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Mixed Signals: Androgyny, Identity, and Iconography on the Graeco-Phoenician Sealings from Tel Kedesh, Israel

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Mixed Signals: Androgyny, Identity, and Iconography on the Graeco-Phoenician Sealings from Tel Kedesh, Israel Mixed Signals: Androgyny, Identity, and Iconography on the Graeco-Phoenician Sealings from Tel Kedesh, Israel by Lisa Ayla Çakmak A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Classical Art and Archaeology) in the University of Michigan 2009 Doctoral Committee: Professor Sharon C. Herbert, Chair Professor Elaine K. Gazda Professor Margaret C. Root Associate Professor Lisa C. Nevett Associate Professor Terry G. Wilfong © Lisa Ayla Çakmak 2009 To all those who have helped along the way ii Acknowledgments This dissertation was only possible with the help and support of an outstanding cast of advisors, colleagues, friends and family. First and foremost, I must thank my advisor and friend, Professor Sharon Herbert. Without her, this dissertation would never have come to fruition. She has generously shared her ideas, her excavation, and her research materials and has guided me through the challenges of graduate school with a firm but gentle hand. Professor Terry Wilfong has been constant source of encouragement throughout this project. Thanks to his attention to detail, the reader of this dissertation has been saved from many a typo, run-on sentence, and under-developed idea. What mistakes remain, are truly my own. He has also been a font of practical advice and his enthusiasm for this project has been much appreciated. It was in Professor Margaret Root’s seminar on Gender in the Visual arts that I first became interested in the iconography of Aphrodite. The course was challenging for many reasons, but I came away with an interest in gender studies, an issue at the heart of this dissertation. I will always be thankful for her unwavering kindness and cheerful support, even when I may not have earned it. Professor Lisa Nevett’s willingness to comment on my work, even from afar, has been much appreciated. She is always ready with a quick reference or suggestion. Professor Elaine Gazda has been, from day one, a model of grace and intellect. I count myself lucky to have been able to work with this group of extraordinary iii scholars, who have done their utmost to help me grow into a better scholar and writer. Several organizations have helped to make this project possible. I am thankful to the University of Michigan’s Horace H. Rackham Graduate School for providing me with a Rackham Merit Fellowship to see me through my coursework and the early stages of my research. I would also like to thank the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, the W.F. Albright Institute, the Kelsey Museum, and the Interdepartmental Program in Classical Art and Archaeology for their generous financial support. Thanks to Debbie Fitch and Alex Zwinak for all of their help with forms, enrollment, insurance, money, credits, the list goes on and on. Without them, I would never have processed the correct paperwork. The Kedesh bullae are housed in the Coin Department of the Israeli Antiquities Authority. I would like to thank Donald Ariel for his assistance in gaining access to them and his help with all things numismatic. Lorene Sterner was instrumental in putting together the plates for this dissertation. Her step-by- step instructions were a godsend and her willingness to help with the illustrations was an unforeseen boon. Andrea Berlin, co-director of the Kedesh Excavations, is the reason this project exists. It was her idea to work on material from Kedesh, and she has been a staunch supporter from the beginning. Her unbridled enthusiasm and her willingness to believe in me as an archaeologist and scholar have meant so much to me during this often-time exhausting process. Finally to the friends and family who have supported me during this endeavor. I have been fortunate in my life to have been blessed with more friends than I can name here who have helped me, supported me, cried and laughed with me: my fellow graduate iv students, past and present; Sabrina, for making sure I always look fabulous; Ryan, for talking me off the ledge; Diana, for answering all my questions about this confounded process; Karen, for reminding me the vegetables are an essential part of one’s diet; and finally Adrian, answerer of all things photoshop, without whose constant support and calm demeanor, I would never have made it through. I look forward to our life together in Boston. Last, but certainly not least, I must thank my family for their emotional and financial support, and for believing in me and appreciating the value of a PhD, no matter how long it took to achieve. I dedicate this work to all of you. v Table of Contents Dedication . ii Acknowledgements. iii List of Figures . vii List of Plates . xiii Abstract . xiv Chapter 1 Introduction . 1 Terminology . 3 Aphrodite and Apollo . 5 Kedesh: “Strong inland village of the Tyrians . 7 History of Excavations . 9 Problems and Approaches to the Study of Hellenistic Glyptic . 13 Organization of the Dissertation . 19 Chapter 2 “Major” Gods on a “Minor” Scale: The Aphrodite and Apollo Seals from Kedesh . 22 Aphrodite Seal Types . 30 Kallipygos . 32 Semi-draped . 39 Anadyomene . 47 Knidia . 56 Sandalbinder . .. 62 Crouching . 65 Bather . 71 Summary . 74 Apollo Seal Types . 75 Apollo Archer . 76 Quiet Archer . 78 Active Archer . 87 Citharodos . 92 Lycian . .. 102 Belverdere . .. 103 Conclusion . 105 vi Chapter 3 Aphrodite or Apollo? Re-examining the Concept of Androgyny in Hellenistic Art . 111 The Vocabulary of Androgyny . 113 Cross-cultural Case Studies . 121 Ancient Greek Medical Texts . 126 Images of Hermaphrodites in the Hellenistic Period . 133 Sexual Ambiguity before the Hellenistic Period . .. 139 Cultural Receptivity . 148 Historiography . 149 Cultural Explanations for Androgyny in the Hellenistic Periods . 159 Gender Performativity and Androgyny in Greek Myth . 166 Conclusion . 169 Chapter 4 A New Whole: Cultural Interaction and Hybrid Images. 171 Historical Overview . 172 Culture – A Definition? . 175 “Hellenization” and other Theories of Cultural Influence . 183 Case Studies in Acculturation . 194 Back to the Bullae: A New Whole . 202 Conclusion. .. 208 Chapter 5 Conclusions: The Bullae and the Larger Picture Review and Reassments . 210 Seal Usage and Populations . 226 Suggested Research . 227 Figures . 229 Plates . 259 Bibliography . 282 vii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Plan of the Persian-Hellenistic Administrative Building after the 2009 excavation season. (Credit: Lindy Lindorfer, 2009) . 229 1.2 Aerial Photo of Persian-Hellenistic Administrative Building (Skyview) . 230 1.3 Map of the Levant (after Herbert and Berlin 2003, fig. 1) . .231 2.1 Map of distribution of Hellenistic Archives (after Herbert 2003-4, figure 1) . 232 2.2 Aphrodite Kallipygos, Naples, National Museum S10.15 (http://www.everyphoto.com 2009) . 233 2.3 Aphrodite bathing, standing next to a fountain (after Bollati and Messina 2004, pl. 33, Af 11). 233 2.4 Aphrodite bathing (after Bollati and Messina 2004, pl. 33, Af 15) . 233 2.5 Aphrodite bathing with abnormally long arm (after Bollati and Messina 2004, pl. 33, Af 17) . 234 2.6 Aphrodite of Melos, Louvre Museum, MA 399 (Marie-Lan Nguyen) . 234 2.7 Aphrodite semi-draped (after Bollati and Messina 2004, pl. 35, Af 45) . 235 2.8 Aphrodite semi-draped (after Bollati and Messina 2004, pl. 35, Af 45) . ..
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