Fire today ManagementVolume 75 • No. 2 • 2017
Rim Fire Effects on Restored Areas Budworm Effects and Wildfire You Will Not Stand Alone and more …
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December 2017
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On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point Thank You, Team!...... 4 Shawna Legarza, Psy.D.
Rim Fire Severity in Forests With Relatively Restored Frequent Fire Regimes...... 5 Jamie M. Lydersen, Malcolm P. North, and Brandon M. Collins
Western Spruce Budworm and Wildfire: Is There a Connection?...... 12 Daniel G. Gavin, Aquila Flower, Greg M. Cohn, Russell A. Parsons, and Emily K. Heyerdahl
Coping With Tragedy: You Will Not Stand Alone...... 17 Kristel Johnson Rim Fire in 2013, with the smoke plume in the background and Lake Eleanor in the foreground, taken Unplanned Wildfire in Areas With Slash Piles...... 25 from the south shore. The area across Alexander M. Evans and Clinton S. Wright the lake burned later that day. Photo: Jamie Lydersen, Forest Service. Prescribed Fire Training Center Surpasses 1 Million Acres...... 30 Joseph P. Ferguson and Greg Seamon
Insurance and Wildfire Mitigation: What Do We Know?...... 33 James R. Meldrum, Chris Barth, Patricia A. Champ, Hannah Brenkert- The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Smith, Lilia Falk, and Travis Warziniack Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of wildland fire management: Contracting Without Getting Burned...... 39 • Innovation: We will respect and value Ed Delaney thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. Interagency Partnership Mitigates Wildfire Risk in Georgia...... 42 • Execution: We will do what we say we will do. Achieving program objectives, Holly Krake, Mike Ward, and Mike Davis improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. Becoming Authentic: The Heart of Leadership in • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Wildland Fire Management...... 45 Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to Alexis Waldron and Mike Alarid fulfill our mission. Six Minutes for Safety...... 49
Ten Fire Orders and Eighteen Watchout Situations...... 50
Guidelines for Contributors...... 51
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 3 By Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D. Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point USDA Forest Service
Thank You, Team!
n retrospect, I want to say thank We had a busy 2017 fire season; we up the chain, down the chain, and you for your service during the made good decisions and worked across the chain. Ask questions if I2017 fire season! Thanks for all well together with our cooperators. you are unsure, ask for feedback, your dedication and hard work While every fire is unique and every and offer clarity and respect to all. throughout the year! fire season has its challenges, I am 3. Self-leadership—Continue to reminded each day working in this take good care of yourself so you job of the value of our employees can lead others. Self-leadership who work diligently day in and is you leading yourself through day out protecting our natural both challenging times and resources and serving the public. successful times. Self-leadership As we work through the 2018 fire is understanding yourself and season, I encourage all of you to knowing when you need to take continue to lead in your respective time out, get clarity, and live in areas, learn about new challenges, the present. and really take time out for yourself when you need it. I am honored to be your national director of Fire and Aviation My leader’s intent for 2018 is: Management, and I look forward to our continued success in many 1. Engaged leadership—Continue challenging areas. to be an engaged leader in whatever area you work in. Continue to learn, Please take good care! ■ Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D., Director, Fire rise to challenges, and be a leader. and Aviation Management, Forest Service 2. The alignment of communication—Help provide the most accurate communication
Fire Management Today 4 Rim Fire Severity in Forests With Relatively Restored Frequent Fire Regimes* Jamie M. Lydersen, Malcolm P. North, and Brandon M. Collins
orests that evolved under the influence of frequent low- Contemporary forests with restored fire regimes Fseverity fire have undergone dramatic change following a should burn with a lower proportion of high- century of fire suppression, severity fire under most wildfire conditions. including a buildup of surface fuels; greater density of small, shade-tolerant trees; and a loss of Research in Relatively spatial heterogeneity (Lydersen Restored Forests Under a frequent low-severity fire and others 2013; Parsons and regime, forests are characterized Debenedetti 1979; Scholl and Restoration of forests with altered spatially by diverse sizes of tree Taylor 2010). Following these structure due to a history of fire clumps interspersed with forest changes, a greater proportion of suppression is of high interest gaps and widely spaced single the fires in low- and mid-elevation to managers and stakeholders trees (Larson and Churchill forests are burning with high of Sierra Nevada forests (North 2012; Show and Kotok 1924). severity than they did historically, 2012). Since the late 1960s, This heterogeneity was likely and high-severity fires are burning following the recognition of fire as the product of an intact fire larger patch sizes in these forests an important ecosystem process, regime that allowed fires to than before (Mallek and others Yosemite National Park has made burn under a range of weather 2013). These uncharacteristically use of prescribed and wildland fires and fuel conditions (Skinner large and severe wildfires have burning under moderate weather and Taylor 2006). In addition to significant impacts on sensitive conditions to meet management creating and maintaining spatial wildlife habitat (North and others objectives (Stephens and Ruth heterogeneity, repeated fire in 2010), air quality (Fowler 2003), 2005; van Wagtendonk 2007). This these forests maintains a lower and greenhouse gas concentrations has resulted in a number of forest fuel load and tree density (Webster (Liu and others 2014; Muhle and stands in the park with repeated and Halpern 2010). Collectively, others 2007). In addition, the costs burning at frequencies and these forest conditions have of fire suppression and postfire intensities similar to the historical been associated with increased rehabilitation associated with fire regime (Collins and Stephens resilience in relation to these fires continue to increase 2007; Lydersen and North 2012). environmental stressors (such (NIFC 2013). There is considerable interest as drought, insects, and disease) in characterizing ecosystem and wildfire (Stephens and others structure and function within 2008). Contemporary forests with Jamie Lydersen is a biological science these stands because frequent- technician, Brandon Collins is a research restored fire regimes should burn forester, and Malcolm North is a research fire reference conditions under with a lower proportion of high- scientist for the Forest Service, Pacific recent patterns of climate are rare severity fire under most wildfire Southwest Research Station, Davis, CA. (Stephens and Fule 2005). conditions, as compared to areas
* This article is a condensed and slightly edited version of a previously published article in Forest Ecology and Management (Lydersen and others 2014). For more detail on study methods and relevant literature and for the full presentation of results, you can access the article in its entirety at
Fire Management Today 6 Table 1—Study areas (from Lydersen and North (2012)), by number of plots, previous fire history, elevation, size, and RdNBR (numbers correspond to figure 1). Note that some study areas had multiple fire histories.
Elevation Size RdNBR Avg. ± Study area (#) # of plots Recent firesa (yr) (ft [m]) (ac [ha]) St. Dev.b 5,590–6,550 N. Eleanor (1) 9 1986, 1999 1,500 (610) 68 ±70 (1,700–1,200) 4,880–5,840 S. Eleanor (2) 9 1978, 1996 2,500 (1,000) 500 ±397 (1,490–1,780) 5,940–6,350 Laurel Lake (3) 9 1978, 1991, 2005 900 (360) 124 ±108 (1,810–1,940) 4,990–5,080 North Mountain (4) 4 1950, 1987, 1996 4,900 (1,980) 718 ±148 (1,520–1,550) 5,020–5,220 North Mountain (4) 3 1987, 1996 -- 851 ±163 (1,530–1,590) 5,120–5,200 North Mountain (4) 2 1993, 1996 -- 1,232 ±25 (1,560–1,580) 5,260–5,320 North Mountain (4) 3 1994, 1996 -- 520 ±85 (1,600–1,620) 5,860 Cottonwood Crk (5) 1 1996, 2009 100 (40) 202 (1,790) 5,080–5,920 Aspen Valley (6) 10 1983, 1998 3,000 (1,200) 454 ±173 (1,550–1,800) 5,360 Aspen Valley (6) 1 1983, 1990, 1998 -- 483 (1,630) 5,540 Aspen Valley (6) 1 1983, 1990, 1999 -- 1,017 (1,690) 6,550 Gin Flat (7) 1 1989, 2000, 2002 250 (100) 262 (2,000) a Includes fires from 1949 to 2011. b RdNBR = relative differenced normalized burn ratio; St. Dev. = standard deviation.
forests analysis, many of the Plots that had previously burned within 14 years of same variables remained highly ranked (fig. 2), indicating that the Rim Fire burned mainly at low severity, whereas their effect was not entirely due to those that had not seen fire in over 14 years correlation with plume-dominated burning. The variables identified burned predominately at moderate to high severity. as important in both analyses were shrub cover, burning index, elevation, years since last fire, Seventeen plots (32 percent) on observed fire severities in proportion of shade-intolerant burned at moderate severity, our plots (fig. 2). Burning index, species, duff depth, and white fir and the remaining 24 plots time since the last fire, and shrub basal area. were classified as unchanged or cover were also highly associated having burned at a low severity. with differences in fire severity. Plots that burned on plume- Elevation, followed by plume When plume-dominated fire plots dominated fire days had higher effects, had the most influence were removed from the random severity overall. Among plots
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 7 strongly on the severity of previous fires (Parks and others 2013). Although areas that burned with high severity in previous fires are more likely to reburn with high severity, researchers have found a less consistent pattern for areas previously burned at low or moderate severity (Holden and others 2010; Parks and others 2013; Thompson and Spies 2010; van Wagtendonk and others 2012). Our study supports their finding. Char height from previous low- to moderate-severity fire was not associated with Rim Fire severity in our plots. Instead, we found that time since last fire, shrub cover, elevation, and the burning index were associated with Rim Fire severity (fig. 2), indicating that the interaction between fire history, understory, and fire weather influenced fire effects.
Most of the plots classified as high severity (10 out of 12) burned on a day when the fire was Figure 2—Variable importance ranking of the influential variables on observed fire plume dominated and exhibited severity, as determined by random forests analysis. Variables with importance values higher than the absolute value of the lowest negative importance value (dashed vertical unprecedented fire growth for line) are considered influential. The upper chart shows results when all plots were included this region. The high burning in the analysis; the lower chart shows results after excluding plots burned on a day when index value of 85 recorded on this the Rim Fire was plume dominated. Variables in bold text appear in both charts. BA = basal day reflects the greater potential area; dbh = diameter at breast height. for more intense fire behavior, but the contribution of high fuel loads outside our study site that burned after the plume Fire Resistance in to fire energy presumably also subsided, greater shrub abundance Relatively Restored contributed to the transition was associated with greater fire to plume-dominated fire. Local severity. Elevation was negatively Forests factors related to the plume’s correlated with Rim Fire severity, Our study suggests that even influence on surface wind with lower severity observed in fire-restored forests may not be dynamics, including increased plots above 5,558 feet (1,694 m) in resistant to high-intensity wildfire speed and turbulence (Rothermel elevation. Plots that had previously that escapes suppression during 1991; Werth and others 2011), burned within 14 years of the Rim extreme weather conditions. All of likely affected fire intensity in our Fire burned mainly at low severity, our plots previously burned at low plots and may not be reflected in whereas those that had not seen to moderate severity in the recent the burning index value derived fire in over 14 years burned (1949–2011) fire record (table 1); from a weather station 12 miles predominately at moderate to high high-severity burning during the (19 km) away. Interestingly, many severity (fig. 3). Rim Fire left new high-severity plots burned at high severity burn patches in this landscape. despite multiple previous burns, Fire severity in reburns can depend suggesting the influence of the
Fire Management Today 8 plume on fire behavior and, 2009; Parks and others 2013; van whereas moderate-severity burning ultimately, fire severity. This Wagtendonk and others 2012). In occurred under milder conditions. suggests in turn that extreme our study, plots that had a previous This suggests that even in areas fire behavior can overwhelm fire within 14 years of the Rim without recent fire activity, fires well-designed fuel treatments, as Fire burned predominately at allowed to burn under conditions demonstrated in other extreme low severity (fig. 3), regardless of that are not extreme can benefit fire events (Finney and others weather conditions. The reason the ecosystem, assuming that 2003). Perhaps the extreme might be that a longer time since moderate-severity fire effects are burning conditions created when the previous fire allows for the a desired objective (Collins and untreated areas burn under accumulation of surface (dead others 2011). weather conditions favorable woody and live shrub/herbaceous) to plume formation can create and ladder fuels, which then The inverse relationship of enough inertia to maintain high contribute to greater flame lengths elevation and fire severity observed fire intensity in previously burned and, ultimately, higher severity in our study was the opposite of areas despite the ameliorated fire effects. For plots where the what has been reported for other fuel conditions. previous fire was more than 14 western forests (Parks and others years earlier, burning under 2013), but this may be due to the Time since fire and the burning extreme fire weather conditions different vegetation, which also index were also highly related to (with a burning index greater varied with elevation. Some of Rim Fire severity (fig. 2), in line than 75 and on the day of plume- the lower elevation plots in our with results from other studies dominated burning) produced study corresponded to a drier on reburns (Collins and others mainly high-severity fire effects, vegetation type with greater shrub cover and sparser forest cover. The greater shrub cover coupled with sparser canopy may lead to an overestimation of fire severity, because consumption of the shrub layer might be high yet overstory mortality low, particularly in plots categorized as having moderate fire severity (Miller and others 2009). Without field data or some measure of overstory mortality and shrub regeneration, it is hard to determine to what extent high RdNBR values reflect ecological change, such as shifts in species composition or vegetation type (Holden and others 2010).
Implications for Management Our results suggest that even in forests with a restored fire regime, wildfires can produce large-scale, high-severity fire effects under the type of weather and fuel conditions that often prevail when wildfire Figure 3—Fire severity classes observed in plots reburned by the Rim Fire, by time since the previous fire. A comparison of A (showing all plots) to B (excluding plots burned on escapes initial suppression efforts. a day when the Rim Fire was plume dominated) suggests that plots without a fire in the During the period when the Rim previous 14 years are more susceptible to high fire severity during a plume-dominated fire. Fire had heightened plume activity,
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 9 Results suggest that forests with restored and restoration treatments. Forest Ecology and Management. 267: 74–92. frequent-fire regimes are resistant to wildfire Liu, Y.; Goodrick, S.; Heilman, W. 2014. Wildland fire emissions, carbon, and under fire weather conditions that are less climate: Wildfire–climate interactions. Forest Ecology and Management. 317: than extreme. 80–96. Lydersen, J.; North, M. 2012. Topographic variation in structure of mixed-conifer forests under an active-fire regime. 10 of the 17 plots burned were fire weather conditions that are Ecosystems. 15(7): 1134–1146. classified with high fire severity less than extreme. To effectively Lydersen, J.M.; North, M.P.; Knapp, and 7 were classified with moderate influence fire behavior, agencies E.E.; Collins, B.M. 2013. Quantifying severity. No low fire severity should coordinate fuel reduction spatial patterns of tree groups and gaps was observed, regardless of fuel and wildfire policies across in mixed-conifer forests: Reference conditions and long-term changes load, forest type, or topographic large landscapes if neighboring following fire suppression and logging. position. High fire severity appears jurisdictions are within the same Forest Ecology and Management. 304: to have been exacerbated by the potential “fireshed.” ■ 370–382. longer time period since the Lydersen, J.M.; North, M.P.; Collins, B.M. 2014. Severity of an uncharacteristically previous fire (greater than 14 References large wildfire, the Rim Fire, in forests years) in these plots. Collins, B.M.; Everett, R.G.; Stephens, with relatively restored frequent S.L. 2011. Impacts of fire exclusion and fire regimes. Forest Ecology and Areas that burn at high severity recent managed fire on forest structure Management. 328: 326–334. often grow back as montane in old growth Sierra Nevada mixed- Mallek, C.; Safford, H.; Viers, J.; Miller, J. 2013. Modern departures in fire chaparral rather than forest. They conifer forests. Ecosphere. 2(4): art51. Collins, B.M.; Miller, J.D.; Thode, A.E. severity and area vary by forest type, are likely to reburn with high [and others]. 2009. Interactions among Sierra Nevada and southern Cascades, severity in future fires, preventing wildland fires in a long-established California, USA. Ecosphere. 4(12): art153. or delaying the return of tree Sierra Nevada natural fire area. Miller, J.D.; Thode, A.E. 2007. Quantifying Ecosystems. 12(1): 114–128. burn severity in a heterogeneous cover (Parks and others 2013; landscape with a relative version of the Thompson and Spies 2010; van Collins, B.M.; Roller, G.B. 2013. Early forest dynamics in stand-replacing fire delta Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR). Wagtendonk and others 2012). patches in the northern Sierra Nevada, Remote Sensing of Environment. 109(1): Management actions can help California, USA. Landscape Ecology: 66–80. conifer regeneration (Collins 1–13. Miller, J.D.; Knapp, E.E.; Key, C.H.; [and others]. 2009. Calibration and validation and Roller 2013); however, the Collins, B.M.; Stephens, S.L. 2007. Managing natural wildfires in Sierra of the relative differenced Normalized vegetation trajectory of the high- Nevada wilderness areas. Frontiers in Burn Ratio (RdNBR) to three measures severity burn patches found in the Ecology and the Environment. 5(10): of fire severity in the Sierra Nevada and lower elevation sites in this study 523–527. Klamath Mountains, California, USA. Finney, M.A.; Bartlette, R.; Bradshaw, L.; Remote Sensing of Environment. 113(3): is uncertain, given projections 645–656. of increasing wildfire activity, [and others]. 2003. Fire behavior, fuel treatments, and fire suppression on the Muhle, J.; Lueker, T.J.; Su, Y. [and particularly since lower elevations Hayman Fire. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS– others]. 2007. Trace gas and particulate may have higher burn probability GTR–114. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest emissions from the 2003 southern (Parks and others 2011). Long- Service, Rocky Mountain Research California wildfires. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. term monitoring of these patches Station: 33–180. Fowler, C.T. 2003. Human health impacts 112(D3): D03307. could provide useful insight. of forest fires in the southern United NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). States: A literature review. Journal of 2013. Suppression costs 1985–2013. Plots located at higher elevations Ecological Anthropology. 7(1): 39–63. Boise, ID.
Fire Management Today 10 Parks, S.A.; Miller, C.; Nelson, C.R.; Show, S.B.; Kotok, E.I. 1924. The role post-fire management in southwestern Holden, Z.A. 2013. Previous fires of fire in the California pine forests. Oregon. Landscape Ecology. 25(5): moderate burn severity of subsequent Washington, DC: USDA, Government 775–789. wildland fires in two large western US Printing Office. 80 p. van Wagtendonk, J.W. 2007. The history wilderness areas. Ecosystems. 17(1): Skinner, C.N.; Taylor, A.H., 2006. Southern and evolution of wildland fire use. Fire 29–42. cascades bioregion. In: Sugihara, N.G.; Ecology. 3(2): 3–17. Parks, S.A.; Parisien, M.-A.; Miller, C. van Wagtendonk, J.W.; Fites-Kaufman, van Wagtendonk, J.W.; van Wagtendonk, 2011. Multi-scale evaluation of the J. [and others], eds. Fire in California’s K.A.; Thode, A.E. 2012. Factors environmental controls on burn ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of associated with the severity of probability in a southern Sierra Nevada California Press: 195–224. intersecting fires in Yosemite National landscape. International Journal of Stephens, S.L.; Fule, P.Z. 2005. Western Park, California, USA. The Journal of the Wildland Fire. 20(7): 815–828. pine forests with continuing frequent Association for Fire Ecology. 8(1): 11–31. Parsons, D.J.; Debenedetti, S.H. 1979. fire regimes: Possible reference sites Webster, K.M.; Halpern, C.B. 2010. Impact of fire suppression on a mixed- for management. Journal of Forestry. Long-term vegetation responses to conifer forest. Forest Ecology and 103(7): 357–362. reintroduction and repeated use of fire Management. 2(1): 21–33. Stephens, S.L.; Ruth, L.W. 2005. Federal in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Rothermel, R.C. 1991. Predicting behavior forest-fire policy in the United States. Nevada. Ecosphere. 1(5): art9. and size of crown fires in the Northern Ecological Applications. 15(2): 532–542. Werth, P.A.; Potter, B.E.; Clements, Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT–438. Stephens, S.L.; Fry, D.L.; Franco-Vizcaino, C.B. [and others]. 2011. Synthesis of Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, E. 2008. Wildfire and spatial patterns knowledge of extreme fire behavior: Intermountain Research Station. 46 p. in forests in northwestern Mexico: The Volume I for fire managers. Gen. Tech. Scholl, A.E.; Taylor, A.H. 2010. Fire United States wishes it had similar fire Rep. PNW–GTR–854. Portland, OR: regimes, forest change, and self- problems. Ecology and Society. 13(2): USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest organization in an old-growth mixed- 1–12. Research Station. 144 p. conifer forest, Yosemite National Park, Thompson, J.R.; Spies, T.A. 2010. Factors USA. Ecological Applications. 20(2): associated with crown damage following 362–380. recurring mixed-severity wildfires and
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Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 11 WesteRn spRuce BudwoRm And wildFiRe: is theRe A connection? Daniel G. Gavin, Aquila Flower, Greg M. Cohn, Russell A. Parsons, and Emily K. Heyerdahl
n the interior Pacific Northwest, higher elevations in mixed-conifer extensive defoliation of mixed- Western spruce forests. Other studies have found Iconifer forests during outbreaks that even when WSB and fire don’t of western spruce budworm (WSB) budworm is the most occur in a stand at the same time, may leave the visual impression of a damaging defoliator they can still affect each other (fig tinderbox with trees primed to burst 1B). Analyses of late 20th-century into flame. But is this the case? in western North outbreaks in British Columbia America. (Lynch and Moorcroft 2008) We addressed this question with and in Oregon and Washington funding from the USDA/U.S. (Preisler and others 2010) found Department of the Interior Joint the new foliage of many short- decreased fire risk for 3 to 7 Fire Science Program (project 09– needled conifer species, especially years following a WSB outbreak. 1–06–5). Here we summarize our Douglas-fir, grand fir, and white However, modern records of three recent publications exploring fir. Outbreaks of WSB may last for disturbance are limited because the potential relationship between a decade or more and extend over fire suppression and logging have WSB outbreaks and fire. We used a hundreds of miles. A study of a multimethod approach to explore large outbreak in the 1980s showed potential disturbance interactions that, in most areas, fewer than 25 that might cause one disturbance to percent of the canopy trees were change the occurrence or severity killed, but mortality rates may of the other. We used tree-ring be high for smaller trees (Powell records to see whether WSB and fire 1994). Widespread synchronous are related in time and computer outbreaks have been tied to climate, modeling to see how defoliation but previous studies have reported could affect crown fire behavior. conflicting results regarding the specific climate conditions driving Study Design this phenomenon (Flower and others 2014a). WSB is the most damaging defoliator in western North Detecting synergisms between America. Caterpillars emerge disturbances is difficult because in the early spring and feed on both WSB outbreaks and wildland fires occur sporadically over large Daniel Gavin is an associate professor of areas and are strongly modified by geography at the University of Oregon, forest composition and climate. Eugene, OR; Aquila Flower is an assistant Efforts by Meigs and others professor of environmental studies at Figure 1—Western spruce budworm Western Washington University, Bellingham, (2015) to map and quantify the outbreaks and wildfire are disturbances WA; Greg Cohn is a faculty research spatial overlap of the two kinds operating across landscapes and through assistant at the H.J. Andrews Experimental of disturbances (fig. 1A) are time. You can test their association by Forest, Blue River, OR; and Russell Parsons complicated by the fact that fire is examining their spatial overlap (A) or is a research ecologist and Emily Heyerdahl temporal leads and lags (B), but apparent a research forester for the Forest Service, naturally more common in low- synergisms between the disturbances Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire elevation ponderosa pine forests, may be the result of a common climatic Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. whereas WSB outbreaks occur at forcing (C). Fire Management Today 12 decreased fire frequency and have 1995). However, prior to our study, We used a suite of statistical tests led to an increase in the density of no one has analyzed the temporal to analyze the synchrony between conifer species preferred by WSB, relationship (for example, leads fire dates and the initiation dates, thereby intensifying WSB damage or lags) between both fire and duration, and intensity of WSB (Wickman 1992). Climate can also WSB records at the same sites. We outbreaks (Flower and others confuse the relationship between reconstructed 3 centuries of WSB 2014b). These tests all revealed the two disturbance types because outbreaks from tree rings at 13 sites that wildland fires had no bearing it can be difficult to differentiate along a 249-mile (400-km) transect on the timing of WSB outbreaks interactions between fire and WSB from eastern Oregon to western (fig. 2). We concluded that WSB from the reactions of each to a Montana, reconstructed fire histories outbreaks had no discernible common climate driver (fig 1C). at 10 of those sites, and compared effect on the probability of fire both records with previously occurrence by changing fuels These issues motivated us to isolate published tree-ring reconstructions and that wildland fires had no the different factors affecting of moisture availability. discernible effect on the likelihood the dynamics of WSB outbreaks. of a WSB outbreak by altering host Accordingly, we: tree density. Thus, although both We concluded that types of disturbance may increase 1. Created a multicentury tree-ring in a future of rising drought and record of WSB outbreaks and budworm outbreaks climate variability, we found no assessed the climate conditions had no discernible precedent for their occurrence that caused outbreaks to growing in a synergistic way. initiate; effect on the probability 2. Created a multicentury fire of fire occurrence and Fire Behavior Modeling history record and compared it to both our WSB record and to vice versa. Although WSB outbreaks may not climate records; and increase the probability of fire 3. Used a physics-based fire occurrence, they can affect how behavior model to address the fires burn. To understand how effect of defoliation on torching Our tree-ring records revealed WSB and fire might interact, we and crowning potential if several new findings. We detected examined the effect of WSB on the two disturbances were to an average of 12 outbreaks per site, the potential for trees to torch overlap in space and time. with a trend toward longer and and crown during wildfires. more severe outbreaks in the era of The indirect effects of WSB are likely important, such as the Tree-Ring Records fire exclusion after 1890. Between 1739 and 2000, 17 outbreaks accumulation of coarse wood in The tree-ring record gives a detailed synchronously affected more the understory over long periods of annual history of disturbances than half the sites. Both local and time, but they are difficult to model and their connection to climate regionally synchronous outbreaks due to high spatial variability. So over the past few hundred years. tended to occur at the end of we focused instead on the most Many studies have revealed the multiyear drought periods (Flower direct effect of WSB: reduction of strong connection between climate and others 2014a). We detected foliage density in the canopy. and forest fires by comparing an average of seven fires per site, the dates of fire scars preserved with fires becoming almost entirely The effects of defoliation on fire in tree rings with independent absent after around 1890. We found behavior occur at fine temporal tree-ring reconstructions of no association between fire and and spatial scales, and traditional temperature or precipitation (Falk multiyear trends under previous operational fire models do not and others 2011). Other studies climate conditions; rather, fires have the parameters to capture have reconstructed the occurrence were simply more likely to occur the effects at such fine scales. We of WSB defoliation by identifying during single dry years (Flower and therefore used a computational periods of reduced growth in others 2014b). Thus, while drought fluid dynamics model, the wildland– the rings of trees that survived affected both WSB outbreaks and urban interface fire dynamic defoliation (Swetnam and others fire, it affected them differently. simulator (WFDS), to address
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 13 complex interactions between fire We consistently found that sufficient canopy fuel to sustain and fuel (Mell and others 2009). defoliation reduced the vertical and a crown fire. We modeled a wide The experimental design was horizontal propagation of fire (Cohn range of surface fire intensities, straightforward: For a range of and others 2014). Trees defoliated including the high intensities defoliation levels of a moderate- by less than 30 percent torched predictable from maximum sized Douglas-fir tree, what was the after some crown fuels ignited at increases in accumulated surface effect of WSB defoliation on canopy a threshold level of surface fire fuels; even at these high intensities, consumption, given a range of intensity, whereas trees defoliated defoliation had the same impact on surface fire intensities? by 50 to 80 percent did not have torching and crowning. Potential variation in branchwood moisture did not have a significant effect on torching in our simulations.
The WFDS model is state-of- the-art in terms of exploring the partial effect of defoliation on crown fire, and it agrees with coarse-scale models used previously. Another study found that defoliated stands had increased surface fuel loads and increased canopy base heights (Hummel and Agee 2003). Using the Fire and Fuels Extension to the Forest Vegetation Simulator, that study predicted small changes to surface fire intensity and critical flame length, with no significant change in torching or crowning potential.
Extrapolating Results: Reduced Tree Mortality Taken together, the tree-ring and modeling studies suggest a lack of synergism between WSB outbreaks and wildland fires. However, a different kind of synergism may exist: Defoliation might dampen the severity of a subsequent wildfire. To explore this possibility, we used existing empirical equations that show the probability of mortality due to defoliation Figure 2—The map shows the locations of 10 sites with western spruce budworm (WSB) (fig. 3A) and the probability of outbreaks (A), including the Ochoco National Forest (OCH) and Beaverhead–Deerlodge mortality due to crown scorch (fig. National Forest (BHR); the inset map of the Western United States (A, upper left) shows 3B), combined with the simulated the range of WSB host tree species. The graphs (B and C) show tree-ring reconstructions results of canopy consumption at of WSB outbreaks in relation to wildland fires for two of the sites (OCH and BHR); the percentage of trees with distinct growth reductions due to WSB outbreaks (the blue bars) different levels of defoliation (fig. is superimposed on fire dates detected at the same sites (the red lines). We found no 3C), to extrapolate the summed temporal relationship between WSB outbreaks and fire. probability of mortality under a
Fire Management Today 14 range of surface fire intensities less than about 74 kilowatts per combination with prior surveys of and defoliation levels (fig. 3D). square foot (800 kW/m2). insect effects, could address this The results suggested a distinct issue. One such study of the 2003 “fireproofing” effect of defoliation: However, we considered only B&B Complex Fire in Oregon The increased risk of mortality by the partial effect of defoliation showed that prior defoliation had WSB is more than compensated for on fire occurrence; we did not a marginal effect on reducing fire by reduced foliage consumption take into account other effects of severity that was not statistically during moderate surface fire WSB outbreaks, such as mortality significant (Crickmore 2011). intensities. For example, trees of small trees. Of course, field However, an analysis by Meigs and with 50-percent defoliation have observations are required to others (2016) of all post-WSB fires a distinctly lower probability of test our prediction. Remotely in Washington and Oregon from mortality when surface fires are sensed burn severity maps, in 1987 to 2011 showed that there is
Figure 3—(A): The probability of mortality as a function of defoliation by western spruce budworm (WSB) sustained over 3 to 5 years (Alfaro and others 1982). (B): The probability of mortality as a function of crown scorch using the equation from Ryan and Amman (1994) for a tree with a diameter of 19 inches (49 cm), a height of 39 feet (12 m), a canopy base height of 6.6 feet (2 m), and a bark thickness of 0.9 inch (2.4 cm). (C): The percentage of live foliage consumed in model runs of the wildland–urban interface fire dynamic simulator for the tree described for (B). The curves are logistic regression lines fit to data in Cohn and others (2014). (D): The summed probability of mortality from WSB and fire, assuming 4 years of defoliation (A) and the crown scorch estimated from (C) entered into the Ryan and Amman (1994) equation (B). Increasing surface fire intensity results in rapid torching (and mortality) of undefoliated trees (green line), but defoliation reduces crown scorch and thus mortality probabilities.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 15 The results suggested a distinct “fireproofing” and western spruce budworm outbreaks across the Pacific Northwest Region, effect of budworm defoliation, with reduced USA. Forest Ecology and Management. 339: 71–86. foliage consumption during moderate surface Meigs, G.W.; Zald, H.S.J.; Campbell, J.L. [and others]. 2016. Do insect outbreaks fire intensities. reduce the severity of subsequent forest fires? Environmental Research Letters. 11: 45008. Mell, W.; Maranghides, A.; McDermott, a statistically significant reduction References R.; Manzello, S.L. 2009. Numerical in fire severity that persists for up Alfaro, R.I.; Sickle, G.A.V.; Thomson, simulation and experiments of burning to 20 years following an outbreak. A.J.; Wegwitz, E. 1982. Tree mortality Douglas-fir trees. Combustion and Thus, the effect of defoliation on and radial growth losses caused by the Flame. 156: 2023–2041. Powell, D.C. 1994. Effects of the 1980s crown fire behavior modeled by western spruce budworm in a Douglas- fir stand in British Columbia. Canadian western spruce budworm outbreak Cohn and others (2014) appears Journal of Forest Research. 12: 780–787. on the Malheur National Forest in to be confirmed by the analysis of Cohn, G.M.; Parsons, R. A.; Heyerdahl, E.K. northeastern Oregon. R6–FI&D–TP–12– burn severity data by Meigs and [and others]. 2014. Simulated western 94. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service. others (2016). spruce budworm defoliation reduces Preisler, H.K.; Ager, A.A.; Hayes, J.L. 2010. torching and crowning potential: A Probabilistic risk models for multiple sensitivity analysis using a physics-based disturbances: An example of forest Fireproofing Effect? fire model. International Journal of insects and wildfires. In: Pye, J.M.; Wildland Fire. 23: 709–720. Rauscher, H.M.; Sands, Y. [and others], It may seem reasonable to Crickmore, I.D. 2011. Interactions between eds. Advances in threat assessment and assume that extensive defoliation, forest insect activity and wildfire severity their application to forest and rangeland causing sustained low levels of in the Booth and Bear Complex Fires, management. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW– GTR–802. Portland, OR: USDA Forest tree mortality in mature trees, Oregon. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, M.S. thesis. Service, Pacific Northwest and Southern should have a measurable effect on Falk, D.A.; Heyerdahl, E.K.; Brown, P.M. Research Stations: 371–379. wildfire occurrence. However, fire [and others]. 2011. Multi-scale controls of Ryan, K.; Amman, G. 1994. Interactions is a highly variable disturbance in historical forest-fire regimes: New insights between fire-injured trees and insects itself, and it is highly sensitive to from fire-scar networks. Frontiers in in the greater Yellowstone area. In: Ecology and the Environment. 9: 446–454. Despain, D., ed. Plants and their specific climate and winds during Flower, A.; Gavin, D.G.; Heyerdahl, E.K. environments: Proceedings of the First the fire event. The scale of fuel [and others]. 2014a. Drought-triggered Biennial Scientific Conference on the changes wrought by WSB may be western spruce budworm outbreaks in Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Tech. too small to affect subsequent fire the interior Pacific Northwest: A multi- Rep. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR–93/xx. USDI National Park Service: 259–271. probability in ecosystems where century dendrochronological record. Forest Ecology and Management. 324: Swetnam, T.W.; Wickman, B.E.; Paul, fire is limited by fuel moisture and 16–27. H.G.; Baisan, C.H. 1995. Historical ignition sources rather than fuel Flower, A.; Gavin, D.G.; Heyerdahl, E.K. patterns of western spruce budworm availability. Our data show that [and others]. 2014b. Western spruce and Douglas-fir tussock moth outbreaks these two disturbance types do not budworm outbreaks did not increase in the northern Blue Mountains, fire risk over the last three centuries: A Oregon, since A.D. 1700. Portland, OR: share similar histories, despite a dendrochronological analysis of inter- USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest common link to drought events. disturbance synergism. PLoS ONE 9: Research Station. e114282. Wickman, B.E. 1992. Forest health in the Nevertheless, we hypothesize a Hummel, S.; Agee, J.K. 2003. Western Blue Mountains: The influence of insects and disease. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR– “fireproofing” effect on host trees spruce budworm defoliation effects on forest structure and potential fire 295. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, from defoliation due to WSB behavior. Northwest Science. 7: 159–169. Pacific Northwest Research Station. outbreaks. Although such an effect Lynch, H.J.; Moorcroft, P.R. 2008. A has been detected statistically spatiotemporal Ripley’s K-function to from recent fire events (Preisler analyze interactions between spruce budworm and fire in British Columbia, and others 2010; Meigs and others Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest 2016), the inferred processes at Research. 38: 3112–3119. play remain to be studied in detail Meigs, G.W.; Kennedy, R.E.; Gray, A.N.; at the site scale. ■ Gregory, M.J. 2015. Spatiotemporal dynamics of recent mountain pine beetle
Fire Management Today 16 Coping with tRAgedY: You will not stAnd Alone Kristel Johnson
n October 2006, five employees from the San Bernardino National The course is designed to prepare “our best” for IForest in southern California died while battling the Esperanza Fire. “the worst,” ensuring that no one will ever stand Extreme fire behavior pushed the alone in the wake of tragedies. flames towards the crew, engulfing them within minutes. This loss was particularly significant for the San describes the resources, policies, colleagues. For years, we have done Jacinto Ranger District because and leadership skills needed to our best to wade through fatality many of the employees, including get through incidents involving incidents, but we have long needed the crew from Engine 57, had been serious injuries or fatalities. The a comprehensive, interagency friends since childhood. course was developed in memory approach that includes cooperating of the Engine 57 crew—Mark agencies, community resources, Loutzenhiser, Jess McLean, Jason and support organizations like the McKay, Daniel Hoover-Najera, Wildland Firefighter Foundation. and Pablo Cerda—and of all of our colleagues who have been lost Vicki Minor, founder and in the line of duty. “You Will Not executive director of the Wildland Stand Alone” (YWNSA) can be Firefighter Foundation, had this considered a phoenix rising from to say about YWNSA: the ashes because the content emerged from the hearts of people The Wildland Firefighter who experienced real loss. Foundation has been working with fallen and injured wildland “You Will Not Stand firefighters for 18 years. I was humbled to be asked to be part Esperanza Fire Memorial Program, Alone” Overview November 5, 2006. Source: Forest Service. As an organization, we in the Forest Service are seeing an increase in employee deaths, How does a unit survive such a suicides, posttraumatic stress profound loss and move ahead as disorder, cumulative stress, and a learning organization? Forest burnout. Prior to YWNSA, if you employees saw value in compiling worked on fatality incidents, their hard lessons learned for you had no clear guidelines future responders, ultimately for navigating through death developing both an interagency notifications or investigations. You guide and a weeklong course that had no instructions for moving Honoring firefighter Gregory Edwin through grief, for informing Pacheco, October 5, 1999. Pacheco was survivors of the support resources killed on a wildfire on the Cleveland Kristel Johnson is the training officer and National Forest in California. His casket Pacific Southwest CISM coordinator for the available to them, or for identifying was flown home to New Mexico on a Forest Forest Service, San Bernardino National symptoms of compassion fatigue in Service aircraft. Photo: Forest Service. Forest, San Bernardino, CA. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 17 of the “You Will Not Stand been developed by those who long-term adverse impacts on Alone” cadre. This class is highly recognized that, in times of employees, their families, the educational, and one thing I stress and tragedy, we need community, and the agency know for sure—our wounded tools derived from a sound at large. A proactive approach healers are more powerful than doctrinal basis to help us cope that establishes intent and a people who learn out of a book. and then thrive. The strength unified effort to intervene on an What has amazed me most out of the course lies not in the employee’s behalf demonstrates of this program is the healing strong content but in the care and respect. that is happening because of storytelling and linkage that the cadre and the people who springs from a connection In 2008, the National Wildfire have been magnetized to this between those attending and Coordinating Group published program. The healing is far those presenting. Each of the Agency Administrator’s reaching, from the Forest the participants—cadre and Guide to Critical Incident Service into the interagency fire class—comes with a purpose Management. YWNSA compiles community. Because [of] what and leaves strengthened. I have information from this guide I know has been happening, I been fortunate to see the origin and other resources to direct strongly endorse this program and growth of the class. The those handling line-of-duty and encourage this class [to] power of the course has moved deaths, off-duty deaths, serious be experienced by many more. its impact into every part of the accidents, and serious injuries. As hard as we try to prevent country. We in wildland fire The roles and responsibilities of death and injury, Mother are a distinct sisterhood and the agency administrator and Nature is unforgiving at times. brotherhood. We care for one support personnel are defined, Preparedness is always better another. A loss for one is a loss including for the family liaison, than staggering reaction when for many. This course, and the hospital liaison, funeral liaison, situations take us places we people who are associated with public information officer, benefits never wanted to be. it as cadre and class, show us coordinator, and chaplain. The that we stand together. course establishes guidelines YWNSA is the first nationwide for the notification process and attempt to create a comprehensive offers information related to guide to help responders maneuver investigations, the coordinated through incidents involving The course was response protocol, and support fatalities or serious injuries. developed in memory resources such as critical incident YWNSA stresses the importance of of all of our colleagues stress management (CISM). pre-incident planning and training and offers suggestions on how who have been lost in Modified Incident Management to support employees and family the line of duty. Organization. Fires and incidents members when an incident occurs. that we typically respond to It is designed to prepare “our best” are defined geographically, and for “the worst,” ensuring that no our actions are based on known one will ever stand alone in the Following is a brief overview of the protocols, tactics, and operational wake of tragedies. topics covered in YWNSA. procedures. Responding to a line- of-duty death is more abstract Tom Harbour, former Director Topic Areas in that human relationships of Fire and Aviation Management and the grief process become in the Forest Service’s Washington Agency Administrator’s Guide to the focus of our actions. The Office, had this to say about Critical Incident Management. Incident Command System can the course: Line officers are responsible be adapted to meet the complex for managing critical incidents demands that arise from a variety As it has been said, “True within their jurisdictions, which of incidents. A modified “short” doctrine, properly understood, starts with looking out for their incident management team (IMT) changes behavior.” “You employees. A leader’s response— is commonly used during fatality Will Not Stand Alone” has or lack of response—can have incidents.
Fire Management Today 18 YWNSA offers an overview of authority and take responsibility the Incident Command System, commensurate with their outlines the responsibilities capabilities. The policy is based on of IMT members, and offers the following principles: suggestions on how to restructure the traditional IMT for fatality 1. Encourage and reward incidents. Agency leaders are responsible risk taking, encouraged to give training creativity, and innovation. opportunities to those who are Challenge employees to develop interested in joining modified IMTs new ideas and test improved Honor Guard members at the memorial before a critical incident occurs. ways of doing business on a service for Gabe Pomona, Big Bear Hotshot continuous basis. Captain, March 4, 2011. Photo: Seth Agency Guidance for Initial 2. Try out new ideas and McKinney, Forest Service. Support, Memorials, and approaches. If they don’t Funerals. The Forest Service work, treat them as learning includes excerpts from the Forest aims to give immediate assistance experiences rather than as Service Manual and Handbook to the families and coworkers of performance failures. and the Death and Serious Injury those who die or are seriously 3. Place emphasis on guiding, Handbook, including guidance injured in the line of duty. It is educating, advising, and on attendance and leave, uniform crucial for managers to engage in encouraging employees rather policy, and travel. the response; lack of support from than regulating and controlling managers—or even a perceived their behavior. Hospital and Family Liaisons. lack of support—can adversely 4. Treat individual talents as Unexpected deaths invoke a unique affect employee productivity, important organizational assets. set of emotional challenges that workplace morale, and even 5. Give employees opportunities to must be processed and dealt with. personal lives. exercise independent judgment. Survivors often experience a sense 6. Engage employees in frequent of unreality, helplessness, and and routine safety discussions unfinished business. Feelings of that increase awareness of guilt and self-recrimination may safety-related matters and abound. There may also be an encourage dialogue about intensified need to blame someone. unsafe conditions. Survivors want to understand what happened and try to bring The YWNSA instructor cadre some meaning to their loss. exemplifies these principles. The During this time of profound course was developed by field stress, family members will likely employees who recognized the San Bernardino National Forest employees be overwhelmed with all kinds of at the Esperanza Memorial Service on gaps in our agency response information and decisions that November 5, 2006. Photo: Forest Service. to fatality incidents and the require immediate resolution. importance of learning how In 2014, the Forest Service to respond before an incident The family and hospital liaisons published the Death and Serious occurs. The course gives an are volunteers who form a Injury Handbook, which contains overview of agency policies on bridge to support services for the standard operating procedures for donations; award ceremonies; grieving family. They themselves responding to fatalities and serious monuments; family travel and also support the family and injuries of employees, contractors, per diem; employee attendance assure Forest Service officials and retirees both in and outside at funerals or memorial services; that the family’s needs are being the line of duty. The objective of inventory and return of personal met. Without a doubt, these are the guide is to create and maintain items; autopsy expenditures; some of the most demanding and an environment of management and transportation of the body important roles in the incident excellence where employees and escorts, as well as other support organization. are empowered to assume miscellaneous costs. The course
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 19 It is important that those who Each of us has a role to play in building a more serve in the liaison position are sensitive to the needs of the resistant and resilient workforce and creating a bereaved family and respectful of better path towards recovery. their family structure, dynamics, and belief system. Liaisons bring solace, calm, and compassion to an arrangements, and its wishes personnel to serve. There should emotionally charged environment. should take precedence over the be a distinct end date to the The liaison is not a decision maker Forest Service’s wishes. assignment, a transition period but rather a facilitator. The family with the family, and a long- itself should make all decisions An important part of pre-incident term strategy for the forest or regarding funeral and memorial planning is to identify and train district to interact with the people in key positions, such as family. This plan must be clearly the family and hospital liaisons, communicated to everyone before their assistance is needed. involved. It is not uncommon for Education related to CISM, grief, family and hospital liaisons to peer support, and internal form lifelong relationships with policies is helpful. A basic the families they support, but they knowledge of processes related still need a formal end date to to human resources benefits their assignment. through the Office of Worker’s Jason McKay Memorial Service, November Compensation Program and other Working With the Media. Fatality 3, 2006. Steve Seltzner, Forest Service founder of the Honor Guard (retired), with resources, such as the Wildland incidents are complex and highly Crystal McKay and Jody McKay, sisters of Firefighter Foundation and Public visible. They attract significant Jason McKay, killed in the line of duty on Safety Officer’s Death Benefit, is political and media interest and the Esperanza Fire. Photo: Forest Service. also helpful. must be handled with great respect. No matter how remote Another important role for the a critical incident is, media family liaison is to assess the long- representatives will likely show up. term needs of the family, such as The role of the public information for counseling services, financial officer is to provide accurate, support, legal services, and other timely, and respectful information kinds of assistance. The liaison that is in line with the family’s puts the family in touch with the wishes. The role of the agency appropriate support services. administrator is to plan before the incident to ensure the highest Liaisons should establish healthy level of support for the public boundaries and balance their information officer and successful liaison duty with their own media relations. personal, family, and professional needs. Liaisons can pay an Suggestions include designating emotional price if self-care is not a crisis communication team; taken seriously. Fatigue, strained creating contact lists, including family relations, job difficulties, a list of qualified public and depression are common information officers; developing Anniversary site visit with the Esperanza side effects. a communication plan template; families (Engine 57), October 26, 2013. Left naming an agency spokesperson; to right: Kristel Johnson, Forest Service; We must take care of those who identifying Joint Information Ceil McLean, mother of Fire Engine we have asked to serve in this Center locations; and becoming Operator Jess McLean, killed in the line of duty; Chris Fogle, Forest Service. Photo: capacity. Agency administrators familiar with agency policies related Maria Loutzenhiser, by permission of should decide how long it to social media as well as planning Kristel Johnson, Forest Service. is appropriate for support ahead for social media interest. Fire Management Today 20 Agency and Survivor Support. crisis intervention developed People who give emotional support specifically for first responders. in the wake of critical incidents face many challenges. Death and CISM was developed 25 years tragedy are difficult topics to ago by Jeffrey T. Mitchell, a discuss. Support personnel should clinical associate professor at expect the experience to be quite the University of Maryland’s uncomfortable; these matters re- Emergency Health Services quire an ability to work with other Department, and George S. people at a deep emotional level. Everly, Jr., a professor at Harvard Tom Knappenberger, former media liaison Medical School and Johns for the Pacific Northwest Region. Photo: Forest Service. First responders are routinely Hopkins University. Both had exposed to traumatic events in the extensive experience working with course of their duties. Therefore, first responders. Notification. Few tasks can be as they are at increased risk of long- difficult as telling a family that term problems from traumatic A basic principle of CISM is that their loved one was killed in the stress. YWNSA defines traumatic first responders already know line of duty or that he/she sustained events, normal responses, the how to cope with stress. They live life-threatening injuries. No words situations that increase the risk of with it every day as individuals can capture the enormity of this developing a stress disorder, and and as part of a group, but the responsibility, which is assigned when it is time to seek professional impacts of critical incidents are to the notification officer, whose help. The degree to which an so powerful that they overwhelm actions and words will reflect on the organization is able to survive the coping skills of well-trained, Forest Service for years to come. such trauma and heal effectively experienced people. CISM peer depends on practical coping supporters are often accompanied The presence of a notification strategies and resources. by a mental health professional. officer demonstrates genuine Responders are encouraged to talk concern for employees and their about the incident and related families. Proper notification can signs and symptoms of stress. It is establish rapport with the next validating for responders to know of kin and open a doorway for that sleeplessness, an inability to the agency to give additional focus, and reliving parts of the support through the family liaison. incident are common reactions to Improper notification can cause an traumatic incidents. irreparable rift. The peer support program has Notification officers should expect shown that talking with a colleague the unexpected, because they Anniversary site visit with the Esperanza who understands the traumas of don’t know how a family will families (Engine 57), October 26, 2014. the job can alleviate the body’s respond. Some people collapse; Photo: Forest Service. response to stress and allow the others might swing a punch. responder to recover more quickly. It is important for an agency First responders are a culture in representative to be present The Forest Service can improve and of themselves; within that during a death notification. the ability of employees at all culture, they are very protective In some States, the sheriff’s levels by monitoring the ongoing of each other. The healing process office must make the initial stress that responders experience works best if they talk with people notification, but it is important and supporting positive coping they trust. to have a Forest Service strategies. Support personnel representative with the sheriff can intervene and prevent YWNSA addresses stress reactions, when the family is approached, the long-term effects of stress different types of stress, CISM, if possible. Such tasks require a through resources such as peer support, and a variety of great deal of coordination. CISM, a peer-led approach to basic stress management and Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 21 crisis intervention techniques. It crisis situations. People can be by critical incidents can be faced also gives information on suicide traumatized by their exposure with immediate economic hardship awareness, prevention, and to distressing stories without in addition to profound loss and intervention; and it lists numerous ever actually being physically emotional stress. They may need support resources. threatened or harmed themselves. help understanding the benefits Compassion fatigue can express that are available to them to receive Resilient Leadership, Compassion itself through anger without immediate financial support. Fatigue, and Burnout. Resilient cause, blaming others, chronic leaders have the ability to lateness, depression, mental or The benefits counselor is motivate and inspire others physical exhaustion, frequent responsible for outlining the during times of crisis. They tend headaches, gastrointestinal benefits process to the family to remain adaptable and calm problems, feelings of liaison and surviving family under pressure and also help hopelessness, hypertension, members. He or she works others adapt to or rebound from increased irritability, low self- closely with the family liaison to adversity. They establish group esteem, sleep disturbances, and explain potential benefits, supply cohesion and create conditions workaholic tendencies. the required forms, assist with that motivate people to follow. completing them, discuss claim Resilient leaders base their timelines, and describe the effects actions on a thoughtful, realistic of deposits and redeposits for assessment of the situation; The family and hospital civilian and/or military service. then they act with decisiveness. liaisons are volunteers Such leaders demonstrate vision, In addition to the benefits package, optimism, perseverance, emotional who form a bridge to numerous support mechanisms intelligence, and personal support services for the are available to the family. For responsibility. They foster the example, the Wildland Firefighter health of the organization by grieving family. Foundation may play a key role— building a more resilient culture. depending on the circumstances— by offering financial support to We can reduce the vulnerability Burnout, another variation the family before the benefits of responders and increase their of stress, can be thought of arrive. The Employee Assistance resilience through preparedness, as physical and psychological Program is available to families training, and creating a more exhaustion. It slowly erodes a for immediate and long-term resistant workforce. Information is person’s sense of well-being, self- support. Death benefits from the power, and it protects responders by confidence, and psychological Public Safety Officers’ Benefits preparing them for the experience. health, but it can be hard to Program are available to survivors recognize because of its slow onset. of fallen law enforcement officers, Specific situations can increase Burnout results from situations firefighters, and other emergency one’s vulnerability to traumatic that make a person feel chronically service personnel. stress, such as having no control overwhelmed, frustrated, or angry. over the volume of calls, having Investigations. A number of to respond to numerous calls, YWNSA offers ideas for coping investigations are required by the and being involved long term in and stress prevention related to Forest Service as well as by Federal emergency management. Stress is compassion fatigue and burnout. regulations. In recent years, the cumulative, and continued events Forest Service has moved from can lead to compassion fatigue Benefits for Survivors. Benefits a blaming culture to a learning and burnout, prevalent among are very complex. It is essential culture. One example is the emergency responders. that Forest Service personnel facilitated learning analysis, which understand the benefits program is a peer review process that allows Compassion fatigue, also known to help family members navigate employees to learn from unintended as secondary traumatic stress, through the onslaught of paperwork outcomes and promotes risk entails anxiety from helping or that follows a line-of-duty death or mitigation. Information gathered wanting to help others during a disabling injury. Families affected from these reviews is used by the
Fire Management Today 22 agency or agencies only for needs to be clearly communicated accident prevention. to the family.
In 2014, the coordinated response Building a Resilient protocol was designed to control access to incident personnel, Workforce eliminate redundancy within At the Forest Service, our goal the investigation process, and is to manage critical incidents make the investigation process as through an interagency approach, painless as possible. The protocol, with agencies and people from which replaced the serious different backgrounds solving accident investigation team, takes problems together through an effect when an accident warrants a National Fallen Firefighters Memorial at open exchange of skills, ideas, Chief’s-level review, usually when Emmitsburg, MD, in October 2013. Photo: and resources. Our doctrinal Forest Service. a death or the hospitalization approach promotes sound and of three or more employees has commonsense decision making. occurred. The learning review Honor Guard standards, with is not used as the basis for emphasis on honoring family disciplinary action or to place requests. As a select part of a high- blame on employees. performance team, members display an attitude of dedication, dignity, YWNSA also covers important and pride in the Forest Service. information related to Federal agency and employee liability, Continued Support. The turmoil including Kalkines and Garrity created by a critical incident can warnings, the Federal Tort Claims affect the family and employees for Act, OSHA violations, civil and a long time. Trigger points such criminal investigations, and as holidays, birthdays, jury trials, Steve Goldschmidt, Forest Service Honor administrative investigations. photographs, investigations, and Guard member (retired). Photo: Forest the anniversary date of the accident Service. Honor Guard. Employees from may cause emotions to resurface the San Bernardino National for years. Families can become Forest formed the Honor Guard dependent on the agency, but careful in 1999 to pay respect to their planning and decisive actions can Traumatic events such as fatalities colleagues who were killed in the help facilitate the healing process and serious injuries are never tidy line of duty. The Honor Guard for everyone involved. and never convenient. By nature, now comprises Forest Service these incidents do not follow any employees from around the Nation It is not uncommon for deep rules or pattern. In human terms, who bring a wealth of diversity, emotional bonds to form between they are the cruelest of incidents experience, and compassion to the family and support providers. to deal with. The best that we can their duties. Their display of honor The family looks to liaisons and do is prepare “our best” for “the and respect promotes emotional others for emotional support and worst” by giving solid guidance healing for the family as well as guidance and to keep the memory and a clear process to follow and by employees. Multiple agencies have of their loved one alive. Employee engaging good people who know Honor Guard programs that work well-being must be taken into what to do and when to do it. By cooperatively to support each other. consideration because continued planning for potential tragedies involvement requires personal and providing the proper support The Forest Service Honor Guard sacrifice. The agency administrator afterwards, we can better serve Handbook outlines the appropriate is responsible for setting an people, support families, represent use of the Honor Guard; how to appropriate timeframe for support the agency, and do good things request the Honor Guard; the personnel to stay involved in an even in the worst of circumstances. approval process; and detailed official capacity. The timeframe Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 23 Each of us has a role to play in with the intent of developing an This course has the ability to building a more resistant and instructor cadre in Region 6. In change Forest Service culture in a resilient workforce and creating 2015, the course was delivered very positive way. It can help bring a better path towards recovery. in Regions 5, 6, and 3 while employees truly to believe that the We all have the opportunity to developing an instructor cadre in agency has their back and will not effect change, provide support Region 3. In 2016, the course was leave them standing alone during resources, and move forward delivered in Regions 3, 5, 6, and times of adversity. It can mobilize as a professional, continuous- 2 while developing an instructor agency employees to be part of improvement organization. cadre in Region 2. the change in our organization by engaging them in fostering YWNSA addresses all facets of a YWNSA has been evaluated by employee health and well-being. loss; it contains strong emotional the National Advanced Fire content and tends to evoke strong Research Institute (NAFRI), and For more information, please emotional reactions. Keynote a national steering committee contact Kristel Johnson, YWNSA speakers include people personally is in development, chartered Cadre Lead/Author, San Bernardino affected by fatality incidents. under NAFRI. Course delivery National Forest, tel. 909-553-2776, dates are listed on the National email [email protected]. ■ The course was delivered for Fire Training website at
Fire Management Today 24 UnplAnned wildFiRe in AReAs with slAsh piles Alexander M. Evans and Clinton S. Wright
ach year, fuel treatments Why Are There Unburned unfavorable weather conditions, reduce the likelihood of Piles? available resources, and even uncharacteristically severe funding (Bailey 2014; USDA Forest E Piles are built and left to dry wildland fire in overstocked stands Service 2014). across millions of acres in the because green wood burns poorly. United States. Typically, these For example, the Forest Service’s Piling and burning is common treatments target small-diameter Lake Tahoe Basin Management in the wildland–urban interface trees for removal, producing Unit in California states that it (WUI), where the proximity of large amounts of unmerchantable takes about 18 months for piles homes makes broadcast burning material and increasing surface to dry sufficiently for effective more challenging. However, piles fuels. Currently, few commercial consumption when burned. in the WUI can be a target for markets for this woody material arson. In 2006, for example, at a exist, so it is commonly piled California campground, arsonist- and burned onsite. Occasionally, Piling and burning is ignited piles required a handcrew, unplanned wildfires burn piles engine, and helicopter to contain before managers are able to common in the WUI, the fire at 1.4 acres (0.6 ha) burn them under controlled where the proximity (Jacobs 2014). conditions. Little has been written or documented about piles burned of homes makes Do Piles Affect Fire during wildfires, making it broadcast burning difficult to assess the threat posed Behavior? by unburned piles. more challenging. One of the key questions is whether or how fire behavior In an effort to better understand changes in the presence of the prevalence, causes, and unburned piles. From the impacts of unplanned burning of Weather also delays burning; perspective of a wildfire, unburned piles, we reviewed the available material cut in the spring or piles are simply redistributed literature and interviewed summer is often left until fuels. Boles and branches from managers from across the country. conditions are safe for burning. the canopy aggregated into piles A review of the literature suggests In many areas, managers burn contain the same amount of fuel that treated units with unburned piles when there is snow on the in a different arrangement. An slash piles and untreated units ground to prevent unwanted fire assessment of the 2007 Angora with ladder fuels will experience spread. Lack of snow can delay Fire in California stated that the similar fire behavior and effects. pile burning. The Coalition for the convective and radiant heat output What follows is a first step that Upper South Platte in Colorado in untreated stands and stands will hopefully call attention to was unable to burn thousands with piles would be similar because the issue and help frame incisive of piles during the winter of the same amount of fuel would questions for future research. 2012–2013 because snow depth did burn (Murphy and others 2007). not meet its pile burn guidelines Alexander Evans is the research director for (Steiner 2014). In many forests, However, piling fuels can change the Forest Stewards Guild, Santa Fe, NM; there is a backlog of unburned fuel moistures by converting and Clinton Wright is a retired research piles because of limitations live fuels to dead fuels, which forester for the Forest Service, Pacific imposed by air quality restrictions, Northwest Research Station, Seattle, WA. can affect flame length, fireline Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 25 intensity, burning duration, and other aspects of fire behavior. Moving biomass from standing trees to piles decreases canopy bulk density, ladder fuels, and canopy continuity, which can reduce fire intensity and severity.
Yet reducing stem and canopy density opens the stand to higher wind speeds and increased fire behavior. For example, the 2010 Fourmile Canyon Fire in Colorado burned more intensely through stands with piles than through adjacent untreated stands in the Gold Hill area because of increased wind speeds in the thinned stands (Graham and others 2012). An experimental burn at Nenana Ridge in Alaska that mimicked wildfire conditions showed that a stand with windrowed fuels had a lower maximum temperature but longer heating time than a stand with a lop-and-scatter treatment (Butler and others 2012).
In some cases, even though the piles had not been burned before wildfires occurred, fire behavior was less active than in an untreated stand. In 2004, for example, the Cal Hollow Fire threatened the community of Central, UT. A fuel break had been put in place in the pinyon–juniper Slash burned under controlled conditions in March 2013 as part of a Joint Fire Science forest above the community, research project on the ecological effects of pile burning at the Santa Clara Pueblo, NM. Photo: Alexander Evans, Forest Guild. but the fire occurred before the piles generated during fuel break installation could be burned under Similarly, during the 2005 Camp piles ignited during the 2008 controlled conditions (USDA 32 Fire in Montana, the untreated American River Complex Fire in Forest Service 2013). The fire stand supported an active crown California, causing torching of was in the tree crowns when it fire, but when the fire entered nearby trees and spotting (Safford approached the fuel break, but the stand with unburned piles 2008). During the 2013 Rail Fire it dropped to the surface in the it switched to a passive crown on the Modoc National Forest in treated area, although it did burn fire (Hvizdak 2014; USDA Forest California, the rate of spread of intensely in the piles. Retardant Service 2006). the fire front decreased when the drops and other suppression wildfire encountered a treatment activities successfully contained Wildfire in stands with unburned where material had recently been the fire before it could enter piles may have more spotting, as piled. However, the uncured the community (McAvoy 2004). was observed when large landing (or green) piles contributed to
Fire Management Today 26 spotting, which ultimately made containment difficult (Heald 2014). In contrast, during the Angora Fire, spotting distance in stands with unburned handpiles was shorter than in untreated stands (Murphy and others 2007).
In addition to generating embers, piles can also be receptive to embers from other sources. For example, the 2013 Andrews Creek Fire in Oregon ignited piles in a recently thinned Douglas-fir stand. The fire then spotted from pile to pile but did not spread far outside the footprint of the piles (Skrip 2014).
One of the key The Tin Cup Fire in August 2007 on the Bitterroot National Forest in Montana as it moves through a stand that had been thinned and piled and was slated to be burned in fall 2007. questions is whether Photo: Tobin Kelley, Forest Service. or how fire behavior When the Angora Fire burned an than ground-disturbing methods changes in the presence area with piles, the fire resisted (Augustine 2014; Farris 2014). of unburned piles. control because access was When the 2007 Tin Cup Fire in difficult; however, an area with Montana entered treated areas, it piles that burned during the moved from a crown to a surface American River Complex Fire fire, even though not all of the How Do Burning Piles was accessible by a public road, piles had been burned before the giving suppression personnel fire front arrived at the piled area Affect Wildfire Control? better access for firefighting (Bitter Root RC&D 2014). In terms of wildfire control, ease apparatus and therefore making of access to the affected area may the fire easier to control (Safford Do Piles Alter influence operational success. In 2008). Similarly, safe, successful cases where there is good access fire suppression in an area with Wildfire Effects? (that is, proximity to roads and piles on the 1999 Alder Fire in Unburned piles add to the wide trails) for staging suppression Grand Teton National Park, WY, array of factors that govern the activities, wildfires in stands with was made possible by escape effects of wildfires on the residual piles may be easier to control than routes (via paved road) and ready stand. An area with handpiles that in comparable untreated stands, access to plentiful water supplies burned during the Angora Fire particularly if the piling activities (McFarland 2014). The fast-moving had slightly lower severity because reduced the horizontal continuity 2008 Jack Fire burned through an of wider crown spacing when of the surface fuel layer. However, area with piles of western juniper compared to similar completely where access is difficult, wildfires in Lava Beds National Monument untreated stands (Murphy and in piles may be more difficult to in northern California. When others 2007). control than fires in untreated or ignited by the wildfire, the piles lop-and-scatter treatments because burned very intensely, but the fire The 2011 Wallow Fire in Arizona of the intense heat generated by was contained with minimum- affected both stands with a lop- burning piles. impact strategies such as use of and-scatter treatment and stands existing roads and water rather with piles that had yet to be Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 27 burned. Although both types of Arizona. Although their analysis activity and severity; there are treatments resulted in canopy did not focus specifically on the also cases where, either because mortality, mortality in the piled impact of unplanned fire in piled of location (easier access) or the treatment was concentrated fuels, they found that thinning rearrangement of surface fuels around the pile locations without treatment of the resulting across the larger stand (disrupting (particularly for landing piles), slash increased burn severity. An horizontal fuel continuity), whereas the lop-and-scatter analysis of the 2007 Tin Cup Fire unburned piles increase control treatment was associated with found that crown burn effects opportunities and potentially complete mortality (Bostwick and were similar between partially reduce wildfire severity. others 2011; Palmer and others treated units with slash piles and 2011). In some areas that burned untreated units with ladder fuels We consider this report to be a in the Wallow Fire near Nutrioso, (Harrington and others 2010). first look at the issue of wildfires AZ, the delayed mortality of the burning areas with piled fuels. overstory trees near piles appeared Where topography drives an Given the dearth of information to be driven by the long fire increase in fire intensity, fuel and quantitative study, we residence time associated with the treatments are often overwhelmed. suggest that the topic warrants burning piles (Bigelow 2014). For example, during the 2012 additional inquiry. A more indepth Little Bear Fire in New Mexico, investigation of the area affected burnout operations sent fire uphill could help define the scope of into a stand where handpiled fuels the issue. A simple inventory A review of the had yet to be treated. The result of the total area with piles and was high levels of mortality in the of the annual area with piles literature suggests residual stand (Kuhar 2012). burned during wildfires would that treated units with be a good place to start. Planned Research Needs experiments should also be unburned slash piles initiated and opportunistic postfire and untreated units Based on our review of the measurements taken to assess available reports and interviews how the presence of piles—and with ladder fuels will with managers, it appears that the corresponding changes in experience similar fire unplanned fire in areas with stand structure and surface fuels piles is not common. Our search behavior and effects. due to fuel treatments—affect uncovered only 20 examples in fire intensity and severity. Land the last decade. Although our managers can then better weigh review of the literature and our the risks and benefits associated In a number of cases when wildfire limited survey of the management with piling as a fuel treatment. encountered unburned piles, community might reflect a significant underestimate, the fact the effects were worse than in Acknowledgments similar untreated stands. On the remains that it is three orders of 2007 East Zone Complex Fire in magnitude smaller than the total We are very thankful to the Idaho, tree mortality was higher number of wildfires that occur numerous managers who provided in an area burned with piles than each year. Therefore, wildfires in insights and observations. This in comparable untreated areas areas with piles remain a minor work was funded by the Joint Fire ■ (Hudak and others 2011). When occurrence in the broader context. Science Program (11–1–8–4). the 2011 Cougar Fire in California Even in cases like the East Zone reached accumulations of trees cut Complex Fire in Idaho, where 156 References acres (63 ha) of piles did burn by feller-bunchers and left to cure, Augustine, A. 2014. Park successfully the result was higher fire severity in a wildfire, another 954 acres uses minimum impact tactics to (Farris 2014; Safford and others (386 ha) of piles had been burned contain fire, Lava Beds National Monument, California.
Fire Management Today 28 Bailey, J. 2014. Personal communication. National Forest, Warner Mountain Safford, H. 2008. Fire severity in fuel 7 February. Fuels Planner, Okanogan– Ranger District, Cedarville, CA. treatments American River Complex Wenatchee National Forest, Naches Hudak, A.T.; Rickert, I.; Morgan, P. Fire, Tahoe National Forest, California. Ranger District, Naches, WA [and others]. 2011. Review of fuel Vallejo, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Bigelow, R. 2014. Personal communication. treatment effectiveness in forests and Southwest Region. 11 February. Fuels specialist, Manti–La rangelands and a case study from the Safford, H.D.; Stevens, J.T.; Merriam, K. Sal National Forest, Sanpete Ranger 2007 megafires in central Idaho, USA. [and others]. 2012. Fuel treatment District, Ephraim, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–252. Fort effectiveness in California yellow pine Bitter Root RC&D (Resource Conservation Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky and mixed conifer forests. Forest and Development). 2014. Making things Mountain Research Station. Ecology and Management. 274: 17–28. happen: 3 success stories. Hamilton, MT. Hvizdak, R. 2014. Personal communication. Skrip, P. 2014. Personal communication.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 29 PRescRiBed FiRe tRAining centeR suRpAsses 1 million AcRes Joseph P. Ferguson and Greg Seamon
n April 16, 2015, the Table 1—Prescribed Fire Training Center accomplishments, by year. Prescribed Fire Training Burn area Center (PFTC) in O a Tallahassee, FL, reached an Year Modules Burns Total (acres [ha]) WUI (acres [ha]) impressive milestone. Two training 1998 9 112 59,836 (24,215) 6,582b (2,664) modules conducted burns that 1999 12 190 82,837 (33,523) 8,600 (3,480) pushed the Center’s cumulative accomplishment past 1 million 2000 15 197 74,595 (30,188) 3,142 (1,272) acres. The two pivotal prescribed 2001 15 145 46,605 (18,860) 6,615 (2,677) burns occurred on Loxahatchee 2002 19 158c 42,599 (17,239) 9,997 (4,046) National Wildlife Refuge and 2003 23 214 54,853 (22,198) 27,152 (10,988) Catfish Creek Preserve State Park, both in Florida. 2004 21 159 47,175 (19,091) 27,025 (10,937) 2005 14 120 36,590 (14,807) 18,211 (7,370) PFTC began providing experiential 2006 17 147 49,452 (20,013) 15,752 (6,375) training in prescribed fire to 2007 17 161 41,036 (16,607) 12,176 (5,146) wildland fire professionals in January 1998. Since that date, 2008 17 178 59,420 (24,046) 15,572 (6,302) 2,028 attendees have come 2009 19 177 78,192 (31,643) 38,631 (15,633) through the Center, participating 2010 18 162 66,245 (26,808) 18,933 (7,662) in 2,903 individual prescribed 2011 17 176 45,301 (18,333) 18,093 (7,322) burns. As of May 4, 2015, the burn area stood at 1,003,055 acres 2012 9 96 28,356 (11,475) 15,435 (6,246) (405,220 ha) (table 1). 2013 16 172 70,279 (28,441) 26,079 (10,554) 2014 18 157 56,168 (22,730) 11,920 (4,824) Prescribed Fire Training 2015d 18 181 63,515 (25,704) 15,245 (6,169) Center Mission Total 294 2,903 1,003,055 (405,922) 288,578 (116,783) The mission of PFTC is to provide a Wildland–urban interface. opportunities for Federal, State, b Estimate; detailed numbers not collected. local, and tribal government c Estimate; detailed numbers not collected. d agencies and other entities to As of May 1, 2015. build skills and knowledge in prescribed fire. Students gain Over 200 cooperating host units Wildland fire students come valuable experience and confidence across the Southeastern United from all over the world to take in applying fire on the ground. States mentor participants by advantage of this unique training offering their lands for learning opportunity. As of May 2015, 49 Joe Ferguson is a retired fire manager for opportunities. The prospect of States were represented in the the Forest Service and the founder of the working on National Wildfire student rolls, with only Rhode Prescribed Fire Training Center (PFTC) Coordinating Group task books Island missing. In addition to in Tallahassee, FL; and Greg Seamon is the fire training specialist for PFTC and is one of the cornerstones of the students from all corners of the an employee of the Tall Timbers Research PFTC program. United States, PFTC had also hosted Station, Tallahassee, FL. Fire Management Today 30 Students gain valuable experience and confidence 62 international students from 17 countries: Australia, Belize, Canada, in applying fire on the ground. Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Mexico, Namibia, Portugal, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, and Trinidad.
In addition to the 20-day sessions for prescribed fire practitioners, PFTC offers an annual 6-day workshop geared to line officers from the Federal agencies. This Agency Administrators Workshop gives valuable insight and training to line officers and also meets Forest Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service requirements for certifications in prescribed fire.
PFTC has also held past workshops geared specifically to unit fire management officers and resources specialists.
Partnerships Are Key Stefano Macrelli igniting a prescribed fire from an airboat on the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge in Florida on April 16, 2015. Photo: Prescribed Fire Training Center. Since the day PFTC opened for business, partnerships have been the key component of its success. A coalition of eight agencies make up the national interagency partnership that is PFTC: the Forest Service; the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Indian Affairs; the Florida Forest Service; the Tall Timbers Research Station; and the U.S. Department of Defense. These agencies furnish the funding, staff, and support to keep PFTC going.
But the true foundation of PFTC is the many local sites that offer opportunities for burns and training. Too numerous to name, these include national forests, wildlife refuges, and parks; John Cataldo burning at Catfish Creek State Park in Florida on April 16, 2015. Photo: State parks and preserves; water Prescribed Fire Training Center. management districts; The Nature
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 31 Conservancy preserves; military bases; State forests; university and nongovernmental organization research stations; and even private landowners through State forestry agency mitigation burns.
From Mississippi to North Carolina, PFTC has agreements in place to allow the movement of modules to where the current burning window is open. This ability to stay fluid by moving modules and keeping them burning throughout the session is unique. It ensures the success of PFTC, making this such a valuable program.
For more information about PFTC, or if you want to become part of The million-acre (2015, session 4) trainees and field coordinators during orientation at the the second million acres, visit the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center in Florida. Photo: Prescribed Fire Training PFTC website at
The true foundation of the Prescribed Fire Training Center is the many local sites that offer opportunities for burns and trainings.
Deputy District Ranger Roderick Alfred from the Inyo National Forest ignites a prescribed burn on the Ocala National Forest during the fiscal year 2015 Agency Administrator Workshop. The burn took place on October 30, 2014. Photo: Prescribed Fire Training Center; Joe Ferguson, Southeastern Fire Associates, Blountstown, FL.
Fire Management Today 32 InsuRAnce And wildFiRe mitigAtion: whAt do we know? James R. Meldrum, Chris Barth, Patricia A. Champ, Hannah Brenkert-Smith, Lilia Falk, and Travis Warziniack
here is much interest in the role of insurance in Research shows that homeowners are often Tencouraging homeowners to mitigate wildfire risk to their unaware of the implications of potential hazards on properties. For example, the Fire their insurance options. Adapted Communities Coalition characterizes the insurance industry as a “nontraditional stakeholder” for many reasons. Most Are homeowners aware of any that “may reduce future wildfire- homeowners carry insurance effect of wildfire risk on their related insurance claims by on their residential property. If insurance coverage? If so, does educating homeowners on Firewise insurance premiums correspond homeowner awareness of the principles and providing incentives to expected wildfire losses, effect of wildfire risk on insurance for policy holders completing the properties facing high wildfire coverage relate to awareness work” (Mowery and Prudhomme risks will be more expensive to and concern about wildfire 2014). Indeed, the Insurance insure than other properties, all risk? And most importantly, Institute for Business and Home else being equal. Homeowners does homeowner awareness of Safety has contributed substantially can reduce their wildfire the link between wildfire risk to the science of wildfire risk risk in many ways, including and insurance coverage relate mitigation. However, little is known maintaining defensible space and to homeowners taking steps to about the relationship between using noncombustible building reduce the risk of wildfire? insurance policies, communications materials. Such activities lower from insurance companies, expected wildfire losses, so the and wildfire risk mitigation on Data From Colorado potential for reduced insurance individual properties. premiums could encourage Communities homeowners to invest in such We examined responses to Homeowners insurance could activities. Insurance companies household-level surveys in five relate to wildfire risk mitigation could also attach requirements different locations throughout for wildfire risk reduction to Colorado. These surveys addressed James R. Meldrum is a research economist insurance coverage. Furthermore, homeowners’ thoughts about for the U.S. Geological Survey at the Fort they could raise awareness and wildfire risks on their property. As Collins Science Center in Fort Collins, CO; figure 1 shows, surveys occurred (when preparing the article, he was an influence behavior by denying interdisciplinary environmental economist coverage to high-risk properties. in different years: Colorado at the University of Colorado, Boulder, Springs in 2003, Boulder and CO); Hannah Brenkert-Smith is an However, if the effect of wildfire Larimer Counties in 2010, the Log environmental sociologist at the University Hill Mesa community in Ouray of Colorado, Boulder; Chris Barth is a risk on homeowners insurance is fire mitigation and education specialist to influence behavior, homeowners County in 2012, and four out of for the Bureau of Land Management, must be aware of that effect. In five fire protection districts in Montrose, CO; Patricia A. Champ and this article, we draw on survey Delta County in 2013. Table 1 Travis Warziniack are research economists data from numerous communities provides details about the surveys in the Human Dimensions Program at the and the study populations. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research in Colorado to investigate the Station, Fort Collins, CO; and Lilia Falk relationship between insurance is the Director of the West Region Wildfire and wildfire mitigation. We ask: Council, Montrose, CO. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 33 We examined responses to As figure 1 depicts, the surveyed homeowners insurance and household-level surveys in five communities are distributed wildfire risk. Table 1 gives different locations and years: throughout Colorado. further details about the surveys Colorado Springs in 2003, Boulder and the study populations. We and Larimer Counties in 2010, All five surveys solicited focused in particular on the Delta the Log Hill Mesa community homeowners’ thoughts about County surveys in the wildland– in Ouray County in 2012, and wildfire risks on their properties urban interface (WUI), which four out of five fire protection and their knowledge about are described in more detail in districts in Delta County in 2013. the relationship between their Meldrum and others (2015a).
Were homeowners aware of any effect of wildfire risk on their insurance coverage?
All five surveys asked about insurance coverage and how respondents thought wildfire risk affected their coverage. For example, figure 2 shows responses to a series of questions from the 2013 survey of Delta County WUI communities. The figure shows the type of relevant information collected, although the specific questions asked varied across the different surveys.
In the Delta County WUI survey, few respondents (18 percent) Figure 1—Survey data pertaining to communities located in the wildland–urban interface reported any known effect of throughout Colorado, as shown in red on the map: Colorado Springs (2003), Boulder and wildfire risk on their homeowners Larimer Counties (2010), Ouray County (2012), and Delta County (2013).
Table 1—Details from five surveys on wildland–urban interface (WUI) homeowners’ knowledge about the relationship between wildfire risk and their homeowners insurance, by location.
Log Hill Mesa, Data Colorado Springs Boulder County Larimer County Delta County Ouray County Survey 2003 2010 2010 2012 2013 year Number (response 43 (52%) 259 (66%) 185 (62%) 291 (62%) 681 (58%) rate) Sample Households in Respondents to Respondents to All households All households in frame Colorado Springs previous survey previous survey in Log Hill Mesa the WUI of Delta WUI that sold (2007, 36% (2007, 36% community, County from July 2002 to response rate) of response rate) of Ouray County September 2004 random sample in random sample in Boulder County’s Larimer County’s fire-prone areas fire-prone areas
Fire Management Today 34 The findings were despite circumstances that might have focused homeowner attention on wildfire risks:
• The Colorado Springs survey followed a comprehensive wildfire education campaign by the Colorado Springs Fire Department, which included online publication of parcel- level wildfire risk ratings; • The Boulder and Larimer County surveys closely followed Boulder County’s Fourmile Canyon Fire in 2010, which Figure 2—Survey responses regarding knowledge of wildfire risk on homeowners insurance coverage in the wildland–urban interface of Delta County, CO, in 2013. Most destroyed 169 homes; and respondents were not aware of any effect of wildfire risk on their homeowners insurance. • The Log Hill Mesa and Delta (Three percent of respondents noted multiple effects, so the subcategories of “Known County surveys were part of effect” do not add up to the 18-percent total.) efforts to engage the public in developing local community insurance. The most commonly their homeowners insurance. wildfire protection plans. noted effect (13 percent of This might include people who respondents) was facing a correctly knew that there were Under other circumstances, higher homeowners insurance no effects as well as people who homeowner awareness of the premium because of wildfire risk. were affected but did not know impacts of wildfire risk on insurance Anecdotes notwithstanding, few it. Either way, the widespread might have been even lower. respondents (3 percent) noted that lack of awareness of any effects an insurance company had either of wildfire risk on homeowners Did awareness by homeowners canceled or refused to renew their insurance undercuts any that wildfire risk affected their policy because of wildfire risk. For expectation that insurance played insurance coverage relate to their another 5 percent of respondents, a role in homeowners’ decisions awareness of and concern about their homeowners insurance related to wildfire risks at the wildfire risk? company required wildfire risk time of the survey. mitigation as a condition of Next, we focused on the relatively issuing a policy. (Because a small small group of respondents who set of respondents (3 percent) noted multiple effects, these categories do not add up to the 18 percent total.)
The remaining 82 percent of Delta County WUI respondents knew of no effect of wildfire risk on their homeowners insurance. As figure 3 shows, this general result is similar across the surveys. In all cases, most respondents— ranging from 72 percent in Figure 3—Percentage of homeowners aware of any effect of wildfire risk on their Boulder County to 95 percent in homeowners insurance in five surveys across Colorado, based on relevant questions asked Log Hill Mesa—were not aware in each survey. Across all five surveys, most respondents were not aware of any effect of of any effect of wildfire risk on wildfire risk on their homeowners insurance. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 35 were aware of a link between Anecdotes notwithstanding, insurance coverage wildfire risk and their insurance coverage. Did their perception of denials due to wildfire risks were not substantial in and concern about wildfire risks any of the surveyed communities. differ from those of respondents who were unaware of any connection? overall wildfire risk as “high” or Measured differences in risk Figure 4 compares the two above, although that tendency perceptions and concern translated groups of respondents to the was only weak. Perhaps not into few differences in wildfire Delta County WUI survey. Error surprisingly, they also were more risk-reduction actions. We saw this bars show 95-percent confidence likely to state they were concerned by linking the Delta County WUI intervals, so nonoverlapping about wildfire. survey data to parcel-level rapid error bars indicate statistically wildfire risk assessments. significant differences between However, few respondents in either groups; in other words, when the group believed that there was a In the rapid assessments, a wildfire error bars overlap, there might greater-than-50-percent chance professional rated 10 property not be any meaningful difference of a wildfire occurring on their attributes related to wildfire risk, between the average responses of property in the year following many of which can be influenced the two groups. the survey. In other words, by homeowner actions. Each respondents who were aware of parcel was assigned an overall The figure shows that awareness a link between wildfire risk and wildfire risk rating based on the of a link between wildfire risk and their insurance coverage were no 10 characteristics. Previously, we insurance coverage was indeed more likely to think that a wildfire showed that survey respondents associated with perceiving greater might affect their property, but and the professional often assigned wildfire risks, but only in certain they were more likely to think different ratings to the same ways. Specifically, the respondents that there was a greater chance of properties (Meldrum and others who were aware of an effect of adverse consequences if a fire did 2015b). In particular, respondents wildfire risk on their homeowners indeed occur. often rated their properties’ overall insurance were more likely to risk lower than the professional believe there was a greater-than- Did awareness of an effect did. Here, we compare residents’ 50-percent chance that their home of wildfire risk on insurance knowledge of the insurance would be destroyed by a wildfire coverage relate to wildfire implications of wildfire risk with on their property. They also were risk reduction activities by their properties’ observed wildfire more likely to rate their property’s homeowners? risk characteristics.
Figure 4—Comparison of select survey responses between survey respondents who were aware of an effect of wildfire risk on insurance coverage with those who were not, based on Delta County wildland–urban interface data. Risk perceptions and concern about wildfire differ between the two groups.
Fire Management Today 36 Figure 5 shows results for five of Only two attributes significantly Low Impact of Insurance these attributes, comparing the differed between the two groups. on Behavior same two groups of respondents as First, respondents aware of a link in figure 4. Notably, most attributes between wildfire risk and their Overall, our analysis leads to three did not meaningfully differ between insurance coverage were less main conclusions: the two groups. Respondents in likely to have combustible siding both groups were more likely than (such as vinyl or wood shake 1. Few respondents in the surveyed not to have their wildfire risk rated shingles). This might reflect a communities were aware of “high” or above. They also were behavioral response to awareness any impacts that wildfire risks more likely than not to have cleared of a link between wildfire risk and might have on their insurance. at least 30 feet (9 m) of dense insurance coverage, or it could Therefore, insurance does not vegetation away from their homes. reflect other differences between likely influence risk-related Respondents in both groups were the two groups. decisions for most people in also just as likely to have either a these communities. noncombustible deck or no deck Second, respondents aware of a 2. Awareness of a link between at all. Similarly, the two groups link between wildfire risk and wildfire risk and insurance did not differ with respect to other their insurance coverage were coverage is associated with attributes not shown here. more often surrounded by higher greater concern about wildfire risk background vegetation, and a greater perceived risk such as dense trees and brush of losing one’s home to a instead of grasses or light brush. wildfire. This could mean that Most respondents in Because this attribute pertains to links between wildfire risk and all five surveys—up to vegetation beyond the respondents’ homeowners insurance raise property lines, it does not reflect homeowner awareness about 95 percent—were not homeowner behavior. Instead, the wildfire risks; but it also could aware of any effect of difference could reflect differences mean that the more concerned in targeting by insurance residents are about wildfire, wildfire risk on their companies or perhaps differences the more attention they pay homeowners insurance. in the extent to which homeowners to its potential impacts on pay attention to information about their insurance. Either way, wildfire risk and insurance. researchers have consistently found that homeowner
Figure 5—Comparison of select risk-related property attributes between properties belonging to survey respondents who were aware of an effect of wildfire risk on insurance coverage and properties belonging to those who were not, based on Delta County wildland–urban interface data. Most attributes were rated similarly between the two sets of properties.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 37 concerns and risk perceptions wildfires with record numbers overcome other barriers—are related to wildfire do not of homes lost in recent years. needed if homeowner awareness alone suffice to generate risk The patterns observed might about wildfire risk is to translate reduction activities. not be generalizable beyond the into measurable risk reduction 3. Accordingly, being aware of the communities studied. Moreover, outcomes. Whether such steps potential impacts of wildfire the parcel-level rapid wildfire are best taken by insurance risk on insurance does not assessments do not reflect a full companies or by other entities, lead to substantial wildfire risk inventory of a property’s wildfire such as community groups, reductions in the surveyed risks; rather, they focus on regional wildfire risk programs, communities. Otherwise, we key characteristics related to a or government extension agents, would expect to have seen structure’s potential defensibility remains an open question. ■ differences in the assessed and survivability during a wildfire property characteristics, event (see Meldrum (2015a)). That References particularly those more easily said, we find little evidence to Meldrum, J.R.; Barth, C.; Falk, L.C. [and and cheaply manipulated by suggest that signals about wildfire others]. 2015a. Living with wildfire homeowners. Instead, we risk from the insurance industry in Delta County, Colorado cross- found only limited evidence affect homeowner behavior. community comparisons. RMRS–RN–67. of such differences. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. In conclusion, our findings Meldrum, J.R.; Champ, P.A.; Brenkert- In short, our findings suggest suggest that insurance might Smith, H. [and others]. 2015b. limited to no change in behavior be an effective mechanism for Understanding gaps between the by homeowners who know raising awareness about wildfire risk perceptions of wildland–urban that wildfire risk affects their risks, at least among people who interface (WUI) residents and wildfire professionals. Risk Analysis. 35(9): homeowners insurance. attend to the details of their 1146–1761. insurance policies. However, Mowery, M.; Prudhomme, C. 2014. A few caveats and limitations they also suggest that additional Proactive protection: A community-wide apply. All communities surveyed steps—such as perhaps providing approach to wildfire preparedness. Fire Management Today. 73(3): 9–12. were in Colorado, and Colorado information about specific actions has experienced significant needed or offering resources to
Fire Management Today 38 ContRActing without getting BuRned
Ed Delaney
ontracting helps Federal fire managers get things done. CThe Federal fire organizations contract for supplies, services, and—in some cases—construction and specialized services such as architecture and engineering. From buying Nomex, fusees, driptorch fuel, and meals-ready-to-eat to accessing the largest air tankers and helicopters, contracting is the key to getting the resources needed to fight fires and to manage incidents of other types.
Contracting for incidents operates under special rules. A huge number of contracts are awarded to support incident management— Firefighters use a terra torch to help ignite a prescribed fire on February 16, 2017, on a topic for another day. My purpose the Cleveland National Forest in California. Proper contracting is the key to obtaining here is to give a brief overview terra torches and other firefighting equipment on time and in the right place, without of how Federal contracting works unauthorized commitments and conflicts of interest. Photo: Olivia Walker, Forest Service. in nonemergency situations and how you can speed things up and avoid getting burned by things going wrong. Unless you are a contracting officer, you can get into serious trouble in communicating with Contracting Officers a contractor. With a Government Purchase Card and appropriate training, some fire staff can make micropurchases under the current $3,500 limit help you get your job done and certificate of appointment, known for supplies. My focus is instead avoid crossing the line that gets as a contracting officer’s warrant, on purchases made through a Federal employees in trouble. is authorized to sign contracts purchase order or a contract. and/or agreements. The specialist Without summarizing all of the First, it is important to know is known as a contracting officer applicable laws, regulations, that there is a Federal job series (abbreviated as CO—or as CONO policies, and practices, I hope to responsible for originating, in the Incident Qualifications and give you basic knowledge that can managing, and closing out Certification System). The warrant purchasing contracts. Most fire sets the limits within which the managers will rely on a GS–1102 contracting officer can contract When he submitted this article, Ed contract specialist to contract with private firms and sometimes Delaney was the lead fire contracting for supplies, services, and the with other agencies. officer for the Bureau of Land like. A contract specialist with a Management in Oregon and Washington. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 39 Unauthorized then creates stencils, uses a special Meanwhile, the contracting Commitments paint, or does anything else to officer advertises the job and goes change the order and add to the through the procurement process. Why is this important? Unless cost, you can be held personally Advertising might generate an even you are a contracting officer, you liable for costs, in addition to lower bid, which the contracting can get into serious trouble in getting an official warning placed officer chooses for the work. The communicating with a contractor in your personnel file. bidder you’ve been speaking to (or potential contractor). A might call to find out when to common error, which might seem Independent Government pick up the equipment, acting trivial, is called an unauthorized on the mistaken belief that the commitment—“directing” a Estimates Government has accepted his or contractor to do something, Another way to get in trouble while her offer. By asking the bidder provide something, or not do communicating with a potential for information beyond pricing, something without having contractor is to share information you have made an unauthorized the authority to do so. There about a contract before it has been commitment. You have disclosed is a process for authorizing a awarded or about the specifics that his or her bid was the lowest commitment after the fact, known of another contractor’s products you found in your market research, as ratification. But if you make an or processes after it has been thereby revealing what’s called unauthorized commitment, even if awarded. For example, you might source selection information. It it is later ratified, you will probably need to move a dozer by truck. If might seem like you’re just helping get an official warning documented getting the dozer moved by next the process along, but you’ve in your personnel file. Friday will save your unit a lot of actually committed a pretty serious money, it might seem to be in the breach of Federal regulations. For example, suppose you order a Government’s best interests to pumpkin—a soft-sided watertank just call and get it moved, right? for helicopter bucket work— Each day that slips by increases through your contracting office. the likelihood that your unit will If you make an However, after the contract is lose money. unauthorized signed and priced, you remember that you meant to have your To get the job done, however, you commitment to a unit identifier stenciled on the need to create what contracting vendor, you will probably side of the tank to keep it from officers call an independent disappearing on a large incident, Government estimate. First, you get an official warning where your equipment might need to get three quotes for doing documented in your be used long after your unit is the work (called market research). demobilized. Stenciling could Next, you write a statement of personnel file. probably have been included what your estimated costs will in the price negotiated by the be and how you came up with contracting officer for the original the estimate. order, so you ask the supplier to Organizational Conflicts of add the stenciling. So you’ve found the lowest price, Interest you’ve written an independent Inappropriate communication In the broad scheme of things, you Government estimate, and now you can disqualify the most qualified might be saving the Government are waiting to get your job through vendor if you let another vendor money and hassle. You probably the contracting gauntlet. To help begin any part of the work see yourself as being helpful speed things along, you might before signing a contract. You and doing the right thing. But if decide to call the low bidder and might know a vendor and really stenciling is not in the original get the name of the driver who will want him or her to do a job contract, you are making an be assigned. You describe where for you. But if you ask him or unauthorized commitment because the dozer is and where it’s to go. her to do preparatory work or you are not authorized to modify write up specifications for you, the contract. If the contractor you are giving the company a
Fire Management Today 40 Another way to get in trouble while communicating and to decline the contractor’s offer of help. Then, alert your with a potential contractor is to share information contracting officer. about a contract before it has been awarded. Getting the Right Information In each of these cases, good competitive advantage in the put together specifications for intentions and the desire to get official bid solicitation. That is an you, you have given him or her a the best for your unit can get you organizational conflict of interest. competitive advantage, creating into trouble. Like taking risks an organizational conflict of associated with a prescribed burn, Say you have a dispatch center interest. When the contractor you might think your actions are that needs to be updated. All of the learns that the opportunity to perfectly reasonable, but it’s best electronics have been sourced, but bid on the job might be gone due to check with the experts, anyway. the console, cabinets, and furniture to an organizational conflict of A call to your meteorologist might need to be purchased and installed. interest, he or she can contact warn you of gusty winds that could Your ideal furniture contractor the contracting officer and push your prescribed burn out of has kept up with dispatch center present a mitigation plan. Unless control. Similarly, a call to your upgrades; knowing what radios you the contracting officer approves contracting officer can keep bad have, the contractor offers to come the plan, the contractor can be things from happening to you for in, measure the spaces, and prepare declared ineligible to compete. lack of information. plans that include all of the correct Without going through all the fittings and wiring. pertinent details, regulations, Be safe! ■ and case law, it’s simply best to By giving the contractor access recognize the potential for an to your space and extra time to organizational conflict of interest
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 41 InteRAgencY pARtneRship mitigAtes wildFiRe Risk in geoRgiA
Holly Krake, Mike Ward, and Mike Davis
n a breezy March afternoon, the sounds of traffic Orushing by on Interstate 75 traveled easily up the base of a rocky mountain in northwestern Georgia called Dug Gap Mountain. On a narrow ridgetop, a group of wildland fire managers and the local fire chief looked out onto the surrounding national forest from a communications site covered by towers and antennas.
By altering the arrangement and continuity of fuels, the Fire managers assess newly created defensible space and continuity of fuels in newly partners planned to treated forest areas. Photos: Holly Krake, Forest Service, 2015. change the behavior of a potential wildfire. “What a success!” exclaimed about wildfire risk in northwestern Dalton City Fire Chief Bruce Georgia that began several years Satterfield. “Without this fuels ago. Starting in the spring of treatment, a careless cigarette 2013, the Forest Service joined This time, they were focusing from the Interstate could have the National Park Service and on the forest that they were not ruined this place.” local agencies in agreeing that seeing rather than the forest this critical communications site that they were. In fact, the A Critical Site would be at risk in the event of a wildfire. The partners also agreed closest continuous fuels and fuel A fire ignited by a cigarette could that the site would be very difficult loading started some 300 feet have raced up the mountain to protect due to the steep terrain, (91 m) away from those critical and destroyed communications access limited to a single point, communications towers. for nearly 600,000 people and lack of defensible space, and heavy countless emergency responders. fuel loading. Agreeing on the critical values at Holly Krake is a public affairs specialist the site, the group continued to Unable to mitigate the terrain or and Mike Davis is the forest fire discuss other potential wildfire access concerns, Forest Service management officer for the Forest Service, mitigation work needed in the area. Chattahoochee–Oconee National Forest, fire managers began to plan Gainesville, GA; and Mike Ward is the and discuss tools for increasing This conversation was one of many prescribed fire and fuels specialist for the defensible space and reducing fuel National Park Service, Southeast Region in a series of open discussions Fire Management, Atlanta, GA. continuity on nearby national Fire Management Today 42 forest land. Top concerns included midstory onto the ground. The The project had cost firefighter safety, cost-effectiveness, newly created defensible space will and impacts on the nearby make controlling a wildfire both about $10,000 while wildland–urban interface (fig. 1). safer and more effective. protecting an estimated $50 million worth of By altering the arrangement and Mobilizing Resources continuity of fuels, the partners critical infrastructure. planned to change the behavior Through an existing partnership of a potential wildfire, getting agreement, the Chattahoochee– it to drop out of the canopy and Oconee National Forest was able to use a compact track loader owned and operated by the National Park Service’s Southeast Region Fire Management. The loader, known as the “Getter,” is equipped with a specialized mastication head.
Working side by side with Forest Service handcrews, the Getter shredded its way through more than 24 tons (22,000 kg) of woody material and undergrowth at the communications site. Using the Getter increased firefighter safety by eliminating firefighter exposure to hazards during handpiling of materials and the subsequent burning of piles. With more than Figure 1—Map of critical infrastructure areas (in red) treated for fuels on the 40 antennas perched across the Chattahoochee–Oconee National Forest near Interstate 75 and the community of Dalton, GA. Source: Forest Service, 2015. narrow ridge, hand work would also have required diverting firefighters from responding to wildfires and meeting other needs across the district.
The site’s importance crossed boundaries, both governmental and nongovernmental. Through interagency partnerships, the agencies accomplished the work in a safe, timely, and cost- effective manner.
Although minor work remained to be completed, fire personnel from both the Forest Service and National Park Service were pleased with the cost-effectiveness of this wildfire risk mitigation effort. At the time this article was written, More than 24 tons of hazardous fuels were shredded at the communications site in northwestern Georgia. Photos: Dequincy Gordon, Forest Service, 2015. the project had cost about $10,000
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 43 The project triggered conversations regarding emergency medical services, fire departments, the State highway an “all-lands approach” aligned with the National patrol, and the county sheriff. Cohesive Strategy for Wildland Fire Management. Dug Gap Mountain provides interoperability to multiple State and Federal agencies in Georgia and Tennessee on a daily basis. while protecting an estimated Mountain stimulated conversations By partnering to protect critical $50 million worth of critical with non-Federal partners, communication infrastructure, infrastructure. Moreover, the costs including State emergency the National Park Service and would be exponentially higher if management agencies. Discussions Forest Service increased firefighter communications were interrupted began regarding an “all-lands safety, laid the groundwork for major commercial users such approach” aligned with the for an effective suppression as Norfolk Southern Railroad and National Cohesive Wildland Fire response, and set the stage for Verizon Wireless. Management Strategy. further partnerships in wildland fire management across agency In addition to housing the An “All-Lands” boundary lines. ■ antennas of many commercial Conversation vendors, the site also contains The fuels treatment project at the the communications for State communications site on Dug Gap emergency management, local
Fire Management Today 44 Becoming Authentic: the heARt oF leAdeRship in wildlAnd FiRe mAnAgement Alexis Waldron and Mike Alarid
he wildland fire environment (NWCG 2007). Leadership is is entering a new age of defined on page 1 as “the art of Tcomplexity in terms of influencing people in order to not only the biophysical fire achieve a result.” If leadership is environment but also the social truly an art of influencing people, environment. More and more then the values of duty, respect, attention is being paid to the and integrity alone only get us to human side of fire and the role that the starting block. Leadership is leadership plays in the performance, as much about the way and why safety, and well-being of firefighters. things are done as about what is actually done. In the early 2000s, the National Wildfire Coordinating Group’s Leadership Subcommittee Leadership is as much introduced three core leadership values—duty, respect, and about the way and why integrity—as a basis for shaping things are done as about the kind of leaders we as fire professionals would like to follow. what is done. The core leadership values are associated with 11 principles. Sup’s Rock. Photo: Alexis Waldron, Forest Service, 2004. In essence, duty, respect, and However, evidence suggests integrity are the bricks, and the that more than following the way and why behind them are the 11 principles outlined under famed scholar known as the father mortar that holds them together duty, respect, and integrity of modern-day management, may and makes them function. The is needed to truly become an have stated it best when he said strength and usefulness of the accomplished leader (Waldron that “management is doing things structure (leadership) depends and Ebbeck 2015). Leadership right [what is done]. Leadership upon the strength of the mortar necessitates interconnectedness— is doing the right things [the that holds the pieces together. the understanding of others and way and why we do things]” The mortar must be authentic the subsequent development of (Peter Drucker Quotes 2016). and cannot be faked; otherwise, relationships. Peter Drucker, a Drucker understood that, whereas the structure will give way. management is the vehicle to Authenticity is characterized by making organizations function, high self-awareness, value-driven Alexis Waldron, Ph.D., is a human leadership is the driver to making decisions, personal growth, and performance specialist for the Forest organizations function well. honesty and transparency with Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Big Bend, TX, with 10 years of oneself and others. The aim of this experience as a seasonal firefighter; and The guiding leadership document article is to shed light on the heart Mike Alarid, former superintendent of the for the U.S. wildland firefighting of leadership in wildland fire and Bear Divide Hotshot Crew, was the district service, titled Leading in the why, way, and importance of zone fire management officer on the the Wildland Fire Service, Angeles National Forest, Los Angeles, CA authentic leaders in the wildland (retired in 2015). substantiates Drucker’s comment fire service. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 45 Why Lead? job promotions, and increased Waldron and Ebbeck (2015) status) (Kolditz 2014). reported that wildland fire leaders often feel isolated and alone in With that said, being authentic their roles; what’s more, they and consistently operating from carry more responsibility than motives that come from within is their subordinates, feel pressure to often much more difficult than succeed, are criticized for mistakes, being easily swayed by outside and believe that their actions influences. Kolditz found that are not always understood or if graduates who had purely appreciated by those they lead. With intrinsic motives began to acquire these often heavy burdens, why extrinsic motives, it would would anyone want to lead? poison their success and growth. Therefore, another critical aspect In the simplest terms, according of authentic leaders is consistency. to wildland fire leaders, “We lead In research with wildland because leading is where we make firefighters, Waldron and Ebbeck a difference” (NWCG 2007). As one (2015) found that consistency leader was quoted as saying, “The was at the core of one of the burdens of leadership are often key leadership characteristics heavy, but the world’s a better place in wildland fire management— Mopup in the desert. Photo: Alexis Waldron, integrity. Consistency in our because we have borne them.” Forest Service, 2005. Authentic leaders lead not because motives must deeply resonate it is easy but because it is a way to within us so that even in some of better themselves, those they lead, the most trying times leaders have and the environment they affect. A distinguishing a solid guiding beacon. characteristic of Other leaders lead for various Developing and reasons, including as a means authentic leaders is that Maintaining Authenticity to advance their careers, to gain they are motivated from In examining exemplary leaders qualifications, or to make more such as our own Paul Gleason—or money. Some fall serendipitously the inside out and their Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, into leadership roles because of decisions are steered by Mother Theresa, and the famous circumstances. Others want to exert coach John Wooden—certain power over others, are driven by a moral compass. commonalities become apparent: ego, or use leadership positions as a crutch for personal insecurities. are motivated from the inside out • Authentic leaders have had a tremendous influence not only With this in mind, three key and their decisions are steered on those directly around them questions arise: by a moral compass. In a study of 10,000 West Point graduates but also on exponentially more. • Authentic leaders have held a • Why do motives matter? over the course of their careers, steadfast commitment to their • What is the difference between former Brigadier General Tom values, as manifested through the motives of authentic leaders Kolditz found that those who were their actions and words. and those of other leaders? motivated by intrinsic reasons • At the heart of the influence, • What does this have to do with (such as a desire to make a actions, and words of authentic performance? difference, serve and help others, or grow and develop personally) leaders was genuine care, were much more likely to lead compassion, and concern for Motives successfully than those who were the well-being, development, A distinguishing characteristic motivated by extrinsic reasons growth, and overall betterment of authentic leaders is that they (such as a desire for pay increases, of those under their charge. Fire Management Today 46 Wildland firefighters who Genuine care and compassion are at the heart of had been through burnovers, entrapments, and close calls the best leaders in wildland fire management. expressed this last commonality as “care and compassion;” they Sometimes the kindest thing one at a deep level, and create the deemed it critical for leaders to can do is to let someone who is interconnectedness required possess (Lewis 2008). drowning know that they need to for true leadership. Notably, start swimming and encourage compassion also establishes a true The Heart of Authenticity them to do so, helping them to leader’s intent, allowing followers Genuine “care and compassion” swim. True compassion is often to understand the meaning behind (different in meaning from the difficult; it requires thought, the words a leader says because dictionary definitions of “care” concern, and making decisions everything that leader has done and “compassion”) are at the heart that at times can be difficult for a has reinforced the why behind it. of the best leaders in wildland leader or a follower. Compassion fire management. Capturing the is ultimately about pushing others Performing from the heart meaning of the phrase in a single and yourself to be better. does not look exactly the same word is difficult, but it is just from one leader to the next. that—heart. Heart is the driver Compassion for yourself is critical Consistent leaders take the time behind great leaders’ desire to to finding peace and resilience to understand, reflect on their continually better themselves and within yourself. By learning to own motives and values, and truly those they lead. Put simply, heart forgive yourself and accepting commit themselves to the values is why they lead and directs the the fact that you’re human, you and motives that make them way they lead. can heal deep wounds and bring better people and better leaders. yourself back from difficult This rarely, if ever, fails to include This does not mean that it is challenges. Authentic leaders act caring and compassion for others. always “easy” to lead or that with compassion because it will The authenticity of leaders can be leadership consists exclusively of benefit others, solve problems felt by those around them and is care bears, hugs, and sunshine. effectively, fulfill themselves easily distinguished from false or superfluous motives. For instance, duty, respect, and integrity—as expressed from the heart—might sound like the following (from one fire manager):
• Instead of telling someone it’s his or her duty, show him or her the importance of duty through example and successes. • When you further someone’s well-being through your own daily actions on behalf of his or her body, mind, and spirit, he or she will understand the true meaning of respect and will become respectful themselves. • Integrity is doing the right thing, but compassion is having the integrity to do the hard thing or make the hard decision for the benefit of the total person.
Ignite the spark. Photo: Alexis Waldron, Forest Service, 2009. Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 47 Taking time to reflect, understand, form (as stated at the opening Business Review. 22 July. Available at and commit to the internal motives of Leading in the Wildland Fire https://hbr.org/2014/07/why-you-lead- determines-how-well-you-lead. that make us better often leads Service). In becoming an artist, Lewis, A.B. 2008. Safety in wildland fire: to serendipitous events (finding technique can take the artist only Leadership and employee voice. Moscow: agreeable things or events not so far; influential art comes from ID: University of Idaho. Insert M.S. sought for) and better outcomes. the artist who understands the thesis. Employees will be more willing techniques and has the skills but NWCG (National Wildland Coordinating Group). 2007. Leading in the wildland to engage, will go the extra mile performs them authentically. As fire service. NFES 2889. Boise, ID: without being asked, and will Simon Sinek has said, “People National Interagency Fire Center. perform better individually and don’t buy what you do—they buy Available at https://www.nwcg.gov/sites/ collectively under your charge and why you do it” (Sinek 2009). default/files/products/pms494-2_0.pdf. Peter Drucker Quotes. 2016. Quotes. in the course of their careers. For net. Available at http://www.quotes.net/ an authentic leader, greater success Leaders must therefore go beyond quote/37418. and fulfillment is often a result. the mechanics of leading to Sinek, S. 2009. Start with why. New York, articulate the compelling, genuine, NY: Portfolio/Penguin. authentic why for others to follow. Waldron, A.L.; Ebbeck, V. 2015. The Authentic Leadership relationship of mindfulness and self- To lead to their fullest potential, In interviews as they entered compassion to desired wildland fire leaders must lead authentically leadership. International Journal of retirement, when great fire from the heart. ■ Wildland Fire. 24(2): 201–211. doi: leaders have been asked how they 10.1071/WF13212. did what they did, they often couldn’t describe it, except to say References that it was like developing an art Kolditz, T.A. 2014. Why you lead determines how well you lead. Harvard
ContRiButoRs wAnted! We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Subjects of published material include: • Aviation • Firefighting Experiences • Communication • Incident Management • Cooperation/Partnerships • Information Management (including Systems) • Ecological Restoration • Planning (including Budgeting) • Education • Preparedness • Equipment and Technology • Prevention • Fire Behavior • Safety • Fire Ecology • Smoke Management • Fire Effects • Suppression • Fire History • Training • Fire Use (including Prescribed Fire) • Weather • Fuels Management • Wildland–Urban Interface
Contact the editor via email at [email protected].
Fire Management Today 48 MAnAging vehicle tRAFFic in smoke
Editor’s note: The piece is adapted from 6 Minutes for Safety, a program and website managed by the 6 Minutes for Safety Subcommittee under the guidance of the NWCG Risk Management Committee.
Smoke can cause safety hazards for traffic near wildland fires (both wildfires and prescribed fires), especially at night. Before an incident or project, local planning documents should include the following traffic-related items:
• Name, locate, and give phone numbers for local units with law enforcement and traffic control responsibilities in the smoke-affected areas. Review any local agreements with these agencies. • List important public roads that might be affected by smoke. • Locate enough equipment and trained personnel to control traffic, including warning signs, communications equipment (preferably not using the active fire frequency), and vehicles equipped with warning or flashing lights. • List and give phone numbers for radio and television stations that can issue traffic advisories for the smoke- affected area. • Give alternative traffic routes as part of the incident/project traffic plan. • List traffic routes that are subject to temperature inversions and such contributing factors as fog and ice. • After listing potential smoke-related problems: – Tell the incident commander, burn boss, or agency administrator about severe smoke. – Notify local law enforcement units and highway departments of a potential problem. – Carry out preplanned actions, such as posting smoke warning signs. – Ensure that proper equipment is ready and appropriate personnel are briefed on contingency plans and are available to control traffic.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 49 StAndARd FiReFighting oRdeRs* 1. Keep informed on fire weather conditions and forecasts. 2. Know what your fire is doing at all times. 3. Base all actions on current and expected behavior of the fire. 4. Identify escape routes and safety zones and make them known. 5. Post lookouts when there is possible danger. 6. Be alert. Keep calm. Think clearly. Act decisively. 7. Maintain prompt communications with your forces, your supervisor, and adjoining forces. 8. Give clear instructions and insure they are understood. 9. Maintain control of your forces at all times. 10. Fight fire aggressively, having provided for safety first.
18 wAtchout situAtions 1. Fire not scouted and sized up. 2. In country not seen in daylight. 3. Safety zones and escape routes not identified. 4. Unfamiliar with weather and local factors influencing fire behavior. 5. Uninformed on strategy, tactics, and hazards. 6. Instructions and assignments not clear. 7. No communication link with crewmembers/supervisors. 8. Constructing line without safe anchor point. 9. Building fireline downhill with fire below. 10. Attempting frontal assault on fire. 11. Unburned fuel between you and the fire. 12. Cannot see main fire, not in contact with anyone who can. 13. On a hillside where rolling material can ignite fuel below. 14. Weather is getting hotter and drier. 15. Wind increases and/or changes direction. 16. Getting frequent spot fires across line. 17. Terrain and fuels make escape to safety zones difficult. 18. Taking a nap near the fire line.
* The Ten and Eighteen are from the Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management website on risk management at
Fire Management Today 50 Guidelines FoR contRiButoRs
Fire Management Today (FMT) For all submissions, include Tables. Tables should be logical is an international quarterly the complete name(s), title(s), and understandable without magazine for the wildland fire affiliation(s), and address(es) reading the text. Include tables community. FMT welcomes of the author(s), illustrator(s), at the end of the manuscript with unsolicited manuscripts from and photographer(s), as well appropriate titles. readers on any subject related to as their telephone number(s) fire management. and email address(es). If the Photographs and Illustrations. same or a similar manuscript is Figures, illustrations, and clear Submissions. Send electronic files being submitted for publication photographs are often essential by email or traditional mail to: elsewhere, include that to the understanding of articles. information also. Authors should Clearly label all photographs USDA Forest Service submit a photograph of themselves and illustrations. At the end of Fire Management Today or a logo for their agency, the manuscript, include clear, 201 14th Street, SW institution, or organization. thorough figure and photo Washington, D.C. 20250 captions labeled in the same way Email: firemanagementtoday@ Style. Authors are responsible for as the corresponding material. fs.fed.us using wildland fire terminology Captions should make photographs that conforms to the latest and illustrations understandable Submit electronic files in PC standards set by the National without reading the text. For format. Submit manuscripts in Wildfire Coordinating Group photographs, indicate the name Word (.doc or .docx). Submit under the National Interagency and affiliation of the photographer illustrations and photographs as Incident Management System. and the year the photo was taken. separate files; do not include visual FMT uses the spelling, materials (such as photographs, capitalization, hyphenation, and Release Authorization. Non- maps, charts, or graphs) as other styles recommended in the Federal Government authors must embedded illustrations in the U.S. Government Printing Office sign a release to allow their work electronic manuscript file. You Style Manual, as required by the to be placed in the public domain may submit digital photographs in U.S. Department of Agriculture. and on the World Wide Web. In JPEG, TIFF, or EPS format; they Authors should use the U.S. addition, all photographs and must be at high resolution: at least system of weight and measure, illustrations created by a non- 300 dpi at a minimum size of 4 by with equivalent values in the Federal employee require a written 7. Include information for photo metric system. Keep titles concise release by the photographer captions and photographer’s name and descriptive; subheadings and or illustrator. The author, and affiliation at the end of the bulleted material are useful and photograph, and illustration manuscript. Submit charts and help readability. As a general rule release forms are available upon graphs along with the electronic of clear writing, use the active request at firemanagementtoday@ source files or data needed to voice (for example, write, “Fire fs.fed.us. reconstruct them and any special managers know…” and not, “It is instructions for layout. Include a known…”). Give spellouts for all description of each illustration at abbreviations. the end of the manuscript for use in the caption.
Volume 75 • No. 2 • 2017 51