff mounds deliv research. Christopher Keyes is a research Duff mounds are largely consumed associate professor of forestry and is direc ers substantial heat exposure that tor of the Applied Forest Management may lead to fine root mortality and in a process known as smolder Program at the University of Montana, ing combustion (Frandsen 1987, Missoula. cambial injury, possibly leading to
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 5 Miyanishi 2001), which spreads Whereas extreme fire behavior leaves about 1,000 times slower than the slowest spreading surface fire immediate and prominent scars, the effects (Frandsen 1987). The spread of of duff mound consumption may take several smoldering combustion in duff years to become apparent. relies on the balance between the energy required to vaporize and drive off water and the energy The current state of knowledge samples burned above these thresh released in the combustion process. concerning duff mound consump olds. A mineral content threshold The properties of duff that influ tion indicates the importance of was found for lower duff—samples ence water-holding abilities there moisture content within upper and with greater than 55 percent min fore affect smoldering behavior of lower duff layers and the impor eral content did not burn. Bulk the material. tance of mineral content in the density is commonly thought to be lower duff layer. In a recent study a limiting factor in duff consump Results from combustion experi of old-growth ponderosa pine duff tion (Hartford 1989, Hungerford et ments using both forest floor duff mounds, we found the upper and al. 1995), yet our study found that and peat moss have shown that the lower duff layers to differ signifi the natural range of bulk densities probability of sustained smoldering cantly for factors known to influ for the upper and lower duff layers is strongly influenced by duff mois ence consumption, including mois was too low to prohibit burning. ture content and is partially depen ture content and mineral content Thus, to get the most accurate dent on bulk density and mineral as well as depth, bulk density, and data to estimate the likelihood that content. The likelihood that sus composition. duff mounds will be consumed, we tained smoldering will take place recommend that managers sample decreases as any of these properties The moisture content threshold for moisture content of both upper increase after some threshold has for smoldering combustion was 57 and lower duff layers and mineral been reached (Hartford 1989). percent and 102 percent, respec content of lower duff prior to burn tively, for upper and lower duff—no ing. Water requires a large amount of energy to evaporate, so duff mois ture content acts as a significant heat sink in the combustion pro cess (Wein 1983). Densely packed duff with high bulk densities may reduce the oxygen concentration and extinguish smoldering combus tion. The probability of ignition decreases as the ratio of mineral content to organic material increas es, as mineral content absorbs heat that would have contributed to combustion (Hungerford et al. 1995). Frandsen (1987) developed an ignition test to determine the influence of mineral content and moisture content on ignition. He reported that peat moss with less than 10 percent mineral content would not smolder if moisture con tent was 110 percent or greater. The probability of sustained smoldering in duff mounds is influenced by duff moisture content, mineral content, and bulk density. A sample of moisture content of the upper and lower duff layers and mineral content of the lower duff layer will help to estimate the likelihood that duff mounds will be consumed during a prescribed burn. Photo: Christopher Keyes.
Fire Management Today 6 We recognize that fire managers example, our results spur several References have busy schedules leading up to more questions. Can the low mois Frandsen, W.H. 1987. The influence of a prescribed burn, with concerns ture contents we saw after heavy moisture and mineral soil on the com over homes, property lines, and air rains be attributed to a hydropho bustion limits of smoldering forest duff. quality. Fuel moisture states can bic nature, whereby rainfall and Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 17: 1540–1544. be monitored indirectly by observ stemflow don’t infiltrate upper soil Hartford, R.A. 1989. Smoldering combus ing weather patterns. However, our horizons? Or, to a hydroconductive tion limits in peat as influenced by study revealed that duff mound nature, whereby water rapidly infil- moisture, mineral content and organic bulk density. In: Maciver, D.C.; H. Auld; moisture content is not always R. Whitewood, eds. Proceedings of the predictable, even after extreme rain 10th Conference on Fire and Forest events. Just 6 days after a historic Duff mound moisture Meteorology Ottawa, Ontario. Chalk rain event totaling 18.5 inches (47 River, ON: Forestry Canada, Netawawa content is not always Forestry Institute: 282–286. cm), field measurements in one Hood, S.; Reardon, J.; Smith, S.; Cluck, area showed that duff moisture predictable, even after D. 2007. Prescribed burning to protect content averaged just 23.9 percent large diameter pine trees from wildfire— extreme rain events. Can we do it without killing the trees for the upper duff layer and 22.9 we’re trying to save? Joint Fire Science percent for the lower duff layer. Program Final Report 03-3-2-04. 33 p. These moisture contents are far Hungerford, R; Frandsen, W.H.; Ryan, K.C. trates the duff and passes through 1995. Ignition and burning characteris below the consumption thresholds to the mineral soil? What is the tics of organic soils. In: Cerulean, S.I.; we found in lab testing—57 percent relationship of soil characteris R.T. Engstrom, eds. Fire in wetlands: a and 102 percent, respectively, for management perspective. Proceedings tics to these moisture dynamics? of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology upper and lower duff—indicating Temporal study of duff moisture Conference, No. 19. Tallahassee, FL: Tall that a prescribed fire would have content through the course of a fire Timbers Research Station: 78–91. Miyanishi, K. 2001. Duff consumption. In: resulted in complete duff mound season would be difficult to per consumption for more than half of Johnson, E.A., Miyanishi, K., eds. Forest form, but could offer a great deal fires: behavior and ecological effects. San the stand’s largest and oldest trees. of insight into duff mound wetting Diego, CA: Academic Press: 437-475. Had burning decisions been based and drying cycles. Ryan, K.C.; Frandsen, W.H. 1991. Basal on weather data alone, many trees injury from smoldering fires in mature Pinus ponderosa Laws. International would likely have been damaged As demands for predictability in Journal of Wildland Fire. 1:107–108. or lost. Further testing of these prescribed burning outcomes Stephens, S.L.; Finney, M.A. 2002. results is necessary to determine Prescribed fire mortality of Sierra Nevada increase, all aspects of fuels behav mixed conifer tree species: Effects of applicability in varied field condi ior will come under scrutiny. Duff crown damage and forest floor combus tions. mounds may not represent the tion. Forest Ecology and Management. 162:261–271. most exciting topic in fire research, Swezy, D.M; Agee, J.K. 1991. Prescribed fire Future Points To but a better understanding of them effects on fine-root and tree mortality Ponder can go a long way in preserving in old-growth ponderosa pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21:626–634. The field of duff mound moisture our valuable, mature trees in long- Varner, J.M.; Hiers, J.K.; Ottmar, R.D.; dynamics has tremendous opportu unburned stands. Gordon, D.R.; Putz, F.E.; Wade, D.D. 2007. Overstory tree mortality resulting nities for further investigation—for from reintroducing fire to long-unburned longleaf pine forests: the importance of duff moisture. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 37:1349–1358. Duff mounds may not represent the most exciting Wein, R.W. 1983. Fire behavior and ecologi cal effects in organic terrain. In: Wein, topic in fire research, but a better understanding R.W., Maclean, D.A., eds. Chichester, of them can go a long way in preserving our England: John Wiley and Sons LTD: 81–96. valuable, mature trees in long-unburned stands.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 7 estimating crOWn Fire susceptiBility FOr prOject planning David C. Powell
ire managers traditionally rec ognize three types of fire (Pyne Fand others 1996): • Ground fires burning in organic materials such as peat; • Surface fires burning in herbs and other fuels lying on or near the ground surface; and • Crown fires burning in elevated canopy fuels.
When considering fire effects on vegetation and other ecosystem components, crown fire is acknowl edged to be the most severe of the three fire types. Although crown fire is normal and expected for fire regimes III, IV, and V (Schmidt and others 2002), a large amount of crown fire is neither normal nor expected for the dry forests of fire Crown fire in the Blue Mountains, OR, showing the long flame lengths and high fireline regime I (Agee 1993). (See box on intensity typically produced by crown fire. Photo: David Powell, Umatilla National Forest. following page for more details on fire regime condition class.)
Because dry forests are affected by crown fire with increasing regular ity (Mutch and others 1993) and silvicultural treatments are being planned for the wildland-urban interface where crown fire can sel dom be tolerated regardless of fire regime, fire managers need tools to help them evaluate crown fire sus ceptibility for all forested lands. As expressed by Scott and Reinhardt (2001) “Crown fires result from cer tain combinations of fuels, weather, and topography.” Land managers cannot control weather and topog raphy, but if they could identify
Aftermath of a crown fire in the Blue Mountains, OR, showing the impact of crown fire David Powell is a silviculturist on the on soils, coarse woody debris and down wood, and other site-level resources. Photo: David Umatilla National Forest in Pendleton, OR. Powell, Umatilla National Forest.
Fire Management Today 8 areas with high potential for crown Canopy bulk density, a measure of foliage biomass fire, the areas could be targeted for application of prescribed fire and available as crown fire fuel, is “the primary thinning, two treatments with dem controlling factor of crown fire behavior.” onstrated effectiveness for reducing stand susceptibility to crown fire behavior (Bilgili 2003; Graham and This article relates five common of available crown fuels, except others 2004). measures of stand density (stand in a research context (Scott and density index, trees per acre, basal Reinhardt 2001), and these other Crown fire susceptibility refers to area per acre, canopy cover, and measures can be collected as part of the potential for crown fire based equilateral tree spacing) to three stand data. In addition, it is easier on inherent stand characteristics categories of crown fire susceptibil to relate stand density to CBD such as species composition, forest ity (high, moderate, and low). The than to use indirect estimation structure, and tree density. In this use of stand density measures to techniques relying on hemispheri context, crown fire susceptibility estimate crown fire susceptibility cal photography, ceptometers, or and crown fire hazard are consid is a practical approach—it is not spherical densiometers (Keane and ered to be interchangeable terms. feasible to directly measure canopy others 2005). bulk density (CBD), the measure Canopy Bulk Density CBD, a measure of biomass avail Fire Regime Condition able as crown fire fuel, is “the pri * Class Definition mary controlling factor of crown fire behavior” (Graham and others A natural fire regime is a general classification of the role fire would 1999). It is the dry weight of avail play across a landscape in the absence of modern human mechanical able canopy fuel (including both intervention but including the influence of aboriginal burning. The foliage and small branches) per five natural (historical) fire regimes are classified based on average unit of canopy volume (including number of years between fires (fire frequency) combined with the spaces between the tree crowns) severity (amount of replacement) of the fire on the dominant over- and is strongly influenced by spe story vegetation. These five regime classes include: cies composition and stand density (Agee 1996; Keyes and O’Hara • I: 0–35 year frequency and generally low-severity fires replacing 2002); thus, it varies both within less than 25 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation, but can and between ecological zones. CBD include mixed-severity fires that replace up to 75 percent of the is usually expressed in kilograms overstory; per cubic meter (kg/m3); it ranges • II: 0–35 year frequency and high-severity fires replacing greater from zero, where there is no can than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation; opy, to about 0.4 kg/m3 (0.25 lbs/ • III: 35–200+ year frequency, generally mixed-severity fires, but can ft3) in very dense forests (Scott and also include low severity fires; Reinhardt 2002). • IV: 35–200+ year frequency and high severity, replacing greater than 75 percent of the dominant overstory vegetation; and To relate CBD to crown fire suscep • V: 200+ year frequency and generally high severity, but may include tibility, Agee (1996) analyzed seven fires of any severity in this frequency range. stands that had been thinned and later exposed to crown fire during As scale of application becomes finer, these five classes may be defined the 1994 Tyee Fire in north-central with more detail, or any one class may be split into finer classes, but Washington. He found that crown the hierarchy to the coarse scale definitions should be retained. fire was not sustained in stands where recent thinning had reduced * Definitions are adapted from the Interagency Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) Guidebook, Version 3 1.3.0, June 2008. Available online at
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 9 stands with CBD exceeding 0.10 kg/ Stand Density Index • Ponderosa pine remains below 3 3 m (0.006 lbs/ft ) are susceptible SDI expresses the relationship the upper CBD threshold even at to crown fires (Cram and others between a number of trees per acre its full-stocking SDI of 365. 2003). and a quadratic mean diameter (QMD); SDI is indexed to a QMD The following relative density per Earlier research from Van Wagner of 10 inches (25 cm) (Daniel and centages pertain to the lower CBD 3 (1977) and Alexander (1988) others 1979, Reineke 1933). Keyes threshold of 0.05 kg/m (0.003 lbs/ 3 showed that crown fire is nearly and O’Hara (2002) related Agee’s ft ): impossible below a CBD of 0.05 (1996) upper CBD threshold value 3 3 kg/m (0.003 lbs/ft ), and research (0.10 kg/m3 or 0.006 lbs/ft3) to • Grand fir crosses the lower CBD from the Lake States suggests that relative density, a percentage of the threshold at an SDI value of 3 a CBD as low as 0.037 kg/m (0.002 maximum full-stocking SDI, for 70, about 12 percent of its full- 3 lbs/ft ) might be marginally capable the three tree species included in stocking SDI of 560. of sustaining crown fire under Agee’s paper: grand fir, Douglas- • Douglas-fir exhibits the lower extreme circumstances (Sando and fir, and ponderosa pine. Maximum CBD threshold at an SDI value Wick 1972). Analysis of two stands full-stocking SDI values for the of 100, about 26 percent of its on the Bitterroot National Forest three tree species were taken from full-stocking SDI of 380. in western Montana concluded Cochran and others (1994) and • Ponderosa pine exhibits the that the Sando and Wick threshold Powell (1999). lower CBD threshold at an SDI value (0.037 kg/m3) might also value of 140, about 38 percent of be relevant to forests of the inte The following relative density per its full-stocking SDI of 365. rior Pacific Northwest (Scott and centages pertain to the upper CBD Reinhardt 2001). Nonetheless, I threshold of 0.10 kg/m3 (0.006 lbs/ Table 1 shows how the relative den 3 selected a CBD value of 0.05 kg/m ft3): sity SDI values are related to low, (0.003 lbs/ft3) as the lower thresh moderate, and high categories of old value for this analysis process. • Grand fir reaches the upper crown fire susceptibility. CBD threshold at an SDI of I used these two thresholds—the 200, about 35 percent of its full- Trees per Acre CBD above which crown fire is stocking SDI of 560. The TPA metric is an absolute mea 3 easily sustained (0.10 kg/m ) and • Douglas-fir reaches the upper sure of tree density per unit area. the CBD below which crown fire CBD threshold at an SDI of To express crown fire susceptibility 3 is unlikely (0.05 kg/m )—as the 250, about 66 percent of its full- by using TPA, the SDI values from boundaries for “high” and “low” stocking SDI of 380. table 1 were converted into their crown fire susceptibility categories. equivalent TPA values (table 2). By default, the “moderate” category then includes all CBD values occur Table 1—Estimated stand density index (SDI) values for three crown fire ring between the upper and lower susceptibility ratings. thresholds. Cover type group1 SDI2 for each crown fire susceptibility rating3 Relating CBD to Low Moderate High Stand Density Ponderosa pine < 141 141–364 > 364 Using the three categories of crown Interior Douglas-fir < 101 101–249 > 249 fire susceptibility, CBD can be related to stand density metrics Grand fir < 71 71–199 > 199 such as stand density index (SDI), 1 Cover type group composition is: trees per acre (TPA), basal area per Ponderosa pine: western larch, whitebark pine, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine Interior Douglas-fir: Douglas-fir and other species not included in the ponderosa pine or grand fir groups acre (BAA), canopy cover (CC), and Grand fir: grand fir, subalpine fir, and Engelmann spruce. 2 SDI ranges are based on Agee (1996), and Keyes and O’Hara (2002). equilateral spacing (ES). 3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density: Low: CBD ≤ 0.05 kg/m3 (≤ 0.003 lbs/ft3) Moderate: CBD 0.06−0.09 kg/m3 (0.004–0.005 lbs/ft3) High: CBD ≥ 0.10 kg/m3 (≥ 0.006 lbs/ft3)
Fire Management Today 10 Table 2—Estimated trees per acre (trees per hectare) for three crown fire susceptibility ratings.
Cover Diameter TPA (T/ha) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3 Type Class Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 1,174 1,174–3,057 > 3,057 pine (< 475) (475–1,237) (> 1,237) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 263 263–682 > 682 (< 106) (106–276) (> 276) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 102 102–262 > 262 (< 41) (41–106) (> 106) Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 564 564–1,406 > 1,406 Douglas-fir (< 228) (228–569) (> 569) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 158 158–390 > 390 (< 64) (64–158) (> 158) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 70 70–172 > 172 (< 28) (28–70) (> 70) Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 593 593–1,692 > 1,692 fir (< 240) (240–685) (> 685) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 138 138–390 > 390 (< 56) (56–158) (> 158) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 55 55–153 > 153 (< 22) (22–62) (> 62)
1 Cover type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1. 2 Average diameter class pertains to an entire forest polygon; QMD is quadratic mean diameter, the diameter associated with a tree of average basal area (Helms 1998). Diameter class is assumed to reflect an average or representative QMD condition for an entire polygon; “seed-sap” refers to the seedling-sapling diameter classes. 3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
Because SDI is indexed to a QMD of 10 inches (25 cm), the TPA and SDI The use of stand density measures to estimate values will only be the same when crown fire susceptibility is a practical approach— a stand’s QMD is 10 inches (e.g., at a QMD of 10 inches, an SDI of it is not feasible to directly measure canopy bulk 200 is equal to 200 TPA). But for a density except in a research context. QMD other than 10 inches, the TPA and SDI values will not be identi cal. For this reason, the TPA values cally 4.5 feet or 1.4 m above the Canopy Cover provided in table 2 are presented ground surface); the BAA metric for three common size classes. In CC is a forest density metric used takes the individual tree basal area extensively in ecological studies. addition, because the other tables values and sums them for every (tables 3–5) are related to TPA in It is defined as the vertical projec tree occurring on an acre to yield tion of vegetation foliage onto the some way, they also include three 2 a measure of total basal area in ft / ground surface when viewed from size classes. 2 ac (or m /ha). To express crown above. fire susceptibility by using the BAA Basal Area per Acre metric, it was necessary to convert Stand density expressed as canopy BAA refers to the cross-sectional the TPA values from table 2 into cover can be estimated from remote area of a tree (in square feet) at a their equivalent BAA values (table specified height on the stem (typi 3).
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 11 Table 3—Estimated basal area per acre in ft2 (basal area per hectare in m2) for three crown fire susceptibility ratings.
Cover Diameter BAA (BA/ha) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3 Type Class Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 59 59–149 > 149 pine (< 14) (14–34) (> 34) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 71 71–181 > 181 (< 16) (16–42) (> 42) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 80 80–206 > 206 (< 18) (18–47) (> 47) Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 29 29–68 > 68 Douglas-fir (< 7) (7–16) (> 16) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 43 43–104 > 104 (< 10) (10–24) (> 24) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 55 55–135 > 135 (< 13) (13–31) (> 31) Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 30 30–82 > 82 fir (< 7) (7–19) (> 19) Poles (5–9” QMD) < 38 38–103 > 103 (< 9) (9–24) (> 24) Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 43 43–120 > 120 (< 10) (10–28) (> 28)
1 Cover type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1. 2 Diameter class categories are described in footnote 2 of table 2. 3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1. sensing information sources, such stand exams or forestry surveys Equilateral Spacing as satellite imagery or aerial pho were uncommon then. Because it is A measure of tree spacing is useful tography, or it can be sampled often important to be able to assess when there is a need to evaluate the during field surveys such as stand how crown fire susceptibility has spatial relationship between adja exams. For polygons created from changed over time, the CC stand cent trees in a stand (tree-marking remote-sensing information, CC density metric is particularly valu guides often include inter-tree (also known as canopy closure, able. spacing specifications). For older crown cover, or crown closure) is stands, where most of the trees are typically the only metric that can Attempts to directly measure CC by pole-size or larger, ES is generally reasonably represent stand density using instruments such as a spheri thought to be the best measure of because other measures, such as cal densiometer or moosehorn have tree spacing. To express crown fire TPA or BAA, cannot be accurately often been unsatisfactory (Cook susceptibility by using the ES met determined from this information. and others 1995), so it is common ric, it was necessary to convert the practice to use mathematical equa TPA values from table 2 into their The CC stand density metric is tions to calculate CC (Dealy 1985). equivalent ES values (table 5). unique in that it allows us to esti To express crown fire susceptibility mate crown fire susceptibility for using CC, I converted the BAA val Cautions and Caveats historical time periods from old ues into their equivalent CC values aerial photography. The other stand using Dealy’s (1985) equations The five tables in this article do not density metrics are seldom available (table 4). predict potential crown fire behav for historical time periods because ior because there is no explicit
Fire Management Today 12 consideration of weather, topogra phy, or non-CBD vegetation factors such as canopy base height or foliar moisture content (Reinhardt and Crookston 2003).
Because vegetation databases almost always include more tree species (cover types) than just the three included in Agee’s (1996) study, it was necessary to assign additional species to one of Agee’s original forest types. These assign ments were influenced primarily by crown characteristics: for instance, Engelmann spruce crowns tend to have a similar shape and density as those of grand fir, so Engelmann spruce was assigned to the grand fir cover type group.
Many users believe the stand den sity values for the ponderosa pine cover type group are too high because they exceed those for the grand fir and Douglas-fir groups. This counterintuitive result reflects tree canopy differences (particularly crown density and length), and it suggests that higher stocking lev els of ponderosa pine are required for a specific amount of CBD than for either grand fir or interior Douglas-fir. On average, ponderosa pine crowns have lower density and length than Douglas-fir and grand fir crowns, so it takes more ponder osa pine crowns per acre to reach the same level of CBD as for grand fir or Douglas-fir.*
Except for the ponderosa pine cover type group, the stocking levels associated with the low crown fire susceptibility category are lower Figure 1—Existing (upper) and historical (lower) crown fire susceptibility ratings for than traditional stocking guidelines the Potamus watershed in northeastern Oregon (Forest Service 2004). Because canopy developed for timber production cover could be interpreted from 1939 aerial photography, it was possible to use the rating system in table 4 to estimate historical crown fire susceptibility for more than *Recent experience on the Umatilla National Forest 78,000 acres of forest land in the Potamus watershed: 42 percent had high crown fire suggests that more crown fire is actually occurring in susceptibility, 28 percent had moderate crown fire susceptibility, and 31 percent had ponderosa pine forests than would be predicted from low crown fire susceptibility. When evaluating crown fire susceptibility during project susceptibility ratings for the ponderosa pine cover type planning, it seems that canopy cover is the best stand density measure for comparing group in tables 1–5. existing conditions with reference (historical) conditions.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 13 Table 4—Estimated tree canopy cover (CC) for three crown fire susceptibility ratings.
Cover Diameter CC (%) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3 Type Class Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 46 46–60 > 60 pine Poles (5–9” QMD) < 49 49–63 > 63 Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 51 51–66 > 66 Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 50 50–62 > 62 Douglas-fir Poles (5–9” QMD) < 56 56–68 > 68 Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 60 60–72 > 72 Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) < 53 53–68 > 68 fir Poles (5–9” QMD) < 57 57–72 > 72 Small+ (> 9” QMD) < 59 59–75 > 75
1 Cover type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1. 2 Diameter class categories are described in footnote 2 of table 2. 3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
Table 5— Estimated equilateral tree spacing in feet (meters) for three crown fire susceptibility ratings.
Cover Diameter ES in feet (m) for each crown fire susceptibility rating3 Type Class Group1 Category2 Low Moderate High Ponderosa Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 6.4 6.4–4.2 < 4.2 pine (> 1.95) (1.95–1.28) (< 1.28) Poles (5–9” QMD) > 13.8 13.8–8.7 < 8.7 (> 4.20) (4.20–2.65) (< 2.65) Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 22.2 22.2–13.9 < 13.9 (> 6.76) (6.76–4.24) (< 4.24) Interior Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 9.4 9.4–6.1 < 6.1 Douglas-fir (> 2.86) (2.86–1.86) (< 1.86) Poles (5–9” QMD) > 17.8 17.8–11.4 < 11.4 (> 5.42) (5.42–3.47) (< 3.47) Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 26.8 26.8–17.1 < 17.1 (> 8.17) (8.17–5.21) (< 5.21) Grand Seed-Sap (< 5” QMD) > 9.1 9.1–5.6 < 5.6 fir (> 2.77) (2.77–1.71) (< 1.71) Poles (5–9” QMD) > 19.1 19.1–11.4 < 11.4 (> 5.82) (5.82–3.47) (< 3.47) Small+ (> 9” QMD) > 30.5 30.5–18.2 < 18.2 (> 9.30) (9.30–5.55) (< 5.55)
1 Cover type groups are described in footnote 1 to table 1. 2 Diameter class categories are described in footnote 2 of table 2. 3 Crown fire susceptibility ratings are based on canopy bulk density and described in footnote 3 of table 1.
Fire Management Today 14 purposes. For wildland-urban inter faces and other areas where wildfire resilience and a forest structure amenable to low crown fire suscep tibility are particularly important, land managers could prescribe residual stocking levels using the “low” category in tables 1–5.
References Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests. Washington, DC: Island Press. 493 p. Agee, J.K. 1996. The influence of for est structure on fire behavior. In: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Forest Vegetation Management How likely is a crown fire? Here, a firefighter takes a break to get more firing devices from Conference; 16–18 January; Redding, CA: his pack during a night burnout operation on the Blossom Complex, Siskiyou National 52–68. Forest, OR. Photo: Eli Lehmann, Forest Service, Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Alexander, M.E. 1988. Help with mak Forest, Concrete, WA, 2005. ing crown fire hazard assessments. In: Fischer, W.C.; Arno, S.F., compilers. Graham, R.T.; Harvey, A.E.; Jain, T.B.; Tonn, Reineke, L.H. 1933. Perfecting a stand-den Proceedings of the Symposium and J.R. 1999. The effects of thinning and sity index for even-aged forests. Journal Workshop: Protecting People and Homes similar stand treatments on fire behavior of Agricultural Research. 46(7): 627–638. from Wildfire in the Interior West. Gen. in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW Reinhardt, E.D.; Crookston, N.L., technical Tech. Rep. INT-251. Ogden, UT: USDA 463. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, editors. 2003. The fire and fuels exten Forest Service, Intermountain Research Pacific Northwest Research Station. 27 p. sion to the forest vegetation simulator. Station: 147–156. Graham, R.T.; McCaffrey, S.; Jain, T.B. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-116. Ogden, UT: Bilgili, E. 2003. Stand development 2004. Science basis for changing forest USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain and fire behavior. Forest Ecology and structure to modify wildfire behavior and Research Station. 209 p. Management. 179: 333–339. severity. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-120. Fort Sando, R.W.; Wick, C.H. 1972. A method of Cochran, P.H.; Geist, J.M.; Clemens, D.L.; Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky evaluating crown fuels in forest stands. Clausnitzer, R.R.; Powell, D.C. 1994. Mountain Research Station. 43 p. Research Paper NC-84. Saint Paul, MN: Suggested stocking levels for forest Helms, J.A. 1998. The dictionary of for USDA Forest Service, North Central stands in northeastern Oregon and estry. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. southeastern Washington. Research Note Foresters. 210 p. Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy, PNW-513. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Keane, R.E.; Reinhardt, E.D.; Scott, J.; C.C.; Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002. Service, Pacific Northwest Research Gray, K.; Reardon, J. 2005. Estimating Development of coarse-scale spatial Station. 21 p. forest canopy bulk density using six indi data for wildland fire and fuel manage Cook, J.C.; Stutzman, T.W.; Bowers, C.W.; rect methods. Canadian Journal of Forest ment. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-87. Fort Brenner, K.A.; Irwin, L.L. 1995. Spherical Research. 35: 724–739. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky densiometers produce biased estimates Keyes, C.R.; O’Hara, K.L. 2002. Quantifying Mountain Research Station. 41 p (+CD). of forest canopy cover. Wildlife Society stand targets for silvicultural preven Scott, J.H.; Reinhardt, E.D. 2001. Assessing Bulletin. 23(4): 711–717. tion of crown fires. Western Journal of crown fire susceptibility by linking Cram, D.S.; Baker, T.T.; Boren, J.; Applied Forestry. 17(2): 101–109. models of surface and crown fire behav Edminster, C. 2003. Inventory and classi Mutch, R.W.; Arno, S.F.; Brown, J.K.; ior. Research Paper RMRS -29. Fort fication of wildland fire effects in silvicul Carlson, C.E.; Ottmar, R.D.; Peterson, Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky turally treated vs. untreated forest stands J.L. 1993. Forest health in the Blue Mountain Research Station. 59 p. of New Mexico and Arizona. Paper pre Mountains: a management strategy for Scott, J.H.; Reinhardt, E.D. 2002. sented at the 2nd International Wildland fire-adapted ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. Estimating canopy fuels in conifer for Fire Ecology and Fire Management PNW-310. Portland, OR: USDA Forest ests. Fire Management Today. 62(4): Congress; 16–20 November; Orlando, FL. Service, Pacific Northwest Research 45–50. 14 p. Station. 14 p. USDA Forest Service. 2004. Potamus eco Daniel, T.W.; Meyn, R.L.; Moore, R.R. 1979. Powell, D.C. 1999. Suggested stocking system analysis. Unpublished Report. Reineke’s stand density index in tabular levels for forest stands in northeastern Pendleton, OR: USDA Forest Service, form, in English and metric units, with Oregon and southeastern Washington: an Umatilla National Forest. 222 p. Available its applications. Research Report 37. implementation guide for the Umatilla at:
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 15 characterizing hand-piled Fuels Clinton S. Wright, Paige C. Eagle, and Cameron S. Balog
Resources (DNR) online calculator The Hand-Piled Fuels Biomass Calculator is available at (Alexander 2007;
Clint Wright is a research forester with the Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, in Seattle, WA. Paige Eagle is a Web designer and programmer and Cameron Balog is a research scientist with the School of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle. The authors Slash is often piled by hand and later burned as a surface fuel treatment to mitigate acknowledge funding from the Joint Fire potential negative impacts of broadcast burning and to reduce fire hazard. Photo: Ernesto Science Program under Project JFSP 07-2 Alvarado, University of Washington, Seattle. 1-57.
Fire Management Today 16 simple online calculator specifically An estimate of the weight of the piled debris for characterizing the relationship between hand pile dimensions, vol to be burned is necessary to assess potential ume, and weight. smoke emissions and air quality impacts associated with this practice. The equations in the calculator are based on measurements of the dimensions, volume, and weight of 1. Measure pile dimensions and factor = emissions) to estimate 121 hand piles composed primar calculate pile volume; potential emissions. ily of coniferous (n=63) and shrub/ 2. Assess the pile composition hardwood (n=58) material located (conifer or shrub/hardwood Pile volume and fuel weight in Washington and California. debris); A potentially large portion of the Equations using pile dimensions, 3. Calculate the weight of fuel error associated with estimating shape, and type allow users to more in the pile using equations pollutant emissions from fire is accurately estimate the volume and that relate pile volume to pile related to difficulties and inaccura weight of hand piles for regulatory weight; cies in characterizing fuel weight reporting and smoke-management 4. Calculate consumable fuel or loading (Peterson and Sandberg planning (Wright and others 2010). weight (pile weight × percent 1988). In the calculator, users age of expected consumption = select a geometric shape that best Calculating Emissions consumable fuel weight); and represents their pile or piles and Calculating emissions from pile 5. Apply an emission factor (con enter the measured dimensions burning is a five-step process: sumable fuel weight × emission required for that pile shape. These inputs are used to calculate the volume of the pile based on specific geometric formulas. Pile volume determined from pile dimensions and geometric formulas (geometric pile volume) is not perfectly cor related with true pile volume, so the calculator applies an empiri cally derived adjustment to the geometric volume, resulting in a more accurate estimate. Adjusted or true pile volume is then used as a predictor to estimate pile weight for different pile types (that is, piles composed primarily of coniferous debris or piles composed primarily of shrub and hardwood debris).
Estimating Consumable Fuel CONSUME 3.0 assumes that 90 percent of piled fuels are consumed during a burning operation based on observations of 75–95 percent consumption reported by Hardy (1996). Hardy observed consump The online calculator allows the user to estimate the volume and weight of hand-piled tion in machine pile burns; no fuels according to the shape selected and the entered dimensions. Potential emissions of studies that we know of have docu different pollutants are calculated based on the calculated weight, emission factors, and mented the fuel consumption when user-specified consumption proportions.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 17 hand piles are burned, although Looking ahead, we would like to improve this we expect hand piles to burn in a manner similar to machine-piles, tool so that users will have a single resource for in which most, if not all, of the characterizing piles of any type. piled debris is consumed. Users can adjust the estimated percentage consumption when hand piles are (6.75, 7.75, and 10.95 kg per met References burned under conditions that are ric ton) for PM2.5, PM10, and PM, Alexander, M.E. 2007. How much fuel is in expected to reduce fuel consump respectively. Assuming that 70 per that pile or windrow? Fire Management tion, such as in wet or snowy con cent of consumption occurs during Today 67(3): 12–27. ditions. the flaming phase of combustion Hardy, C.C. 1996. Guidelines for estimating volume, biomass and smoke production and that 15 percent occurs during for piled slash. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW Adjusting Emission each of the smoldering and residual 364. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, The amount of soil that is mixed phases of combustion, emission Pacific Northwest Research Station. 17 p. Johnson, V.J. 1984. How shape affects the into a pile when it is constructed factors for carbon monoxide (CO), burning of piled debris. Fire Management affects the amount of smoke that carbon dioxide (CO2), methane Notes 45(3): 12–15. Little, S.N. 1982. Estimating the volume is produced during burning. Soil (CH4), and nonmethane hydrocar contamination reduces combustion of wood in large piles of logging residue. bons (NMHC) are 152.0, 3,327.4, Administrative Report PNW-1. Portland, efficiency and effectively increases 11.2, and 9.0 pounds per ton (76.0, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific the emissions of airborne pollut 1,663.8, 5.6, and 4.5 kg per metric Northwest Forest and Range Experiment ants that are produced for each ton), respectively (Prichard and Station. 7 p. McNab, W.H. 1980. A technique for invento increment of fuel that is consumed. others, no date). Multiplying fuel rying volumes and weights of windrowed Machine piles can contain sig weight consumed by the above- forest residues. Research Paper SE-215. nificant quantities of mineral soil listed emission factors yields the Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. depending upon the soil conditions weight of pollutant emissions. 8 p. at the time of piling and the skill of McNab, W.H. 1981. Inventorying windrowed the equipment operator who con Looking Ahead logging residues. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-34. structed the pile. Hand piles, on the New Orleans, LA: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, pp. other hand, are virtually free of soil We designed the initial version of this online calculator specifically 234–237. contamination and, therefore, burn McNab, W.H.; Saucier, J.R. 1980. more efficiently, producing fewer for estimating the volume and Estimating quantities of windrowed forest residues: a management tool for pollutants for each increment of weight of hand-piled fuels. This tool complements CONSUME 3.0 increased biomass utilization. Georgia fuel that is consumed. Hardy (1996) Forest Research paper No. 11. Macon, provides emission factors for total and the Washington DNR calcula GA: Georgia Forestry Commission, particulate matter (PM), particulate tor that address machine-piles. Research Division. 4 p. It enables fire managers and Peterson, J.L.; Sandberg, D.V. 1988. A matter less than 10 micrometers in national PM10 emissions inventory air-quality regulators to more mean diameter (PM10), and particu approach for wildfires and prescribed late matter less than 2.5 microm accurately estimate fuel consump burning. In: Mathai, D.V.; Stonefield, D.H., eds., Transactions: PM10: imple eters in mean diameter (PM ) tion and emissions for hand piles. 2.5 Looking ahead, we would like to mentation of standards: an APCA/EPA from the burning of piled fuels International Specialty Conference; with differing levels of combus improve the functionality of this February 22–25, 1988, San Francisco, CA, pp. 353–371. tion efficiency related to differing tool by integrating the algorithms for estimating machine pile weight, Prichard, S.J.; Ottmar, R.D.; Anderson, levels of soil contamination. Using G.K. no date. Consume 3.0 User’s Guide. a combustion efficiency of 0.91 for consumption, and emissions into Seattle, WA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific “clean” piles yields emission factors a future version so that users will Northwest Research Station. Available have a single resource for charac online at:
Fire Management Today 18 the results OF a BrieF WeB-Based QuestiOnnaire On Wildland Fire smOke A.R. Riebau and D.G. Fox
rom October 2009 through February 2010, fire manage Almost all respondents indicated that they F ment and other professionals expect increasing air quality regulatory with interest and experience in fire smoke issues were asked to com pressure on smoke as a pollutant. plete a short online questionnaire as part of a smoke science plan development effort by the Joint Fire Gauging Concern for needs. In 2009, it was determined Science Program, sponsored by the Smoke Issues that these 11 recommendations U.S. Department of the Interior were not sufficient to guide future (DOI) and U.S. Department of Since at least the U.S. 1977 Clean smoke research investments. As Agriculture (USDA). Five hundred Air Act Amendments, there has a result, JFSP commissioned the and fifty-four individuals answered been concern that air quality regu development of a smoke science the questionnaire. Although some lations and smoke from prescribed plan, a framework to focus smoke of the results might have been fires could collide in conflicting research for the next 5 years. As a anticipated, there are differences in legal requirements, vested interests, foundation for this, a brief Web- responses between this and previ overly bureaucratic interpretations based questionnaire was developed ous needs assessments; one exam of regulations, lack of appreciation to gauge current perceptions of ple is that, although many respon for ecosystem health and public wildland fire smoke as an issue, dents saw regulatory restrictions health, and fumbled communica what research topics are perceived increasingly impacting the ability tion. Although there has been fric as highest need, and what value of fire managers to apply prescribed tion over the issue, air quality and people placed on the 11 recom fire (a common perception since at forest management have avoided a mendations of the preceding JFSP least the late 1970s), there are also national showdown. There may be smoke roundtables. new concerns that the public’s per a number of reasons for this happy ceptions of fire may also increas circumstance, but it can be right Distributing the ingly limit its use. Finally, the fully said that the fire community’s Questionnaire questionnaire results and written support of smoke research has pro comments highlight a perceived duced tools to ameliorate potential The use of a Web-based question fundamental tension between the conflicts. The Joint Fire Science naire is not unique to development need for fire to maintain ecosystem Program (JFSP) has been very sup of the JFSP smoke science plan. health and air quality regulations portive of fire smoke research and An earlier Web-based question to protect public health. has funded more than 34 studies naire was used to complete a smoke on the topic, much of this funding research needs assessment in based on results from needs assess 1999 (Riebau and Fox 1999). This Allen Riebau is principal scientist for Nine Points South Technical Pty., Ltd., in ments. In 2007, JFSP conducted 2 questionnaire was brief (12 ques Clarkson, Western Australia. He retired workshops to identify new smoke tions) and took only about 10 to from the Forest Service as chief atmo research areas at both regional 15 minutes to complete. A link to spheric scientist. Doug Fox is the senior contributing scientist for climate change, and national levels, resulting in 11 the questionnaire was distributed meteorology, and air quality for Nine recommendations. Some recom by email to about 150 individuals Points South Technical Pty., Ltd., and mendations were clearly within the beginning in early October 2009. retired from the Forest Service as chief Recipients were asked to complete meteorologist and climate change program research scope of JFSP and others director at the Rocky Mountain Research addressed technology or procedural the questionnaire themselves and Station.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 19 to send the link on to others they egories than those defined that the become more important in the knew that might have useful input. authors considered meaningful to next decade. (Out of 554 people, Although, at first, response was the results. only 6 stated that smoke would light, subsequent email reminders become a less important issue in fed the momentum of the survey, Twenty-six people responded from the next decade.) When asked to with 554 people responding before outside of the United States, while rate smoke as a general issue on the Web-link was deactivated at the the remaining 528 were from a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being “criti end of February 2010. Well over within the United States. The great cal”), 111 people rated smoke as two times the number of people est number of respondents work for 10, 85 people rated smoke as 9, completed the questionnaire than Federal Government agencies, pri 139 people rated smoke as 8, and were initially emailed. This, itself, marily for the Forest Service. There only 6 people rated smoke as 1 may reflect a grass-roots interest was some representation from most (“safe to ignore”). Thus, 60 percent in the issues of fire smoke and the of respondents see smoke as one future actions of the JFSP. (Readers of the top three issues relating to should note, however, that the It may be that a new natural resources or environmen questionnaire was not designed to tal concerns. Sixty-nine percent meet scientific social sciences sur dialogue is needed of respondents stated the reason vey standards. The questionnaire between those who for this was increasing regulatory results and following conclusions advocate education pressure by both Federal and State are based on the authors’ interpre and social sciences governments, while 47 percent felt tation of the volume and patterns investigations on fire that smoke would adversely impact of response to the questionnaire.) public health. When asked what Due to the size of the response to and those who advocate might make smoke less important the questionnaire and strength of air quality and health (or ameliorate smoke concerns), convictions expressed, we believe science concerned with 72 percent of respondents said that that the results should be shared. fire smoke. increased public awareness about smoke might do so. Respondents Results of the were allowed space for short writ Questionnaire ten comments within the ques USDA and DOI agencies, many of tionnaire. Two views (expressed in Who Responded which are significant clients for different ways) appeared repeat The questionnaire’s first two ques JFSP research products. Among job edly: (1) smoke does impact public tions asked for the respondent’s classifications, the largest group health and no amount of public employer and primary job function. (190 respondents) defined them education about smoke would make Respondents to the questionnaire selves as fire managers or firefight people accept serious health threats were offered 31 choices to iden ers. Table 1 presents the breakdown from smoke; and, conversely, (2) if tify their employer and 12 choices among the largest groups and posi the public understood the reasons to describe their job category. tion classifications. This represents, for prescribed fire (in particular), These job categories and employer to our knowledge, the largest and they would accept any resulting choices were developed from our widest response to a wildland fire smoke without hesitation. personal experience in fire smoke smoke questionnaire to date. (more than 50 years between the Smoke Research Priority authors) and our understanding The Importance of Wildland Fire Smoke One important question in devel of the audience for the Joint Fire oping a JFSP smoke science plan The question “How important is Science Program. As the question is the priority of smoke research. wildland fire smoke?” has been naire was voluntary (not required Eighty-four percent (450) of the addressed in published literature, by employers, for example), it was respondents stated that more conference proceedings, and in not possible to set targets for a research should be done on smoke unpublished internal government required number of responses from in the United States by universi documents. Questionnaire respon a specific type of employer or spe ties, governments, and nongov dents generally agreed that smoke cific job category. There were also ernment agencies (NGOs). When respondents from different job cat factors are important now and will
Fire Management Today 20 Table 1—Employers and job functions of respondents to the Joint Fire Science Program Smoke Science Plan development activity Web-based questionnaire. Employer Scientist Fire Manager Air Quality Natural (researcher) or Manager Resources Firefighter or Specialist Manager USDA Forest Service 22 94 16 8 DOI Fish and Wildlife Service 0 34 0 3 DOI National Park Service 2 16 1 5 DOI Bureau of Land Management 0 21 0 0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 4 0 2 0 National Aeronautics and Space Administration 3 0 0 0 (NASA) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) U.S. State and Local Agencies 2 18 20 18 International Respondents 12 4 1 2 U.S. Universities 22 1 0 1 Other 5 20 3 20 asked how much of a $100,000 research budget they would spend There was a clear division on the balance on smoke, 30 percent of the 550 between the need for fire in ecosystems and people who answered the ques tion stated they would spend half the protection of the public from unhealthy or more of the budget on smoke smoke concentrations. research and 21 percent stated that they would spend a quarter of the budget. Less than 12 percent of listed smoke as most important Joint Fire Science Program respondents stated that they would and 17 of the respondents chose Smoke Roundtables not spend any of the $100,000 on to skip the question. Respondents In 2007, smoke roundtables involv smoke research and only 6 percent were given the opportunity to write ing invited specialists produced 11 stated they would spend it all on short comments to this question, recommendations for future fire smoke. Of the respondents who and the comments submitted sup research needs (SRA 2007). Only did not recommend spending all ported the tabular results. There about 14 percent of respondents to the available $100,000 on smoke, was an interesting feature to the the questionnaire stated that they we asked what other wildland fire responses in that fireline profes were fully aware of the roundtables research topics had higher prior sionals were most supportive of and their results. Forty-nine per ity for research in their opinion social research concerning fire (61 cent stated that they had no knowl (fig. 1). The 2 most important percent of the fire managers and edge of the roundtables whatsoever. research issues identified from the fire fighters who responded to the 12 choices given were social issues question), research scientists put Respondents were asked to rate and fire (48 percent or 259 respon most emphasis on climate change each of the roundtable recom dents) and fire fuels management fire research (51 percent), and air mendations as high, medium, or (45 percent or 242 respondents). quality managers rated climate low usefulness or need, with an Running a close third place to change and then smoke research opportunity to state whether they these two topics were fire ecology as highest priority (45 percent for found that the recommendation and climate change and fire, tied at climate change and 42 percent for wasn’t useful or was impossible to 41 percent (220 respondents) each. smoke). understand. (The recommendations Interestingly, 99 respondents still were not all strictly smoke research
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 21 topics, as some suggestions—such inventory for fire smoke as high a greenhouse gas inventory (also as holding annual summits to share (61 percent), a campaign for school about 39 percent); the roundtable information and names of respon education as medium (41 percent), recommendation with lowest inter sible people in agencies concerning and climate change regulation national respondent ranking was smoke—might best be approached receiving the most ticks for a low that of holding local “summits” to as topics for government agency ranking (48 percent). exchange information about fire policymaking or operations.) smoke (39 percent as low and 12 Researchers and scientists who percent as not useful at all). Fire managers who responded were responded also ranked fire emis supportive of a campaign to educate sions inventory their numerically Interestingly, of the 11 recom schoolchildren about the need for highest choice of the roundtable mendations, the 2 that directly fire (54 percent of them ranked this recommendations (49 percent), but mentioned climate change and as high) but ranked climate change more of them ranked the campaign fire got the most marks for low issues and fire as low (climate for school education about fires as or no usefulness by the entire change regulations: 44 percent; low than any other choice (37 per group of respondents. Although greenhouse gases: 42 percent; and cent). International respondents to the roundtable recommendations climate change regulation effect on the questionnaire ranked the two were presented without explana fire management prognostication: emissions inventory roundtable tion due to space limitations on the 37 percent). Air quality managers recommendations (for general pol questionnaire, very few respondents who work for the Forest Service, lutants and greenhouse gases) as checked a box indicating they could the U.S. Environmental Protection high (61 percent and 39 percent, make no sense of the recommenda Agency, or State and local govern respectively) but considered the tions (on average about 2 percent) ments rank the roundtable recom campaign for school education or didn’t think the recommenda mendation for a national emissions about fire as equal in usefulness to tions on average were useful at all (about 6 percent of respondents). Among smoke research topics, the responses to the questionnaire con cerning the roundtable recommen dations support (1) fire emissions inventory, (2) fire smoke impacts to health of populations, (3) a field experiment(s) for smoke model performance evaluation, and (4) climate change smoke issues. Such topics for smoke research invest ments have been identified by oth ers (Bytnerowicz and others 2009) and thus have some confirmation of these results outside of the smoke roundtables and the questionnaire.
Two Important Viewpoints While many written comments were received, an interesting over all pattern in them emerged. In general, fire and natural resources managers (especially those from U.S. agencies) believe that educa Figure 1—Research priorities chosen from 537 people who completed the Joint Fire Science Program Smoke Science Plan questionnaire. Responses answer the question tion on the need for fire as an eco “What issues concerning fires are more important research topics than smoke?” WUI system process will lower the con stands for wildland–urban interface. cerns of the public about smoke.
Fire Management Today 22 Researchers and air quality manag ers in general (from the comments they wrote) disagreed and stated that it is unlikely the public could be educated or informed in a man ner that would make them accept potential adverse impacts to their health from smoke. Some com ments on either side of this divide were almost vehement; it may be that a new dialogue is needed between those who advocate edu cation and social sciences inves tigations on fire and those who advocate air quality and health sci ence concerned with fire smoke. A simplistic way to harmonize these two views may be to balance the health of ecosystems and the health Figure 2—Sixty-seven percent (67%) of all respondents (554) to the Joint Fire Science of human populations in an as-yet Program Smoke Science Plan questionnaire say that smoke from prescribed fires will undiscovered, generally satisfying become a more important issue in the next decade. Responses answer the question “Do manner. you think fire smoke will become a more important issue to society in the next 10 years?”
Conclusions managers who responded indicated there was danger to public health that education of the public about from smoke intrusion. It was both gratifying and perhaps the ecological and emergency even a bit surprising that the ques response needs for fire manage It is clear that the debate over tionnaire drew so many people to ment would ultimately lessen con wildland fire smoke is far from respond and that the questionnaire troversy about wildland fire. Air over. Readers of this paper who was forwarded by so many individu quality managers didn’t necessarily have been involved in the issue of als to their colleagues. A conclusion agree that this was so. Almost all smoke, from either air quality or we draw from this is that smoke respondents indicated that they fire management perspectives, will from prescribed fires is an impor expect increasing air quality regula not find the results reported here tant issue that many respondents tory pressure on smoke as a pollut surprising. It is clear that conflicts said would surely become more ant, with some written responses between smoke production and air important in the next decade very gloomy about the future of quality regulations are still seen (fig. 2). prescribed fire in the light of per as threatening the application of ceived more stringent regulations. prescribed fire, just as they have A majority of the respondents There was also a clear division in earlier decades. Of course, a also voted that the United States between respondents on the bal common concern of respondents should spend more research funds ance between the need for fire in is whether or not future regula for smoke research, and a major ecosystems and the protection of tions related to climate change will ity indicated that about 25 percent the public from unhealthy smoke somehow preclude all prescribed of fire research funding should concentrations. Some extremes burning, favoring (as expressed by address the smoke issue. The JFSP in expressed views were that the some respondents) the requirement smoke roundtable recommenda public should just accept smoke to turn all excess fire fuels in all tions were not well known to the or be educated enough to accept U.S. forest ecosystems into boiler questionnaire respondents, but a that burning to improve ecosystem fuels or biofuels. Although such a significant number of respondents health should trump concerns for concern may at first appear novel, expressed that the recommenda their own health. Another extreme climate change regulations and tions had value, although to vary was that fire and resulting smoke fire smoke concerns have been dis ing degrees, relating closely to must be stopped at whatever cost if cussed since the 1980s and perhaps the respondents’ work duties. Fire
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 23 earlier. That such dire circumstanc Acknowledgement Riebau, A.R.; Fox, D.G. 1999. Technically es have not occurred as yet, in our Advanced Smoke Estimation Tools The authors wish to thank the Joint (TASET): Needs Assessment and estimation, demonstrates the use Fire Science Program for its finan Feasibility Investigation. Joint Fire fulness of past smoke science, mod Science Program. Washington, DC: cial and intellectual support of this eling and models, collegial relations USDA Forest Service, Wildlife, Fisheries, work under the JFSP project num Watershed, and Air Research. 80 p. between all parties, and continuing ber 10-C-01-01. The Society of Research Administrators thoughtful attention to the issue. International (SRA). 2007. Joint Fire Science Program Smoke Management References and Air Quality Roundtables Research More information on the ques Needs Assessment. Internal Joint Fire tionnaire and its results may be Bytnerowicz, A.; Arbaugh, M.J.; Anderson, Science Program Document. 18 pps. C.; Riebau, A.R. 2009. Integrating fire Thompson, G. P.; Pouliot, G. 2007. Wildland downloaded at
How Big Was Dodge’s Escape Fire? Martin E. Alexander
everal published accounts In a recent paper (part of a project Operations Safety Conference held exist of how smokejumper dealing with survival zones for in March 2010 in Portland, OR. Sforeman Wag Dodge survived wildland firefighters), Alexander the 1949 Mann Gulch Fire in and others (2009a) critically exam For a copy of the paper, includ northwestern Montana by setting ined the question of how big an ing an associated presenta an “escape fire” in cured grass area was burned off before Dodge tion at, visit
Fire Management Today 24 FireFighters visit seattle schOOls: recruiting realizes results Renee Bodine
bout 22 South Lake High School students crowded into A the tiny room listening quietly to Gerald Williams describe what it is like to be a Forest Service firefighter. “I don’t want to sugar coat this. This is hard, grueling work. You dig all day,” he said. He described fuel breaks and explained a controlled burn, digging lines, and how to fight a wildfire in the middle of nowhere. They liked the pictures he showed of what could be their office next summer: tents staked outdoors with fixed-wing airplanes and a helicopter in the background. “We ask you to show up, ready to work, have a strong work ethic, and be in shape,” he Gerald Williams, supervisor of Mt. Baker Initial Attack Fire Crew, instructs students during basic firefighter training, or “guard school.” Photo: Renee Bodine. said. Students asked questions about physical training, travel, fire former student from the commu those interested in applying to nav camp, and money. nity helps his recruiting efforts and igate through their first experience gives kids a first-hand perspective with Avue. Most of the kids Williams recruits on working as a firefighter for the are from the city. “The learn Forest Service. Williams has been successful filling ing curve is incredible. Imagine the six to eight vacancies on his never having been in a forest Williams starts in early spring initial attack crew with diverse can environment, never even taking recruiting at local area high schools didates every year since he started. a walk in the woods, then learn and colleges. Williams’ approach His additional recruits round out ing the business of fighting fires,” is systematic. For the last 6 years, other fire and recreation crews on Williams said. Richard Tavares, he’s started early in the year coordi the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National who has worked several summers nating with Seattle schools, coun Forest, and the excess candidates for Williams on the fireline, helped selors, teachers, the International go to other forests in the Pacific present to his former classmates District, tribes, the National Northwest Region. After presenting and neighborhood friends. He Association for the Advancement to 60 students at 6 Seattle schools shared his experiences: camping of Colored People, and women’s and 2 in Burlington this year, he outdoors for the first time, trying groups. Williams schedules back- identified 20 who were serious to sleep through a thunderstorm, to-back presentations throughout about going to work for the Forest and standing on the edge of the Seattle in early spring. “Finding Service. Grand Canyon and feeling like highly motivated recruits who can he was on the top of the world. take orders, handle hard labor, “Gerald is successful because he is Williams explained that having a who enjoy the outdoors, takes passionate about what he does: fire extra effort,” described Williams. and outreach to diversity. He does Renee Bodine is a public affairs officer on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest He brings his computer and helps the job, and the candidates respond in Everett, WA.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 25 Williams’ 2010 guard school graduates pose with Thomas Taylor, assistant supervisor, after completing on-the-ground firefighter training. The Mt. Baker Initial Attack Fire Crew takes pride in diversity. Photo: Renee Bodine. to that,” said Tony Engel, fire man hours a day, 7 days a week, eating, of a team. “It helps that I hire the agement officer for the Mt. Baker- working, and resting. “Under these best of the best, highly motivated Snoqualmie National Forest. conditions, compatibility, camara people,” explained Williams. “It is a derie, understanding, communica hard, but rewarding job.” When school gets out and the tion, and crew pride are an absolute recruits start firefighter training, necessity,” noted Williams. For more information about the Williams immediately sets the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie type 2 initial tone for the season. He’s build Williams says his hope is that all attack firefighters, contact Gerald ing a team—when they deploy to members of his crew get a sense Williams or go to
Fire Management Today 26 a high-Quality Fuels dataBase OF phOtOs and inFormation Clinton S. Wright, Paige C. Eagle, and Diana L. Olson
by making it available in an elec The Digital Photo Series is available at tronic format.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 27 to query the database by various use the application with their Web • Select the “Site browser” tab to criteria (e.g., cover type, fuelbed browser to mimic the online ver view an expandable navigation category, species composition, or sion. An installation CD is avail tree (fig. 3) that includes all 438 Bailey’s ecoregion), to compare the able upon request from the Pacific sites organized by volume. fuels on sites side-by-side, and to Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory1. • Create and save custom sites build and save user-defined fuel- with the controls on the beds. The DPS complements book A Quick User Guide “Custom site builder” page (fig. versions of the data, and NFPS data 4); data tables can be combined The DPS homepage (fig. 1) is can be extracted from the DPS in a to create custom sites that are organized into tabbed Web pages, number of commonly used formats. more representative of a spe allowing a user to navigate to photo The reporting feature allows users cific land management unit or series sites in a variety of ways: to print reports or to save data to a desired management state. a variety of mainstream digital file Custom sites created in this way • Retrieve sites of interest by formats (text, spreadsheet, and can be saved and shared between selecting the “Site search” tab XML). DPS users. (fig. 2). Select a specific site or sites by clicking on the map or The user can access application Development and by selecting geographic (State, documentation, a more detailed Design Bailey’s ecoregion, and/or land introduction, and a description of owner) and/or ecological cri DPS developers surveyed users of the differences between the DPS teria (e.g., cover type, species, the NFPS books and the wider user and published volumes of the NFPS and fuel and stand structural community to determine what fea under the “DPS Help” tab on the attributes) from the drop-down tures they wanted to see in the DPS far right of any screen. DPS Help menus below the map. Clicking and to ensure that the technology includes instructions for navigating on the “Get sites” button will requirements (particularly those the DPS (including descriptions of display all of the photo series employed by Federal land manage the site search, site browser, and sites that meet the selection cri ment agencies), interface design, custom site builder tabs), perform- and output specifications met the teria. needs of fire and fuels managers and planners.
Developers scanned film images at a high resolution, and data from 438 photo series sites were con solidated and standardized in a relational database. The DPS appli cation consists of a user-friendly interface that is accessed through a Web browser (such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox).
In the absence of an Internet con nection, a stand alone version of the DPS (utilizing the desktop server emulator MicroWeb) can be used to run the Web site from a local computer hard drive. Once the standalone version of DPS is installed, the user can start and Figure 1—DPS home page. This page can be accessed directly or through a link 1 Request CD versions of the Digital Photo Series by on the home page for the Fire and Environmental Research Applications team telephone (206-732-7827) or email ([email protected]). (
Fire Management Today 28 DPS is robust, easy to use, and can readily accept new data as they become available.
of the NFPS books, fire and fuels planners, managers, and scien tists. For example, we would like to allow data from the DPS to be easily extracted and formatted to interface with existing and future fire and fuel-management software packages (e.g., Fuel Characteristic Classification System, BehavePlus, FOFEM, and Consume 3.0).
At present, the DPS offers wide- angle photos for each site; we are hopeful that, in coming years, users will be able to view stereoscopic images on a computer screen. Data from other published photo series (e.g., Blonski and Schramel 1981; Fischer 1981b, 1981c, 1981d; Koski and Fischer 1979; Maxwell Figure 2—Site search page for DPS. Sites can be selected by any combination of map and Ward 1979, 1980b; Ottmar selection and query building criteria. In the example shown, all sites with ponderosa pine and Hardy 1989a, 1989b; Reeves in the overstory, manzanita presence, and shrub cover >20 percent were selected from the 1988; Scholl and Waldrop 1999; 438 sites that form the current DPS database. The species search function allows users the flexibility to search for all species or just overstory species by full or partial scientific Weise and others 1997), or other or common names. Users can select an individual photograph to view a larger image and photographically documented fuels detailed site-level information. sources could also be added to the DPS. ing tasks (e.g., downloading and to DPS that was not originally interpreting data files, viewing published in the NFPS (e.g., land Summary larger photographs, etc.), and run owner information and Bailey’s ning the stand alone MicroWeb ecoregions); in others, data were The DPS is robust, easy to use, and version of DPS. Links to all of the rearranged and terminology (e.g., can readily accept new data as they documentation included in the field names and table headings) become available. The DPS effec printed NFPS volumes are available was standardized among sites. DPS tively complements printed ver in the DPS at the bottom of every also offers a choice of measurement sions of the NFPS by extending the site-level page; it is very important units: the DPS default is English usefulness of NFPS data. Enhanced to check this documentation to units (the original NFPS units), but functionality includes the follow ensure proper interpretation and users can toggle between English ing: use of the data for each series. and metric units. • Data characterizing all of the The DPS diverges slightly from the Future Development vegetation and fuels, not just the published volumes of the NFPS down woody and surface fuels Enhancements to the DPS will be in content and presentation. In in an ecosystem, are viewable released as they are developed, with many cases, information was added and available as printed or saved input coming from current users reports.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 29 Acknowledgments Numerous individuals contrib uted to the successful comple tion of the DPS: Alynne Bayard, Lara Kellogg, Mike Tjoelker, Jeff Kelly, Joe Restaino, Jon Dvorak, Aarin Sengsirirak, Paul Campbell, Frank Archuleta, Ann McCauley, Noah Carlson, Felicia Mehl, Zhen Zhu, and Veronica Mendoza. John Szymoniak helped us distribute our development survey to Federal fire and fuels professionals. The mansu cript was improved by reviews from Ernesto Alvarado, Ellen Eberhardt, and David L. Peterson. The authors acknowledge funding from the Joint Fire Science Program under Project JFSP 04-4-1-02.
References Blank, R.W. 1982. Stereo photos for evaluating jack pine slash fuels. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-77. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 23 p. Blonski, K.S.; Schramel, J.L. 1981. Photo series for quantifying natural forest residues: southern Cascades, northern Sierra Nevada. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW 56. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Figure 3—Example of site-level data displayed by DPS. Data content and page display Experiment Station. 145 p. vary dynamically based on the type and amount of data collected at the different sites. Fischer, W.C. 1981a. Photo guides for The contents of DPS can be browsed much as in the printed volumes by using the appraising downed woody fuels in navigation tree (left side of page) or by selecting the previous or next site in a series Montana forests: how they were made. (lower and upper right of page). Data can be displayed in English or metric units and can Res. Note INT-299. Ogden, UT: USDA be printed (top left of page) or exported to a Microsoft Excel, text, or XML file (bottom of Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and page). Species are listed with their scientific names; hovering the cursor above a name Range Experiment Station. 12 p. will display the accepted common name. Documentation describing the NFPS in general Fischer, W.C. 1981b. Photo guide for and the volume or series in particular can be viewed using the links at the bottom of the appraising downed woody fuels in page. Montana forests: grand fir-larch Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western • As a free, Web-based tool, DPS ecosystem or fuel type to com- hemlock-western redcedar, and west provides fire management and pare them with other, less famil ern redcedar cover types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-96. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest academic instructors with data iar types. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range and images for a wide variety of • DPS is expandable, allowing Experiment Station. 53 p. ecosystems. it to accept new NFPS images Fischer, W.C. 1981c. Photo guide for appraising downed woody fuels in • Users are able to draw on data and data as they are developed. Montana forests: interior ponderosa and images from all published Future versions may also incor pine, ponderosa pine–larch–Douglas volumes simultaneously. Among porate data from other published fir, larch–Douglas-fir, and interior Douglas-fir cover types. Gen. Tech. other uses, the ability to query photo series or photodocument Rep. INT-97. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest across locations and ecosystems ed fuels inventories. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range allows users familiar with one Experiment Station. 133 p.
Fire Management Today 30 Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 230 p. Ottmar, R.D.; Hardy, C.C. 1989a. Stereo photo series for quantifying forest resi dues in coastal Oregon forests: second- growth Douglas-fir–western hemlock type, western hemlock–Sitka spruce type, and red alder type. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW 231. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 67 p. Ottmar, R.D.; Hardy, C.C. 1989b. Stereo photo series for quantifying forest resi dues in the Douglas-fir-hemlock type of the Willamette National Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-258. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 63 p. Ottmar, R.D.; Vihnanek, R.E.; Wright, C.S. 1998. Stereo photo series for quantifying natural fuels. Volume I: mixed-conifer with mortality, western juniper, sage brush, and grassland types in the interior Pacific Northwest. PMS 830. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Coordinating Group, National Interagency Fire Center. 73 p. Ottmar, R.D.; Vihnanek, R.E.; Wright, C.S.; Olson, D.L. 2004. Stereo photo series for quantifying natural fuels. Volume VII: Oregon white oak, California deciduous oak, and mixed-conifer with shrub types in the Western United States. PMS 839. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Coordinating Group, National Interagency Fire Center. Figure 4—Custom site builder page in DPS. Custom sites can be developed when 75 p. users feel that the characteristics of their site are best represented by several different Ottmar, R.D.; Wright, C.S.; Prichard, S.J. sites in DPS. In the example shown, the species composition and overstory structure 2009. A suite of fire, fuels, and smoke are represented by two different sites in the mixed-conifer with shrub (MCS) series management tools. Fire Management from Volume VII (Ottmar and others 2004). Woody material loading and forest floor Today. 69(2): 34–39. characteristics are represented by two different sites in the mixed-conifer with mortality Reeves, H.C. 1988. Photo guide for (MC) series from Volume I (Ottmar and others 1998). Medium-sized thumbnail images appraising surface fuels in east Texas: accompany the data for each site selected. Users can append short descriptions to their grass, clearcut, seed tree, loblolly pine, custom sites, save the resulting file to their computers, and share the file with colleagues. shortleaf pine, loblolly/shortleaf pine, slash pine, longleaf pine, and hardwood Fischer, W.C. 1981d. Photo guide for the Sierra mixed conifer type, Sierra cover types. Nacogdoches, TX: Center appraising downed woody fuels in true fir type. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-95. for Applied Studies, School of Forestry, Montana forests: Lodgepole pine, and Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Stephen F. Austin State University. 89 p. Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir cover Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Scholl, E.R.; Waldrop, T.A. 1999. Photos types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-98. Ogden, Experiment Station. 79 p. for estimating fuel loadings before and UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Maxwell, W.G.; Ward, F.R. 1980a. Guidelines after prescribed burning in the upper Forest and Range Experiment Station. for developing or supplementing natu coastal plain of the southeast. Gen. Tech. 143 p. ral photo series. Res. Note PNW-358. Rep. SRS-26. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Koski, W.H.; Fischer, W.C. 1979. Photo Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Service, Southern Research Station. 25 p. series for appraising thinning slash in Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Weise, D.R.; Gelobter, A.; Haase, S.M.; north Idaho: western hemlock, grand Experiment Station. 16 p. Sackett, S.S. 1997. Photo series for fir, and western redcedar timber types. Maxwell, W.G.; Ward, F.R. 1980b. Photo quantifying fuels and assessing fire risk Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, series for quantifying natural forest resi in giant sequoia groves. Gen. Tech. Rep. Intermountain Forest and Range dues in common vegetation types of the PSW-GTR-163. Albany, CA: USDA Forest Experiment Station. 50 p. Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW Service, Pacific Southwest Research Maxwell, W.G.; Ward, F.R. 1979. Photo 105. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Station. 49 p. series for quantifying forest residues in
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 31 modelinG post-Fire soil erosion Esther Godson and John D. Stednick
ith the expansion of the wildland–urban inter Fire often results in changes in soil W face, social pressures have properties, reducing nutrient content and increased to reduce potential wildfire threats to human life and promoting soil erosion, sedimentation, and property and minimize the nega lower surface water quality. tive environmental effects of fire (Pierson and others 2001; Elliot and Robichaud 2001; Parsons Miller and others 2003; Cochrane 2003; Pyne 2004; Stephens 2005; Bridging Suppression and Flanagan 2005). The Watershed and Rehabilitation Stephens and Ruth 2005; Carroll Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) and Cohn 2007). Because fire often and the geospatial interface for Efforts results in changes in soil proper WEPP (GeoWEPP) are two process- Initial attack incident organizers ties, reducing nutrient content and based erosion models developed for (IAIOs), pamphlets used by Forest promoting soil erosion, sedimenta forested environments (Flanagan Service initial attack forces, are tion, and lower surface water qual and Livingston 1995; Elliot and used to track fires and collect infor ity (Neary and others 1999; Cannon Hall 1997; Elliot and others 2000a, mation on fire suppression efforts. 2001; Ice and others 2004), Federal 2000b; Renschler 2001, 2003). Such IAIOs can contain site-specific and State land management agen models predict post-fire soil erosion information, such as fuel type, fire cies often focus on post-fire soil potential and help resource manag character, fire spread potential, erosion control as a first step in ers prioritize areas for site reha threatened resources, and weather post-fire site rehabilitation. bilitation (Moody and Martin 2000; conditions (NWCG 2006). IAIOs Elliot and Robichaud 2001). are maintained for all wildfire Computer-driven prediction models incidents (types 5, 4, and 3) until of post-fire soil erosion can aid site Site rehabilitation efforts are often the fire is declared out or until it prioritization for erosion control limited by funding, time, available becomes more complex (type 2 measures (Robichaud and oth information, and staff resources or 1), at which point the use of a ers 2003; Covert and others 2005) (USDA 1995; Robichaud and oth higher level incident action plan is and incorporation of geographical ers 2000; Beeson and others 2001; required. information system (GIS) data has Robichaud and others 2003). made these models useful water Furthermore, post-fire manage The site-specific information gath shed management tools (Renschler ment decisions often lack detailed ered by on-the-ground personnel and others 1999; Flanagan and information about which areas are could serve to increase the accu others 2000; Elliot and Foltz 2003; at highest risk of soil erosion and racy of fire severity classification, where to assign erosion control which currently is based on remote treatments for watershed rehabilita sensing imagery, and post-fire ero Esther Godson is the assistant tanker base tion. Fire and site characterization sion potential models, which are manager for the San Juan National Forest based on soil and topography data. in Durango, CO. When completing the by fire crews during suppression work presented in this article, Godson was efforts could address this informa The addition of an IAIO field for fire a squad leader on the Price Valley heli-rap tion gap and provide information severity could serve this need. pel crew on the Payette National Forest in New Meadows, ID, and a Master’s student to resource managers immediately in forestry at Colorado State University after fire containment for better in Fort Collins, CO. John Stednick is a post-fire management decisions. professor in the Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Watershed Stewardship at Colorado State University.
Fire Management Today 32 INITIAL ATTACK FIRE SIZE-UP IC to Dispatch for Wildfires Models of post-fire soil Incident Name: ______Date: ______erosion can aid site Estimated Size: ______Time: ______Approximate Location: ______Datum: NAD83 prioritization for erosion Incident Number: ______Lat/Long: DD MM SEC ______control measures. UTM: E N ______Incident Commander ______Legal: T R S ¼_____ Qualifications ______Estimated # Personnel to Control ______Home Unit ______Estimated Equipment Needed ______Payette National Forest, located CAUSE: H L INV Needed? ______in west-central Idaho. The forest IF HUMAN Need: Temp RH______Special Needs ______averages 150 fires per year, with ______a 20-year mean annual burn area Today’s ERC of Unit______Today’s BI of Unit ______of 50, 418 acres (20,403 ha); 70 Character % Active______Adjacent Fuel ______percent of the fires are less than smoldering crowning grass snag creeping spotting brush/sage log/duff 0.25 acres (0.1 ha) in size. The running re-prod p. pine study focused on the New Meadows heavy timber Doug-fir Estimated Size ______logging slash alpine fir Ranger District, where lower eleva spot 1 acre thin slash lodgepole ¼–½ acre 1–5 acres tion, dry grasslands transition to ½–¾ acre 6–25 acres Aspect ______forested uplands (Schnur 2009). flat south Estimated Wind______north southwest The New Meadows Ranger District 0–5 20+ northeast west averages 20 wildfires per year, 5–20 variable east northwest Wind Direction ______southeast ridgetop burning an average of 8,000 acres down canyon north Slope (Percent)______(3,237 ha) (Buescher 2004). up canyon south flat 20–40 down slope east 0–20 40+ up slope west variable Position on Slope ______Putting IAIO Data ridge top lower 1/3 to Use Fuel Type ______upper 1/3 valley/canyon bottom grass snag middle 1/3 flat or rolling brush/sage log/duff We used the April 2005 version of re-prod p. pine Elevation ______WEPP and the March 2005 ver heavy timber Doug-fir logging slash alpine fir sion of GeoWEPP (ArcX 2005.1) to Remember to give dispatch regular updates. thin slash lodgepole model soil erosion. Input require Management Factors ments for GeoWEPP included a Values/Improvements ______Fuel Continuity ______10-meter digital elevation model Close proximity Continuous Fuels (DEM) and soils, land cover, land Distance from values Abundant Breaks Potential Fire Size ______Limited Fuel Breaks management, and climate data. We <1000 acres Potential Duration______developed a GIS point layer of the 1000–5000 acres Short Term >5000 acres May persist until WX change IAIO fire locations and incorpo- Barriers (e.g., old burns) ______Long Term rated the IAIO fields wildfire loca Few Moderate tion (latitude and longitude), fuel Numerous type, fire character, and fire spread potential into the model. Sample page from an initial attack incident organizer for the Forest Service Intermountain Region (Region 4) showing fire size-up fields. The fire character and fire spread objectives were to model post-fire potential fields from the IAIOs Revisiting Fires on were used to produce a fire sever- the Payette soil erosion using IAIO data fields, determine erosion model sensitiv ity rating. We assumed that a fire The Payette National Forest took ity to erosion factors, and propose with high spread potential and part in a proof-of-concept study future amendments to IAIO input an extreme fire character would to assess the potential use of the in prioritizing rehabilitation efforts remove a majority of the overstory IAIOs as a site-specific data source to limit soil erosion. and ground vegetation, and thus for WEPP and GeoWEPP to aid in rated it as high severity. This cor prioritization of post-fire water We compiled IAIO data for fire relation is not always direct, as fire shed rehabilitation sites. The study incidents from 2000 to 2004 on the duration and residence time also
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 33 influence fire severity; however, fire and weighted by contributing area ha/yr (19,100 lbs/ac/yr), compared severity is often quantified by the and length. The flowpath method to 78.2 and 115.7 Mg/ha/yr (69,800 amount of canopy cover removed (although more time-consuming to and 103,000 lbs/ac/yr) for moder (Neary and others 1999; Robichaud model) represents a more detailed ate- and high-severity fires, respec 2000; Parsons 2003). For purposes assessment of soil loss and more tively. Differences in the potential of modeling, the percentage of can accurately predicts on-site erosion soil erosion rates from watershed opy cover removal for low-, moder impacts (Flanagan and others 2000; and flowpath models were statisti ate-, and high-severity wildfire was Renschler 2003; Elliott and others cally significant only for fires of low defined as 25, 45, and 90 percent, 2006; Schnur 2009). severity. respectively, using Disturbed WEPP parameters as a guide (Flanagan Several factors could have influ and Livingston 1995; Renschler enced the model’s sensitivity to the 2001). Fire and site increase of fire severity from low to characterization by moderate. The model’s sensitivity Erosion Models for fire crews during to fire severity suggests that canopy the Payette suppression efforts cover change strongly influences model output (Miller and others We loaded the IAIO data in the soil could provide 2003). This raises the question as erosion model to predict soil ero information to resource to whether there is a threshold sion rates and conducted a model of canopy cover removal beyond sensitivity analysis of predicted managers immediately after fire containment which other factors become more rates using wildfire severity, soil important in predicting erosion. texture (from the Disturbed WEPP for better post-fire soil categories), and slope as vari management decisions. The model was found to be less ables. Soil types were determined sensitive to slope, although pre from land cover maps, slopes were dicted soil erosion increased about input from the DEM, and fire sever The model was run with IAIO 25 Mg/ha/yr (22,000 lbs/ac/yr) for ity was based on fire character and data for a total of 62 fires: 38 fires every 10-percent increase in slope fire spread potential from the IAIO. of low severity, 15 of moderate (Schnur 2009). The IAIOs include severity, and 9 of high severity slope classes of 0–20 percent, We used two erosion simulation (Schnur 2009). We then compared 20–40 percent, and over 40 percent. methods: the watershed method the model outputs for watershed Smaller slope class intervals would and the flowpath method. The con and flowpath soil erosion using improve estimates of potential soil ventional watershed level method Student’s paired t-test (SAS 2006). erosion. outputs sediment yields and distri bution maps from representative The model was notably less sensi hillslopes, including stream chan Relating Erosion and Fire Severity tive to soil texture than to slope. nel routing within the watershed; We assigned four different soil this method assesses the off-site Predicted soil erosion rates textures to the modeling runs: clay impact on sediment yield. The user increased with fire severity in both loam, silt loam, sandy loam, and can set a threshold of concern and simulation models (watershed loam. The sandy loam and loam soil then map the sediment yield, show and flowpath). For the watershed textures had the greatest effect on ing areas where sediment produc method, the mean soil erosion rate model output: a difference of 0.67 tion exceeds the level of concern. for low-severity fires was 13.3 Mg/ Mg/ha/yr (600 lbs/ac/yr) in soil ero ha/yr (11,900 lbs/ac/yr), while soil sion was predicted between the two The flowpath method differs from losses following moderate- and fire severities (low and high) mod the watershed method in that it high-severity fires were ecologi eled in areas with the sandy loam simulates and merges soil loss cally similar: 63.6 and 69.4 Mg/ha/ texture. Additional soil information along all possible flowpaths for yr (56,800 and 62,000 lbs/ac/yr), would not necessarily improve pre every pixel within the watershed. respectively (table 1). For the flow- diction of soil erosion potential. Soil loss is simulated for every path method, the mean soil erosion flowpath individually, merged, for low-severity fires was 21.4 Mg/
Fire Management Today 34 Table 1—Summary statistics and Student’s paired t-test results for watershed and flowpath methods’ soil loss estimates, 2-year annual average in Mg/ha/yr (lbs/ac/yr) for all fires, according to wildfire severity. Sample p-Value Fire Severity Size Soil Loss Mean Std. Dev. Minimum Maximum (α = 0.05) Low 38 Watershed 13.3 ± 3.2 20 0 111 0.01 (11,800 ± 2,800) (18,000) (0) (99,000) Flowpath 21.4 ± 4.4 27 0 110 (19,000 ± 3,900) (24,000) (0) (98,000) Moderate 15 Watershed 63.6 ± 13.9 51 1 186 0.20 (56,700 ± 12,000) (46,000) (890) (166,000) Flowpath 78.2 ± 15.5 60 0 182 (69,800 ± 14,000) (54,000) (0) (162,000) High 9 Watershed 69.4 ± 19.9 60 0 154 0.08 (61,900 ± 18,000) (54,000) (0) (137,000) Flowpath 115.7 ± 33.0 99 3 286 (103,000 ± 29,000) (88,000) (2,700) (255,000)
Summary and sensitive to soil slope, we recom include the roles of off-site erosion Recommendations mend that IAIOs have smaller slope and stream connectivity to post-fire class intervals for more accurate conditions in the fire area. The next Results from this proof-of-concept modeling and use of fine scale GIS step in site prioritization would be study suggest that IAIO data can data. to incorporate these considerations be used in the GeoWEPP model in the post-fire management strat to estimate post-fire soil erosion Based on the sensitivity analysis, egy and decision process. potential. Using this methodology, we recommend that an additional land managers can better identify data entry field for fire severity be Literature Cited and prioritize site rehabilitation included within the IAIO, accom Beeson, P.C.; Martens, S.N.; Breshears, and make efficient post-fire deci panied by a description of each D.D. 2001. Simulating overland flow fol sions. classification, similar to the fuel lowing wildfire: Mapping vulnerability type descriptions. This would help to landscape disturbance. Hydrological Modeling efforts pointed to a few Processes. 15: 2917–2930. improve rating consistency and Buescher, C. 2004. Annual Fire Report, issues to be addressed in future use decrease subjectivity. A field guide Payette National Forest. McCall, ID: of GeoWEPP and IAIO data. Output for classifying fire severity would be USDA Forest Service, Payette National from the watershed and flowpath Forest. 19 p. a useful supplement to the IAIOs to Cannon, S.H. 2001. Debris-flow genera methods of modeling of soil erosion provide ready classification guid tion from recently burned watersheds. differed significantly for low sever ance for use by suppression forces. Environmental and Engineering ity fires only, but potential eco Geoscience. 7(4): 321–341. Carroll, M.S.; Cohn, P.J. 2007. Community logical differences between model We also recommend that future impacts of large wildland fire events: outputs suggest that additional modeling include additional factors. consequences of actions during the research is needed to recommend To better anticipate site-specific fire. In: Raish, C., ed. People, Fire, and one method over the other. Because Forests: A Synthesis of Wildfire Social effects, further investigation should Science. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State estimated soil erosion rates were University Press: 104–123. Cochrane, T.A.; Flanagan, D.C. 2005. Effect of DEM resolutions in the runoff and soil loss predictions of the WEPP watershed model. Transactions of the American Results from this proof-of-concept study suggest Society of Agricultural Engineers. 48(1): that IAIO data can be used in the GeoWEPP model 109–120. Covert, S.A.; Robichaud, P.R.; Elliot, W.J.; to estimate post-fire soil erosion potential. Link T.E. 2005. Evaluation of runoff
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 35 prediction from WEPP-based erosion International Conference on Integrating Renschler, C.S.; Cochrane, T.A.; Harbor, models for harvested and burned water GIS and Environmental Modeling (GIS/ J.; Diekkruger, B. 1999. Regionalization sheds. Transactions of the American EM4): Problems, Prospects and Research methods for watershed management: Society of Agricultural Engineers. 48(3): Needs. Banff, Alberta, Canada. 15 p. hydrology and soil erosion from point to 1091–1100. Ice, G.A.; Neary, D.G.; Adams, P.W. 2004. regional scales. In: Stott, D.E.; Mohtar, Elliot, W.J.; Foltz, R.B. 2003. The challeng Effects of wildfire on soils and water R.H.; Steinhardt, G.C., eds. Selected es in developing the WEPP cumulative shed processes. Journal of Forestry. 102: Papers From the 10th International effects model. In: Proceedings of the 2nd 16–20. Soil Conservation Organization Forest Engineering Conference, Vaxjo, Miller, J.D.; Nyhan, J.W.; Yool, S.R. 2003. Meeting: Sustaining the Global Farm. Sweden: 55–58. Modeling potential erosion due to the West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Elliot, W.J.; Hall, D.E. 1997. Water erosion Cerro Grande Fire with a GIS-based and the USDA Agricultural Research prediction project (WEPP) forest applica implementation of the revised universal Service, National Soil Erosion Research tions. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-365. Moscow, soil loss equation. International Journal Laboratory: 1062–1067. ID: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain of Wildland Fire. 12: 85–100. Robichaud, P. 2000. Forest fire effects Research Station. 14 p. Moody, J.A.; Martin, D.A. 2000. Initial on hillslope erosion: what we know. Elliot, W.J.; Miller, I.S.; Glaza, B.D. 2006. hydrologic and geomorphic response fol Watershed Management Council Using WEPP technology to predict lowing a wildfire in the Colorado Front Networker. 9(1). Available at:
Fire Management Today 36 using trail cameras tO understand Fire BehaviOr Karen Ridenour and Rich Gray
ach year in Texas, wildfire rates of spread, flame lengths, and captured fire photos in this study events impact many small rural fireline intensity relationships in ranged in price from $80 to $100. Ecommunities. On Thursday, controlled conditions on small- April 9, 2009, Texas experienced scale fires. Clark and others (2005) Land managers establish objectives an outbreak of wildfires in 12 used digital video imagery to ana prior to conducting a prescribed North Texas counties. In Montague lyze the convective-scale motion burn. Afterward, they can deter County, where 7 fires burned inde in the plane viewed by the camera mine the success or failure to meet pendently of each other, 36,408 and then develop a computational objectives but generally cannot acres (14,734 ha) of agriculture observe how these objectives are land, 86 homes, and 4 lives were met during the burn. Regarding the lost. A case study team was sent to By using trail cameras, threat to homes in the wildland– examine the economic, agricultur urban interface (WUI), understand al, and community impacts to the researchers and ing fire behavior and effects that area, and the factors affecting home professionals can gain take place within different ecosys loss during this fire event. a unique view of fire tem types can encourage builders activity during an event to develop fire-resistant building Observing Fire From at a low, affordable cost. techniques for homes in areas of Within high risk. While collecting data for the case Monitoring Fire study, several homeowners indicat technique to derive quantitative Conditions ed that they had acquired images estimates of the convective motion of the fire within the fire perimeter within a grass fire from the digital The timber fuels throughout from game cameras placed around video imagery. The latter stud Montague County were composed their property. The cameras provide ies yielded valuable information of mixed hardwoods, including a firsthand view of the fire move regarding fire behavior, but each blackjack oak (Quercus marilandi ment within the cameras’ sight cost thousands of dollars. This cost ca), post oak (Quercus stellata), range. The study team recognized makes the technology unattainable and, in some places, hickory (Carya that such images could have great to most land managers and fire spp.) and elm (Ulmus spp.). Dead value in fire analysis. analysts. oak leaves are sizeable and create a deep layer of burnable biomass on Existing equipment can capture Trail cameras are a logical com the forest floor. These dead leaves high-quality images, collect data, plement to equipment already increase ember production and and produce scientific fire outputs being used to study fire behavior. spotting ahead of the fire front. for examination; however, this Researchers have used buried elec The undergrowth in some parts of information comes at an extremely tronic data loggers and surface the study area was so matted with high cost. McMahon and others thermocouples to capture tempera greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox), a (1986) discuss using a low-cost ture dynamics during prescribed thorny vine, that almost impen video imagery analysis system to fires, yielding information on etrable “roughs” were formed. measure fire behavior in both lab heat outputs and rates of spread. Greenbrier can overwhelm the and field experiments. Nelson and Equipment cost is about $300 per lower canopy of hardwood forests Adkins (in preparation) studied firelogger (Grace and others 2005). and create elaborate vine communi ties on hardwood trunks. With each Karen Ridenour is a GIS specialist and Trail cameras can capture images at Rich Gray is mitigation and prevention an affordable cost to complement series of photos, visual inference of coordinator with the Texas Forest Service firelogger data. The cameras that the fire that took place in specific in Bastrop, TX.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 37 post oak areas emerged. Upon early Fire researchers and managers rou- a spike in temperature of a short examination of images, some infer- tinely map and model fire spread duration. The trail cameras pro ences could be made with regard to as a linear progression. Most hom- vided a microsite viewpoint that fire behavior in the post oak–grass eowners believe that, when a fire revealed not a spike but an arc in understory ecosystem. moves through an area, there is ambient air temperatures. Ambient
Images taken by a game camera during a wildfire on April 9, 2009, on the property of Dan Cordonnier. Photos: Dan Cordonnier.
Fire Management Today 38 temperatures at one trail camera than 1,000 °F (537 °C) for several The trail cameras revealed that were elevated to 116 °F (47 °C) for seconds but then logged a drop in elevated temperatures occurred 6 minutes. The fireloggers located ambient temperatures similar to throughout the vertical profile at ground level measured an that recorded by the trail cameras. of the landscape and not just at extreme temperature spike of more ground level: not only as radiant
Images taken by a game camera during a wildfire on April 9, 2009, on the property of Robert Lindsey. Photos: Robert Lindsey.
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 39 heat, but as a heated air mass The trail cameras revealed that elevated affecting the fire environment, potentially promoting re-burning of temperatures occurred not only as radiant fuels after the fire front had passed. heat, but as a heated air mass affecting the fire This heated air mass contributed environment, potentially promoting re-burning of to long-duration burning in 100- fuels after the fire front had passed. and 1,000-hour fuels. These fuels exhibited complete consumption due to radiant and convective heat as well as residual burning, which of 110° F (43 °C) for determin observe flame lengths and the resi reflected dry fuel conditions in ing fine dead fuel moisture, which dence time of fire in a particular the heavy down and dead fuels contributes to such fire behaviors area in order to calibrate BEHAVE represented in the images. as reaction intensity and rates of runs. These trail cameras could also spread. Observed temperatures be used to evaluate how prolonged The massive heat given off by the exceeded that maximum, requiring heat duration affects management fire created extreme heat pulses an examination of this and other objectives and how the fire affects that increased the ambient air parameters. targeted vegetation even after pas temperature by as much as 32 °F sage of the fire front. (18 °C) in a matter of minutes; the As land managers plan prescribed temperatures remained elevated burns and model expected fire Fire Behavior and Fire above the initial ambient air tem behavior, real-time observations Protection perature for 60 minutes. A different could aid in defining objectives and obtaining desired outcomes. When examining homes in the trail camera located a mile (1.6 km) WUI, the customary tactic is to away on the same property pro Planners should consider the increase and duration of tempera protect homes from fire only until duced a similar long-duration heat the fire front passes. Given that ing arc following fire passage. tures in the environment, and mod els could be adjusted to reflect this a secondary fire danger remains, temperature exposure to vegeta fire managers need to re-examine Local remote area weather sta tactical decisions in pretreating tions validated initial ambient air tion. Trail cameras could be placed in predetermined locations prior or protecting homes, retreating temperatures recorded by the trail when safety becomes an issue, but cameras throughout the burn area. to a prescribed burn and used to Typically, onsite weather data is collected at the flank or back of the fire but does not include data from the center point of fire activity; trail cameras could be used to provide onsite fire weather information as well as images in the most extreme area of the fire.
Rethinking Fire Modeling Assumptions built into existing fire models do not accommodate the temperatures and prolonged duration of the fire environment observed in this study. For example, BEHAVE, a fire modeling program commonly used to predict wild- Ambient air temperatures recorded on game cameras and surface fire temperatures land fire behavior, has a maximum recorded on research fireloggers for a wildland fire in Montague County, TX, on April 9, dry bulb temperature parameter 2009. Although the firelogger captures the extreme temperature spike of more than 1,000 ˚F (537 ˚C), the trail cameras reveal longer duration, elevated ambient air temperatures.
Fire Management Today 40 then re-engaging the fire after the front passes to prevent the delayed ignition of homes exposed to pro longed elevated temperatures. Ember production, for instance, is routinely noted in literature as a major source of home loss in the WUI. Images from the trail cameras reveal the showering of embers into both receptive and nonreceptive fuels, and large fuels located in dirt can be seen burning as a result of fallen embers, not flame contact.
Each trail camera presents a unique series of images; this information can be used to make visual infer ences that would not be possible otherwise. As current fuel models project only average temperatures, Position of camera. Photo: Karen Ridenour, Texas Forest Service, 2009. the data from trail cameras can be used to compare modeled and ued ecosystems as well as creation Grace J.; Owens, A.; Allain, L. 2005. real-time data. Rates of spread in of defensible space around homes Firelogger user’s manual. USGS Open- file Report 2005-1212. Lafayette, LA: U.S. different surface fuels, such as grass and communities and implementa Geological Survey National Wetlands or leaf litter, could be examined by tion of other activities recommend Research Center. Version III. 24 p. this low-cost method. After wildfire ed by Firewise programs. Available online at: http://www.nwrc. usgs.gov/about/web/OFR2004-1212.pdf events, data from these trail cam (accessed June 2010). eras could provide reference photos Thanks to Dan Cordonnier and McMahon, C. K.; Adkins, C. W.; Rodgers, of fire behavior to verify rates of Robert Linsdey for providing trail S. L. 1986. A video image analysis sys tem for measuring fire behavior. Fire spread, ember production, and camera data. Management Notes. 47(1): 10–15. flame length in the area. Also, these Nelson, Ralph M., Jr.; Adkins, Carl W. trail cameras would help managers References In preparation. Flame characteristics determine if prescribed fire objec of wind-driven fires in surface fuels. Clark, T.L.; Reeder, M.J.; Griffiths, M.; Submitted to Canadian Journal of Forest tives had been achieved by looking Packham, D.; Krusel, N. 2005. Infrared Research. at vegetation impacts based on observations and numerical modelling of grassland fires in the Northern Territory, observed time of heat duration and Australia. Meteorology and Atmospheric fire intensity. Further investigation Physics. 88(3–4): 193–201. could improve management of val
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 41 Failure tO cOmmunicate: imprOving radiO discipline on the Fireline By Ken Frederick and Mike Tuominen
formal and informal) associated These aren’t the only issues Editor’s note: This article is with communication using hand- involved with radio communica published in conjunction with held, mobile, and base radios. Radio tion. Operations and communica Public Safety Communications, discipline falls into three general tions specialists cite several other where it appeared in issue 76(8) areas: common issues: scanning more in August 2010. channels than can meaningfully • Avoidance of offensive, deroga be understood, overriding another tory, or disrespectful language in person’s radio traffic, competition t has become one of the most radio transmissions; for frequencies, failure to clear fre memorable lines in the history of • Avoidance of radio use that quencies during emergencies, and IAmerican cinema: “What we’ve reflects panic, anger, or other difficulty enforcing standards of got here is failure to communi behaviors associated with a loss behavior related to radio use. This cate.” That line, from the 1967 film of professional composure; and article focuses specifically on the Cool Hand Luke, aptly and ironi • Avoidance of pointless traffic in overabundance of radio traffic, its cally describes a serious issue in radio transmissions—communi ramifications on the fireline, and radio communication on wildfires cation that is irrelevant or only how leadership can respond to this and other incidents: too much marginally relevant to the job at issue. radio traffic. Rather than facilitat hand. ing communication, too much of a good thing actually causes prob lems. Constant radio transmission is likely to diminish a person’s ability to mentally sort, track, and act on Overabundant radio communica information in a dynamic environment. tion isn’t just an annoyance; it can have serious consequences in all areas of fire suppression. Leaders in fire and aviation management— particularly supervisors at the crew level—should be mindful of radio discipline and encourage good radio use and etiquette.
Defining “Radio Discipline” Radio discipline is the adherence to codes of use and behavior (both
Ken Frederick is a public affairs special ist with the Bureau of Land Management at the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID. Mike Tuominen is a Forest Service telecommunications specialist with the National Interagency Incident Communication Division at the National Handheld radios are indispensible tools in wildland fire suppression. Photo: National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID. Interagency Fire Center.
Fire Management Today 42 Causes of Too Much Radio Traffic Buck Wickham is a long-time fire management officer, operations section chief, and firefighter on the Coconino National Forest in north ern Arizona. He recalls an instance that demonstrates how commu nication was handled prior to the widespread use of radios:
At the start of my career in the early 1970s, I worked at a remote guard station in central Arizona. One time, two 80-year-old gents came to visit my guard sta tion, as they had worked there decades ago. As we visited, we got to discussing how things Fireline supervisors discuss tactics while working on a large fire in the Pacific Northwest. Division/group supervisors use multiple radio frequencies to coordinate operations on used to be. They recalled in the their divisions. Photo: National Interagency Fire Center. old days, they would climb a tree after lightning and if they saw a single radio can now operate on crew. Now, the typical type 2 hand fire, they would naturally head multiple bands, not just multiple crew often has six to eight radios. over to it. When they arrived, frequencies. In terms of communi Hotshot crews carry an average they would assess the fire, and if cation capability, this means we’ve of 11 radios among the crew, and they could handle it, they would gone from a sedan to a sports car in some hotshot crews supply all 20 pile up some green limbs and just the past couple of years.” But crewmembers with a radio, accord set them on fire. This individual one of the downsides of the avail ing to the National Interagency smoke column would send the ability of technology is occasionally Incident Communication Division message to everyone else back at having too much radio traffic. What (NIICD) at NIFC. This abundance the guard station that they had has caused this? of radios has naturally led to an the fire in hand and didn’t need increase in the volume of radio any help. I asked them what they First, the increase in radio chat traffic. would do if they needed help. ter is a reflection of our culture They just looked at each other and society. Our world is saturated Third, placing a radio in a firefight and told me, “Son, if we needed with instant communication. Cell er’s hands is essentially an autho help everyone knew because the phones, texting, instant messaging, rization to use it. It is, however, smoke column from the main social networking Web sites, and counterintuitive to give someone fire got big!” It shows that we other communication technolo use of a tool like a radio while tell have come a long way. gies drive this phenomenon. People ing him or her at the same time to expect to communicate rapidly, restrict his or her use of that tool. Technological advances have constantly, and without restraints. Merely having a tool helps create indeed come a long way. Handheld As younger firefighters enter the the need to use the tool. radios are far more advanced ranks, they bring these expectations than their distant cousins of a with them. Consequences of generation ago. “One of the new est technologies is multiband Overabundant Radio The second causal factor relates to Traffic radios,” said Mike Tuominen, who the sheer number of radios being works at the National Interagency used in wildland fire. Twenty years The problem of overabundant Fire Center (NIFC) in Incident ago, hand crews normally shared radio traffic is not new. The 1998 Communications Operations. “A 3 radios among the 20-person Firefighter Safety Awareness
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 43 Study pointed out the same prob Overabundant radio traffic clogs the airwaves and lem: “The intended result [of increased radio communication] is can force necessary communication to wait in line to increase the flow of important or become lost amid the cacophony. information through interaction, without the unintended result of flooding the available radio over a telephone overshadowed Firefighting pilots are especially communication frequencies and the cognitive processes needed to cognizant of the distractions interfering with critical messages” evaluate, compare, and draw infer caused by too much radio traffic. (NIFC 1998; emphasis added). ences about a dynamic situation Overabundant radio traffic can pose (in the study cited: while driving). special challenges for pilots flying Too much chatter relates to several The parallels between talking on a a firefighting mission without a significant problems. First, con telephone while driving and talk copilot, observed Mark Bickham of stant radio transmission is likely to ing on a radio while supervising the Bureau of Land Management’s diminish a person’s ability to men multiple tasks in a wildfire envi National Aviation Office. In addition tally sort, track, and act on infor ronment are apparent. Acting as a to safely flying the aircraft, solo mation in a dynamic environment. lookout, directing water or retar pilots have to communicate with Researchers have studied how talk dant drops, and supervising direct dispatch, air attack, other tactical ing on a cellular telephone affects a line construction are examples of aircraft, and ground contacts on up person’s ability to sustain his or her firefighting activities that require to three radios. “It’s important for attention in a dynamic visual envi a high level of focus and attention. ground personnel to communicate ronment (Kunar and others 2008). Research suggests that this focus with pilots using clear and concise They concluded that the cognitive and attention can be impaired by speech,” Bickham emphasized. processes necessary to converse excessive radio conversation. Overabundant radio traffic clogs the airwaves and can force neces sary communication to wait in line or become lost amid the cacophony. For example, one analysis of radio traffic transcripts from training exercises and actual emergencies found that up to 12 percent of radio messages went unacknowledged (Timmons 2007). In many instanc es, messages to the incident com mander went unacknowledged— presumably, because the messages were not heard. This is a significant safety issue because, when the lives of firefighters or the public may be in danger, critical information must be communicated by radio.
Furthermore, crowded airwaves tend to trigger unrealistic pres sure for additional frequencies on incidents. Frequencies are finite resources and simply may not be available. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of A firefighter uses a driptorch to burn out fuels inside a section of fireline. Clear radio communications are essential to coordinate complex suppression tactics like burnouts. the Interior land management units Photo: National Interagency Fire Center. with fire management responsibili
Fire Management Today 44 ties number in the hundreds, yet these units together have only 208 permanently allotted frequencies. “Radio frequencies are intangible, so it’s understandable that people don’t think of them as they do a more tangible firefighting resource, like airtankers and hotshot crews,” added Tuominen. “Sometimes every available frequency is being used.”
Some crews attempt to work around overcrowded frequencies on incidents by using their home unit radio frequencies on assign ments, especially for intercrew communication. “What many A member of the Eldorado Hotshots directs aerial support. When speaking with pilots, people don’t realize,” said Stephen targets should be described clearly and concisely. Photo: National Interagency Fire Jenkins, director of the NIICD, “is Center. that they don’t own their home unit frequencies.” Radio frequen 1. Effective preseason training in Mark Bickham. “But it’s a skill cies are assigned and authorized radio etiquette and use helps that can be improved by prac throughout the country by either prevent problems on incidents. ticing in a simulated environ the Federal Communications Kyle Cannon is a fire manage ment.” Commission or the National ment officer on the Okanogan- 3. Education on radio discipline Telecommunications and Wenatchee National Forest in can and should occur at inci Information Administration. Units central Washington State. As dents. Briefings before shifts are authorized to use their “home” a former interagency hotshot present a good opportunity to frequencies only on their home crew superintendent, Cannon address issues like overabun unit. That frequency might be in has dealt with radio discipline dant or irrelevant radio traffic. use in dozens of other localities in issues on many occasions. “We “At each briefing, I mention the country. “Not only is using a found that carefully addressing the need for brevity and think ‘home unit’ frequency in another radio etiquette and use issues ing ahead in radio communi part of the country illegal, it can before fire season was a good cations,” said Paul Glazer, a cause serious communication and approach,” he said. “Most hot communications unit leader safety problems,” Jenkins noted. shot crews have a good reputa and National Park Service tele tion and senior crew members communications manager in Improving Radio Use don’t want the crew’s reputation Arizona. “I have a saying that’s Habits tarnished by improper radio sort of my mantra: ‘On the communication by newer mem radio, if you have nothing to A number of approaches exist for bers of the crew. Once everyone say…don’t say it.’ After a few alleviating problems in radio disci knew what our crew’s standards days of repeating that phrase at pline, etiquette, and use. One thing were, much of the accountabil morning briefings, all I have to that will not be done is to start tak ity for proper radio use occurred say is, ‘If you have nothing to ing away radios. Handheld radios within the crew.” say…’ and the firefighters will offer far more benefits than prob 2. Describing complex situations finish my sentence.” Similarly, lems, and no one is suggesting the and locations over the radio can safety officers can use a few removal of radios as a response to be aided by practice. “Clearly minutes at briefings to outline radio discipline issues. Still, leader and concisely describing a target procedures for keeping frequen ship can take some positive steps to location to a pilot flying above cies clear during emergencies. improve radio use: a fire is not always easy,” said
Volume 70 • No. 3 • 2010 45 4. Glazer pointed out another People expect to communicate rapidly, constantly, important aspect of radio dis cipline: radio users need to and without restraints. As younger firefighters think through what they want enter the ranks, they bring these expectations to say well ahead of keying the with them. microphone. This point is made succinctly in a recent U.S. Fire Administration report: “Prior to transmitting a message, firefighters should collect their thoughts and format the mes sage in their head” (USFA 2009). Time is wasted—and confusion is created—when people talk over the radio without saying what they need to say. 5. Messages about radio discipline and etiquette can also be pub lished in the incident action plan, posted on bulletin boards, and placed in dining areas at the incident command post. Simple and direct methods of getting the message to firefight ers are useful because, if they understand why radio discipline is important, firefighters will be A division/group supervisor conducts a briefing prior to a shift on the fireline. Briefings much more apt to use self-disci offer opportunities to reinforce radio discipline principles with firefighters. Photo: pline to curb poor or unneces National Interagency Fire Center. sary radio use. 6. In some cases, operations sec Conclusion References tion chiefs have removed crews The radio communication system Hutchins, S.G.; Timmons, R.P. 2008. Radio from assignments for serious interoperability: Addressing the real rea used for incident management son we don’t communicate well during violations of radio etiquette. across the United States is world- emergencies. Paper presented at the 12th Though punitive measures are class. Its technological capabil International Command and Control almost always a last resort, lead ity, ease of use, and exceptional Research and Technology Symposia; ers should maintain meaning 19–21 June; Newport, RI. effectiveness add up to a fantastic Kunar, M.A.; Carter, R.; Cohen, M.; ful accountability for improper tool. This system reflects the inter- Horowitz, T.S. 2008. Telephone conversa radio use. agency commitment to excellence tion impairs sustained visual attention 7. After-action reviews are another via a central bottleneck. Psychonomic in fire management. However, Bulletin and Review. 15(6): 1135–1140. means of reinforcing good radio the system’s effectiveness can be National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). etiquette, especially if a crew degraded by poor radio use habits. 1998. Firefighter Safety Awareness witnessed an egregious example Study; Phase III: Implementing Good radio etiquette and discipline Cultural Changes for Safety; Chapter of poor radio use on an incident. should be practiced by fire crews, 3: Organizational Culture. Boise, ID: Facilitated learning is a good supervisors, and leaders on the National Interagency Fire Center, p. 73. method of ingraining positive Timmons, R.P. 2007. Interoperability: Stop fireline for a safe and productive blaming the radio. Homeland Security behavior. firefighting environment. Affairs. III(1): 7. United States Fire Administration. 1999. Improving firefighter communica tions. Special report USFA-TR-099. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 17 p.
Fire Management Today 46 2010 phOtO cOntest Deadline for submission is 6 p.m. eastern time, Wednesday, December 1, 2010
Fire Management Today (FMT) number of entries taken at any the release, see http://www.fs.fed. invites you to submit your best fire- time, but you must submit each us/fire/fmt/release.pdf. related images to be judged in our image with a separate release/ photo competition. Entries must application form. You may not Disclaimer be received by close of business at enter images that were judged in • A panel of judges with signifi 6 p.m. eastern time on Wednesday, previous FMT contests. cant photography and publish December 1, 2010. • You must have the author ing experience will determine ity to grant the Forest Service the winners. Their decision is Awards unlimited use of the image, and final. Winning images will appear in you must agree that the image • Images depicting safety viola a future issue of FMT and may will become public domain. tions, as determined by the be publicly displayed at the Moreover, the image must not panel of judges, will be disquali Forest Service’s national office in have been previously published fied. Washington, DC. in any publication. • Life or property cannot be jeop • FMT accepts only digital images ardized to obtain images. Winners in each category will at the highest resolution using • The Forest Service does not receive the following awards: a setting with at least 3.2 mega encourage or support deviation • 1st place: One 20- by 24-inch pixels. Digital image files should from firefighting responsibilities framed copy of your image. be TIFFs or highest quality to capture images. • 2nd place: One 16- by 20-inch JPGs. Note: FMT will eliminate • Images will be eliminated from framed copy of your image. date-stamped images. Submitted the competition if they are • 3rd place: One 11- by 14-inch images will not be returned to obtained by illegal or unauthor framed copy of your image. the contestant. ized access to restricted areas, • Honorable mention: One 8- by • You must indicate only one cat show unsafe firefighting practic 10- inch framed copy of your egory per image. To ensure fair es (unless that is their expressed image. evaluation, FMT reserves the purpose), or are of low technical right to change the competition quality (for example, have soft Categories category for your image. focus or camera movement). • Wildland fire • You must provide a detailed cap • Aerial resources tion for each image. For exam To help ensure that all files are kept • Wildland-urban interface fire ple: A Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane together, e-mail your completed • Prescribed fire delivers retardant on the 1996 release form/contest application • Ground resources Clark Peak Fire, Coronado and digital image file at the same • Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire National Forest, AZ. time. weather, fire-dependent commu • You must submit with each nities or species, etc.) digital image a completed and E-mail entries to: signed Release Statement and [email protected] Rules Photo Contest Application grant • The contest is open to everyone. ing the Forest Service rights to Postmark Deadline is 6 p.m., You may submit an unlimited use your image. For a copy of Wednesday, December 1, 2010
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