Encountering Children in Conflict Zones: the British Experience
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Encountering Children in Conflict Zones: The British Experience Michelle Lynette Jones Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of PhD Department of International Politics Aberystwyth University 2016 Declaration & Statement Page Word Count of Thesis: 106,945. DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed (Michelle Lynette Jones). Date STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated where *correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s) Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed (Michelle Lynette Jones). Date *this refers to the extent to which the text has been corrected by others. STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations Signed (Michelle Lynette Jones). Date ii Abstract With contemporary conflicts being fought amongst and alongside civilian populations, the likelihood of professional soldiers encountering children during military operations has increased. Legal frameworks concerning the topic of children in armed conflict are born from sociological understandings surrounding the Western concept of childhood based on the idea that children are innocent and in need of protection. Within theatres of armed conflict children can be encountered by military forces in two distinct ways; either as innocent bystanders or as security threats. However, a moral dilemma can occur when a child, who is armed and capable of a lethal attack, is encountered by an adult soldier, whose values resonate with the Western concept of childhood. This leads to the adult soldier needing to make a difficult decision: to shoot and harm a child or to hesitate and risk harming themselves and others around them. This situation can have consequences for both the military operation and the psychological well-being of the professional soldier. This thesis collated evidence from former British soldiers to examine their experiences of encountering children in armed conflict, and whether the presence of children impacts military operations, and the attitudes and practices of British soldiers. Examples from the conflicts in Bosnia (1992-95), Sierra Leone (2000-02), and Afghanistan (2001-2012), determine the various roles children play in contemporary armed conflict and the different challenges the child actor poses to military personnel. Locating itself in the existing child soldier literature base, this thesis argues that children involved in armed conflict can be both victims and perpetrators. However, this thesis also approaches the topic from a security perspective. By using a bottom-up approach, it shows how soldiers have individual reactions, experiences and understandings of this particular issue which should be acknowledged when designing and implementing military training guidelines and support frameworks on this topic. iii Contents Declaration Page ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements vii List of Abbreviations viii List of Acronyms ix List of Illustrations xiii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Research Purpose 6 1.3 Literature Review 7 1.4 Central Research Question 20 1.5 Contributions 23 1.6 Thesis Structure 27 Chapter Two: Methodology and Principal Concepts 2.1 Methodology 31 2.2 Data Collection 33 2.2.1 Case Studies 34 2.2.2 The Soldiers’ Narratives 35 2.2.2.1 Biographies 40 2.2.2.2 Individual Interviews 41 2.2.2.3 Pre-recorded Interviews 48 2.2.2.4 Analysis 49 2.2.3 Secondary Data Analysis 51 2.2.4 Elite Interviews 52 2.2.5 Archival Work 58 2.2.6 Freedom of Information Requests (FOI) and Key Informant Discussions 59 2.2.7 Concluding Remarks 60 2.3 Ethical Considerations 61 2.4 Theoretical Assumptions 64 2.5 Principal Concepts 69 2.5.1 Childhood 70 2.5.2 Innocence 80 2.5.3 Violence 85 2.6 Conclusion 87 Chapter Three: Children in Contemporary Armed Conflict 3.1 Definition of the Child Soldier 91 3.2 Legal Frameworks 99 3.3 The Child Soldier Phenomenon 104 3.4 Children and Armed Conflict: A Historical Perspective 113 3.5 The Child Soldier: Using an Ethnographic Approach 120 iv 3.6 Contemporary Conflicts and Challenges 135 3.7 Conclusion 146 Chapter Four: The British Army and Children in Armed Conflict 4.1 Introduction 152 4.2 The British Army as an Organisation 155 4.3 The British Army in the Twenty First Century 163 4.4 The British Army and British Children 166 4.4.1 The British Cadet Movement 166 4.4.2 Britain’s Child Soldiers in the World Wars 172 4.4.3 Children in the British Army 178 4.5 The British Army and Children in Conflict Zones 185 4.6 The British Army: Laws, Guidelines and Training 191 4.7 Conclusion 208 Chapter Five: Children Associated with Armed Conflict: The Soldier’s Perspective 5.1 Introduction 215 5.2 The Cases 5.2.1 Bosnia, 1992-95 220 5.2.2 Sierra Leone, 2000-02 226 5.2.3 Afghanistan, 2001-12 233 5.3 The Experiences 5.3.1 The British Soldier 240 5.3.2 Children’s Presence in Theatres of Armed Conflict 244 5.3.2.1 Children as Active Participants 245 5.3.2.2 Children in Crowd Situations 247 5.3.2.3 Children and Civil Disorder 248 5.3.2.4 Children at Checkpoints 252 5.3.2.5 Children as Suicide Bombers 254 5.3.2.6 Children as Human Shields 255 5.3.2.7 Children in Support Roles 256 5.3.2.8 Children as ‘Dickers’ 257 5.3.2.9 Children as ‘Children’ 258 5.3.3 The Child and Military Operations 261 5.3.3.1 Engaging the Enemy 262 5.3.3.2 Patrols 265 5.3.3.3 Black Propaganda 266 5.3.3.4 Hindrance to Operations 268 5.3.4 Attitudes towards the Child 270 5.3.4.1 Sympathy 270 5.3.4.2 Frustration 271 5.3.4.3 Compassion 272 5.3.4.4 Disdain towards the Enemy 273 5.3.4.5 Disdain towards Allies 274 5.3.4.6 Fear 275 5.3.4.7 The Identity of the Child 276 5.3.4.8 The Role of Fathers 278 v 5.3.4.9 Annoyance 281 5.3.4.10 The Child as a Threat 282 5.3.4.11 The Non- Combatant Child 284 5.3.4.12 Positive Feelings 285 5.3.4.13 Mixed Feelings 286 5.3.5 The Soldiers’ Practices 287 5.3.5.1 Relaxed Attitudes 287 5.3.5.2 Community Relations 288 5.3.5.3 Encountering the Child 289 5.3.5.4 Relations with Local Children 291 5.3.5.5 Checkpoints and Patrols 293 5.4 Conclusion 295 Chapter Six: Conclusion 6.1 Conclusion 300 6.2 Recommendations for Practitioners 312 6.2.1 Military Training 312 6.2.2 Child Protection Training 313 6.2.3 Increased Intelligence 314 6.2.4 Tactical Changes 315 6.2.5 Psychological Operations 316 6.3 Avenues for Further Research 317 Bibliography Books 321 Chapters in Edited Books 326 Journal Articles 329 Newspaper and Magazine Articles 333 Legal Documents 338 Ministry of Defence Publications 338 United Nations Documents 340 Handbooks and Guidelines 341 Reports 342 Internet Resources 343 Unpublished Works 346 Parliamentary Reports and Briefing Papers 346 Archival Sources 347 Interviews 347 Documentaries and Films 349 Freedom of Information Resources 350 Images 350 Other Sources 351 Appendices 352 vi Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Christian Enemark and Professor Colin McInnes, for their continuous support of my PhD research. Their guidance, motivation and knowledge has been a blessing during the writing of this thesis, and I could not ask for better mentors. This project would not have been possible without the funding and support of the Economic Social Research Council (ESRC). Not only has this funding allowed me to pursue this project, but the opportunities provided by the ESRC have allowed me to develop as a researcher through their various training and events programmes. I would specifically like to thank the staff at the Wales Doctoral Training centre for their advice and help over the last four years. To my colleagues in the Department of International Politics at Aberystwyth University, for their continued support and contributions over the course of this research project. With special thanks for the funding I received from the Department of International Politics and the Aberystwyth Postgraduate Centre to further my knowledge and training of working with ex-service personnel and those with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). This project would not have been possible without the insightful contributions from my research participants. To those ex-service personnel who took the time to discuss their experiences with me, I thank you and hope that this project allows your voices to be heard. To the serving personnel who made contact to extend their gratitude for the discussion of this project, I thank you for your support and providing me with the incentive to keep this project moving forward. I would also like to express my gratitude to those I interviewed or who acted as gatekeepers during my research trip to New York in 2014. This research trip helped to provide a much-needed clarity in both my professional and personal life, for that I am always grateful. With special thanks to the following institutions and organisations who allowed me to access their archives and collections; United Nations Archive Centre, New York; Imperial War Museum, London; National Army Museum, Stevenage; and the London Metropolitan Archives.