Judith Taylor
University of SouthAfrica
Introduction long term, white workers had to be given the U'aining, and their children given the education, that would During 1935 a section of northern Natal was elevatethem abovethe ranks of the unskilled and protect transformed by the appearance of wood-and-iron them permanently from competition with blacks for townships on the hill slopes near Ingogo Station and work as manuallabourers. Mount Pleasant. Within a matter of months roads were graded,houses sprang up, rugby fields, tennis courtsand Transportabletowns for workers children's playgroundswere laid out. As cottageswere completed, the village population began to arrive from The ftrst Railways model villages were built to different parts of the country -ultimately about 450 accommodatethe families of unskilled white labourers families2 -and the unique communities of the SAR & H engagedin grading, tunnelling and re-laying of tracks to ~modelvillages' wereborn. reduce curvature on the line between Volksrust and Glencoe. It was a major project, and formed part of a In d1isarticle, which arises from a wider researchproject comprehensive scheme to speed up railway traffic concerning welfare on d1e Soud1African Railways3, I throughout the Union -the so-called £10.000.000 examine d1e peculiar phenomenon of d1e Railways scheme.8 As a result of Cabinet discussionsearly in model village. I focus on d1e ftfSt villages, ~Arbeidslus' 1934 it had beenmade known that work to the value of and ~Werkgenot' erected in northern Natal, from whence ten million pounds ~was available' on the railway d1eywere later re-iocatedwid1 personnel, to d1e eastern systems.9 The magnitude of the undertakingcaught the Cape. I discuss d1e background of d1e model villages imagination of parliament10and the press,11and much and consider someaspects of d1eirreception in Natal. I was expectedfrom it. However,having garnered praise also attempt to interpret d1eir significance within the and publicity for the idea, Oswald Pirow (Minister of context of d1e~civilized' labour policy of d1eRailways. Railways and Harbours) was clearly anxious that his Railways had a long history of providing employment Departmentshould not find itself encumberedwith the for white labourers in times of economic depression4 entire burden of giving it substance,and hastened to and more than mining, industry, or any od1er state place the scheme in perspective. During his budget department. committed itself to the ~civilized' labour debate in March 1934, he informed the House of policy promotedby d1ePact Governmentfrom 1924. In Assembly that beneficial as this reconstruction work terms of d1is policy, wherever practicable so-<:alled would be, it was not immediately necessaryfrom the ~civilized' labour (so defined as to imply white, and, Railways' point of view. If undertaken, it would re d1eoretically, coloured labour) was to replace primarily to assist the Department of Labour in ~uncivilized' (black) labour -at ~civilized' wage rates.5 providing unemploymentrelierot2 Moreover, it was ~not This presentedd1e Railways wid1 d1eproblem of a white worth £10 000 000 or anything like that sum' to the labour force which, by official definition, should Railways Administration. .Minister Pirow stressed13that conform to standardsof living ~enerally recognisedas the work could be carried out far more cheaply using tolemble from d1e usual European standpoint',6 but black labour and that the SAR & H was neither which in reality was scarcely distinguishable from prepared nor in a position to absorbthe higher cost of ~uncivilized' labour whose aims were said to re ~civilized'labour. Howeverwhat it could do was to offer ~restrictedto d1ebare requirementsof d1enecessities of large-scale employment, provided that the matter. of life as understood among barbarous and undeveloped funding was resolved. The schemebecame, therefore, a peoples'! Furthermore d1e substitution of white for joint venture of the two Departments, Labour and black labour was costly. I here argue that d1e model Railways, the former to subsidize wages and the villages were intendedto addressbod1 problems. Firstly, Railways Administration to bear various other expenses. d1epresumed superior European culture and standards In practice the precise apportionmentof costs, authority were to re inculcated, to give credibility to d1e concept. and responsibility led to protracted wrangling and cool and justification to the policy of ~civilized labour'. relations betweenthe partners,14since the SAR & H did Secondly, d1eadded cost of ~civilized' wageshad to re not want to add fuel to the fife of criticism surrounding minimised. To do this, robust heald1,physical strengd1, its costand ratesstructures.1s stamina and a capitalist work ed1ichad to re developed in white labourers,to increased1eir productivity. In d1e
32 CONTREE 35/1994 The design, erection, financing and managementof the village systemwas so plannedas to make the community model villages which housed a select portion of the remarkablyself-sufficient. Educationwas well provided workforce, clearly rested with Railways.16 It is not for within the villages. and (what was no doubt more possible to tell from contemporary sources just what disappointing for the Chamber of Commerce) each meaning was attached to the concept ~model' which village had its own non-profit supply store catering for appears in the earliest traced references to the model the basic needs of the inhabitants!6 Since credit was village scheme. In tenDS of accommodation these stronglydiscouraged and thrift and saving encouraged,27 settlementswere ~models'perhaps in the senseof being it is fair to assumethat the model villages provided only ~experimental', or perhaps ~simplified to basics', but limited possibilities for economicexploitation. certainly not in the senseof being ideal~ Housing was spartan: two bedrooms,17a dining area and kitchen, What may have createdunease in somequarters in Natal constructed in corrugated iron with matchboard and with a history of anti-Afrikaner feeling28,was that the asbestosinsulation. Many of the houseswere without model villages were potentially fertile ground for the interior doors.18 Ablution and laundry facilities were cultivation of Afrikaner nationalism. This was of communal.19 The Minister of Railways was to resist particular significance in the north of the province, later appeals for individual bathrooms on the ~ounds which already had a large Afrikaner population. The that ~thesepeople' were not accustomedto bathrooms. villagers were almost exclusively Afrikaans-speaking, Besides, he thought that they ought not to have the Afrikaans languageand cultural union (ATKV) was everything too easy. Water was not even laid on in the active,29 and with little other social distraction, kitchens and had to be drawn at an outside tap. The Afrikaner cultural activities and the cultivation of Minister defendedthis austeritytoo, on the grounds that volkseenheid-could thrive. For examplea branchof the inhabitants should not be spoiled!O However a ~Voortrekkers' youth movement, was established to schoolroom, dispensary and assembly hall wereprovided21replace the health class for young girls. 3D A boereorkes and in comparison with the tented facilities was assembled. Debates,lectures, dramas and various which served the balance of the construction crew, no other functions were organised by the ATKV.31 The doubt the families selectedto occupythe model villages model villages could also be used for political could be regarded as ~satifactorily' if not ideally, propaganda,as is well-illustrated in the Christmas issue accommodated!2 of the SAR & H Magazine in 1935. In an article ostensiblyconcerned with the functioning of the villages, Bonanzaor burden?:Reaction in Natal but loaded with political innuendo, the contributor ~Delea'focusses on the themes of character formation The people of Natal were to display a decidedly and nation building, the upliftment of the Afrikaner ambivalent attitude towards the model villages, but working class and its full incorporationinto the volk.32 possibly on balance regarded the province as ill-served Heavyemphasis is placed on the fact that the settlements by the Railways Administration. Compared with the were located close to Amajuba mountain, an evocative canvas workers' camps that were a feature of railway symbol for Afrikaners:33 construction throughout the country, from an aesthetic point of view, the villages were undoubtedlythe lesser ~...itis as though Amajuba is talking to one, when evil. Neverthelessthey were somethingof a blot on the one is in the villages, and it makes one think. landscape. The planners attempted to soften the scene Yes, Afrikaner nation -you must think and build by lining streets with jacaranda trees23but not a great with purpose. Think of your roots and think of deal could be done to disguisethe sterile rows of unifOffil your future.34 prefabricated houses. Siting the villages against the hillsides may have enhanced the outlook for the In a particularly revealingpassage the author concludes inhabitants, but equally increasedthe visual impact on that the inhabitants of ~Arbeidslus' had shown that the environment. Indeed,as the first village took shape, Mrikaner labourers,~respond strongly to leadershipand the ~ correspondent writing from Newcastle, example' -wherein lay ~the peril or salvation of the prophesied that it would come to be known as ~Tin class,Y5 This kind of appeal to Afrikaners to unite Town,!4 across class lines as a common force was typical of nationalist propaganda generated by both the newly Nor could much commercial advantage have been created Purified National Party and the ¥rikaner gained from the presence of the villages within the Broederbondand its associateorganisations. It was province. News of the influx of large numbers of bound to be offensive to many in a province which was workmen for northern Natal rail improvementsprobably dominantly English-speaking and Imperialist in its raised hopes of a local commercial boom among loyalties. businessmen. Indeed, the Newcastle Chamber of Commerce recommended that the housing be What was certainly a source of acrimony in Natal, was constructedwithin Newcastle rather than at a distance the fact that the northern districts railway improvements from the town -to facilitate the education of the did not provide employmentfor men from the area. The children, so it was argued!5 In the event, the model member of parliament for Newcastle attempted to
CONTREE 35/1994 33 intervene to persuade the Department of ~bour to ~Arbeidslus'and ~Werkgenot'-and as is apparentin all recruit locally, and warned of considerable ill-feeling the details of organisationof the villages, it was central and resentmentif workmen were brought in from other to the schemethat the inhabitants were to be coaxedor areas.3c This was a long-standing issue betweenthe coercedinto becomingmodels of obedience,thrift, piety Department and various Natal authorities and was and above all, industry. The most obvious indicator of apparently related to the anti-Afrikaner sentiment this underlying principle of the model villages is the already referred to.31 Since the province was far less schedule of rules of occupation, drawn up by the affected by unemploymentand poverty than were other Railways Administration.44 Before taking up residence parts of the Union, labour for relief projectscarried out in a village, the railworker signed his acceptanceof in Natal was usually imported from elsewhere.38In the theserules, therebycommitting himself and his family to past there had beenconsiderable prejudice againstthese a lifestYle, stringently regulated and closely monitored intruding (Afrikaans-speaking) poor whites and by the village Superintendent,aided by a social worker, resistance to their insinuation into the province. The nurseand teacher. Department of Labour was accusedof sending men of inferior calibre to Natal, therebyintroducing a variety of What is particularly interesting to the social historian is health, social and molal problems, and generally the scopeand scale of intervention which the authorities lowering standards.39 However as the Secretary for saw fit to apply, and furthermore the degree of Labour pointed out in this case,there simply was no pool submissionby villagers. In referring to the regulations, of unemployed workmen to draw on locally -the the Chief Social Worker engagedin setting up a welfare Departmentcould not even find sufficient eligible white system for the SAR & H (Miss Erika Theron45), labourers in Natal for provincial road works. He observedthat thesewere no more than would be taken therefore remained adamant that labour should be for granted in any decenthousehold.46 This, however, transferred from depressedareas where the need for calls for an extraordinary definition of ~any decent relief was greatest.40 household'. It would include inter alia the idea that the average decenthouseholder could not choosehis own Model villages to shape model citizens visitors or resist making unwise purchases from tradesmenat his front door.47 Although additional work opportunities were not forthcoming for Natal, any fears that the province would Many of the regulationsdid indeeddeal simply with the be corrupted by undesirableinfluences from the model day-to-daybusiness of clean and orderly living and were villages must surely have proved unfounded. The no doubt designed to teach these families the life skills workmen admitted to the villages had been chosenwith that would render them socially and economicallyviable particular care. The Railways Administration had its in the wider society. However,others clearly infringe on own reservationsabout Department of Labour recruits - individual liberties. Acceptance of these rules of recently borne out by reports from Cape Town of occupationrequired compliancewith a specific, uniform outrageously unsuitable placements. It therefore value system. And it was not only the substancebut the requestedpermission for its officers to inspect all the dictatorial style of the rules which betray the essenceof candidates for the subsidised work on the Natal the model village scheme. Consciouslyor otherwise, deviations, before final recruitment Those for the the villages were structured as indoctrination camps, model villages were specifically selected by railway producing labour that was compliant, productive and officers. The recruits were to be men who were conforming to what its promotersregarded as western ~thoroughlycapable of giving a good day's work, and cultural standards -a white working class that could who were prepared to remain in the service,.41 In other justify its privileged position vis-a-vis black labour. words, they were to be physically fit and stable men. Nor was the capacity for work the sole criterion -only There were naturally provisions to ensurethe health of men with families would be accommodated,and the the community. These would be expected in the families were to be~worthy' and ~deserving'caseS.42 circumstances,but it is noteworthy that suchprovisions consisted not of general guidelines but explicit In the circumstances,this select group of poor whites instructions with sanctions spelt out. Underlying these could not be regarded as merely a cross-sectionof the clauses was an assumption of considerable naivete, country'sunskilled labourers. They had beenjudged and ignoranceand sloth amongat least someof the villagers. assessedas promising human material. Railways then Railworker families were evidently not, without undertook to develop the potential.43 This brings us question, equated with :any decenthousehold',48 but if back to the question of what the Departmentsof Labour they were to remain in the village, they were to be and Railways had in mind when they referred to the shapedto fit the mould. For example: construction settlementsas model villages, and suggests another possible connotation of the term ~model'. Not ~Lavatoriesmust be cleaneddaily... and the seats the physical structuresand amenities of the villages, but scrubbed. Papermust not be allowed to lie about the social structures of the villages were to become the floor, but should be cut into squaresand stuck models. As is hinted in the names of the villages - on a wire skewer and this fastened to a cross-
34 CONTREE 35/1994 beam.' ~Dirty water must not be thrown on the attitudes. C. W. de Kiewiet, whose history of South d .49 groun... Africa was prescribed for the training of SAR & H welfare officers,6Odescribed poor whites as ~arace of and so on at length and in detail. To ensure that the men so abject in their poverty, so wanting in conditions of occupation were observed, the camp resourcefulnessthat they stood dangerouslyclose to the superintendenthad the right of entry and inspection ~at nativesthemselves,.61 beall ~promptlyreasonableobeyed.'so hours'. His -'ordersand instructions' had to Morality also fell under the purview of the village authority. Into~icating liquor was totally banned in the Not only hygiene, but management of finances was model villages.62 ~Disorderly conduct', ~immorality' supervised: (undefined), and even ~insubordination'could lead to summarydismissal. On Saturdaymornings, all children ~Debts are strongly discouraged, and anyone over the age of seven were obliged to turn out for a incurring unjustifiable debt may re ~parade'lasting an hour and be drilled or instructed as expelled...'51 ordered.63
The social worker assigned to the settlementseems to The final injunction on the scheduleof rules is indicative have concernedherself so closely with the income and of the ~cradleto grave' control of the Administration in expensesof each family, that records maintained in the these villages. In the case of birth or death within a early years for each family included detailed budgets,52 household, the head of the family would be held and shewas able to quote totals of individual savings.53 responsiblefor advising the Supervisor-and only then for making arrangementsfor registration or burial of the A curious regulation banned the possessionof motor body.64 cars or motor cycles, irrespective of whether thesewere kept inside the villages or outside. Infringement would In addition to the structured controls conmined in the render residentsliable to expulsion.54 The contributor rules of occupation,the social worker involved herself to the SAR & H magazine mentioned earlier, claimed closely in the daily lives of the village people. Clubs that this was a wholly understandablerestriction, since a were established to teach various skills, particularly subsidised labourer could not afford to own a motor homecrafts,and incidentally to impart social graces. vehicle. People were to be discouragedfrom living on ~Problem'families were identified and visited frequently credit.55 Clearly white labourers were not regarded as to be advised or admonished on matters ranging from sufficiently civilized to control suchaffairs on their own. nutrition, to lice control and even the most intimate personalrelationships.65 No black or coloured servantscould be employed in the village. 56 The significance of this constraintis less easy Perhapssurprisingly, given the authoritarian, regulated to interpret. Possibly this too would be regarded as constitution of the model villages, and the unstructured unwarranted expenditure. Possibly railworker wives, background of the recruits, the experiment appears to like their husbands,were to be encouragedto learn ~the have succeededto a significantdegree, both in creatInga dignity of labour'.57 But the specific inclusion of the stable, productive workforce and in the racial categories points to another possibility -the embourgeoisementof the communities. Within the fIrSt intention of discouragingcontacts across the colour line, months,the earningsof the men (who were initially paid when socio-economicdifferences were slight. There are on a pieceworkbasis) had on averagealmost doubled.66 referencesscattered throughout the SAR & R fIles in Productivity continued to rise and peak after various collections, concerning proper relations and approximately2 years.67Wastage of labour, even in the distance betweenthe lower ranks of white labour and early stagesof adjustment,was at the low rate of 2%68 black people. For example,Charles Roffe (later General comparedwith the the rate of 20 -30% for gangsoutside Manager SAR & H) wrote to the Minister of Railways, the villages.69 This exceptional stability was sustained when he was Staff Superintendent,to appealfor housing for the following decade,when the decisionwas taken to assistancefor white labour in Natal to prevent the dissolvethe modelvillage scheme!O mingling of different races. The letter is pepperedwith dire predictions of ~racial tension,' ~ultimate Throughoutthe period only twelve families were evicted intermarriage', of ~dissensionand communism'.58 In the for misconduct. Statistics of maternal and71 the more eastern Cape the welfare committee discussed with remarkable when it is realised that these figures concern,the fact that black servantswere being allowed pertained to an exclusively poor, labouring .class to sleep in the kitchens of railworkers' cottages.59 commmunityin which mortality rateswould normally re Apparently the Administration and its welfare higher than average.There were many other, equally department felt it necessaryto keep a watchful eye on significant but less quantifiable signs of progress the relationship between the ~civilized 'and the towards ~social rehabilitation' according to the social ~uncivilized'race groups. Not that this should be seenas workerswho evaluatedthis aspectin 1945. Womenwho anything exceptional within the context of contemporary had been~dull, disinterested and slovenly' had overcome
CONTREE 35/1994 35 their apathyand begun ~tocare for the home by keeping this report would have been disinclined to publish it clean and providing clean clothing and good food for injudicious findings on the economics of the model the family; sending the children to school regularly... village scheme. However, it was forced to admit that by consolidatingfamily life,}2 1945, the cost of labour under model village conditions, had become prohibitive -although care was taken to A sense of community evidently evolved, as can re attribute this in the main to wartime conditions.83 So no gleaned from a Small report on a concert held at final assessmentcan be made as to whether the model Arbeidslus. Over 300 people attendedthis eyening of villages succeededwholly in making ~civilized labour' varied entertainment (including a wrestling match, more costeffective than that which it replaced. It seems music, recitation, jokes and readings) in aid of the unlikely. Sunday school funds! 3 As subsidised labour was generally drawn from the ranks of the poor whites, But as an exercise in socio-economic upliftment, characterisedas unadaptedand alienated from normal Railways officials had no such reservations about the social life,74 this would indicate a significant step modelvillages. They concluded~without doubt' that they forward. Perhapselements of the occasionalso suggest had ~servedas a timely and important contribution to movement towards integration of the model village poor-white rehabilitation during the period of ten years community into the greater, self-conscious Afrikaner when the residentswould otherwisehave beena burden community (see my discussionabove) -it was expressly on the State,.84Since Railways was a para-statal body reported that the concert ended with the singing of and for at least part of this time bore the cost of 'Afrikaners,Landgenote,75 . ~prohibitively' expensivelabour, the logic is dubious. What does seemindisputable is that the model villages Appraisal went a long way towards ~civilizing' their residentsby instilling in them attitudes and habits which narrowed By 1945. when the model village scheme drew to the the social gap betweenthe poor white and the white end of its useful life. its role in providing ~opportunity.76 middle classes. There are also indications that they was clearly regarded with pride by the Railways promotedAfrikaner ethnic and cultural identification, in Administration. The committee appointed to evaluate oppositionto classdefinition. Perhapswithin their time, the schemeconcluded that ~nosounder investment could they helped to make the concept of ~civilized' labour at be effected in the interestsof the nation than building up leastappear less irrational. an improved citizen,!7 But what is not evident is the cost of that investment. ENDNO~
It is difficult to obtain an accurate evaluation of the 'De1ea', "Die M 36 CONTREE 35/1994 8 Ca!)e Argus, 23-3-1935.When the plan was first National Social Welfare Conference, September moote;d.no dOOsioohad ~ taken to commence 1944,p.25. wockon the Natalmain line and severalother routes 27 Seediscussion below. werementiooed: DeOOtes of the Houseof Assembly, 28 J. Lourens, Thomas Bovdell and unem1210yment 23-4-1934,coL2562. in South Afri~ 1925-1929 (unpubl. MA, 9 CAD, ARB 640, file LB650/1/2, Under-secretaryto UNISA, 1990),pp.85-88. Secretaryfoc La1x>ur,29/1/37, appendix "entitled, 29 Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuur Vereniging (SAS & Memorandum00 Railway Wocks:Northern Natal. H), ~established to promote the use of the Seealso~Tim~ 14-3-1934. Afrikaans language and active interest in 10 Debates of the House of Assembly.See numerous Afrikaans art and culture' (my translation): F.J. referencesin part appropriatiooand budget deOOtes, Kok, Die taak van kultuuroranisasies in 1934. minderheidskultuurl!ro~ met besondere Seefor example the Ca!)eTim~ 16-3-1934::Moce verwvsinl! na die ATKV (unpubl. DPhil, alx>utthe £10 000 000 scheme'and the C~ Argus, Stellenbosch, 1992). This organisation was 23-3-1935 which claimed ~timistically that responsible for many Afrikaner ethnic £10000 000 had ~ madeavailable :to enable10 mobilisation initiatives such as the symbolic trek 000 men to ~ employedfoc tenyears'. of 1938. 12 Debates of the House of Assembly, 15-3-1934, 30 Verslag van die spoorwegwelsynswerk,deur die coL1459. Voortsettingskomitee van die Volkskongres, 13 Debates of the House of Assembly, 15-3-1934, 1934,p.36. coL1459,23-4-1934, coL2562. 31 ~Delea',"Die Modeldorpe",p.1563. 14 CAD, ARB 640, fIle B650/1. Seecorrespondence 32 ThiQ. and minutes of meetings. 33 Symbolic of the victory of the Boers over Britain 15 See later discussion. in the independencestruggle of the Transvaal. 16 "New Railway villages at Ingogo and Mount 34 ~Delea', "Die Modeldorp", p.1561 (my Prospect, Natal", South African Railways and translation). HarboursMagazine, October 1935,p.220. 35 ThiQ.,p.1563. 17 A few 3-bedroomedhouses were erectedbut since 36 CAD, ARB 640, ftIe B650/1, Correspondence large families (including many with five or more betweenOR. Nel and Secretaryfor Labour, 12-9- children) were favoured for recruitment, 1934,5-10-1934,17-4-1935. accommodationmust have been very cramped. 37 J. Lourens,Thomas Boydell, pp.85-88. CAD, ARB 640, fIle B650, General Manager of 38 CAD, ARB 579, ftIe LB505/1/1, A.C. van der SAR & H -Secretary for Labour, 5-1-1935. Horst to Secretaryfor Labour, 17-11-1927. See 18 Instituut vir Eietydse Geskiedenis,Bloemfontein also endnoteno.40. (INEG), PV 93, fIle 1/67/7, Summary of 39 J. Lourens,Thomas Boydell, pp.85-88. Seealso discussions between a delegation from the for exampleCAD, ARB 579, ftIe LB505/l/1/PC3, Continuation Committee of the Volkskongres, Report of the Industrial Inspector(Department of 1934 to Minister of Railways and Harbours,7-1- Labour) -Secretary for Labour, 26-7-1927 and 1936. Under-Secretary for Labour -Secretary for 19 "New Railway villages at Ingogo ...", p.1219. Labour, 5-11-1927. 20 INEG, PV 93, fIle 1/67/7, Summary of 40 CAD, ARB 640, ftIe LB650/l, Secretary for discussions...7-12-1920. Labour -Minister for Labour, 2-11-1934 and 21 "New Railway villages at Ingogo ...", p.1219. Secretary for Labour -O.R. Nel, Member of 22 Versiag van die Spoorwegwelsynswerkdeur die Parliamentfor Newcastle,12-9-1934. Voortsettingskomitee van die Volkskongres, 41 CAD ARB 640, ftIe B650/l, Notes of discussion 1934,p.4. In the report of the social worker who between the Department of Railways and had surveyedthe villages it was statedsimply that Departmentof Labour, 2-8-1935. :Die doel van die Dorpe ...(is om) ..'n 42 CAD, ARB 640, ftIe LB650/1, General Manager bevredigende stelsel van behuising vir hulle en SAR & H -Secretaryfor Labour, 5-1-1935. hul families so na moontlik aan die werkplekke te 43 ThiQ. verskaf. 44 TML, South African Railways and Harbours 23 "New Railway villages at Ingogo ...", p.1219. Rules, Village Hygiene and Occupation being 24 Ca!)e Argus, 15-3-1935. annexure to Report of the committee appointf;dto 25 The Star,26-6-1934. examine the ...model villages, 1945. The rules 26 Glances at Railway welfare: Some features of the which are referred to in the following sectionare social security measures and welfare services dated 1940 and have been used as the basis for adopted by the SAR & H administration: discussion, since I have been unable to trace Brochure produced on the occasion of the earlier versions. However the specific clauses CONTREE 35/1994 37 11 referred to appear substantially unchanged as 61 De Kiewiet, A history of South Afrig}. p.181 (my corrobatedin other sources. emphasis). 45 Later ProfessorErika Theron. Theron completed 62 See also ~Delea', "Die Modeldorpe". her Doctoral studies under Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd 63 TML, Rules, Village Hygiene and Occupation. in the Departmentof Sociology at the University 64 ThiQ. of Stellenboschand is regarded as one of the 65 lNEG, PV 202/11, file 6/3/2/1/1. See monthly foremost figures in the development.of social reports of the social worker based at Ingogo, to work studies in South Africa. She served as the continuation committee of the Volkskongres, secretaryfor the Continuation Committee of the 1934. national conferenceon the poor white question, 66 Spoornet Library, Johannesburg (SL), SAR & H 1934, from which position she was secondedto General Manager's Bulletin no. 3284, 1935. the Railways welfare project. Thereaftershe took 67 TML, Report of the committee appointed, p 22. up an academic post at the University of 68 SL, SAR & H General Manager's Bulletin, Stellenbosch. She was active in numerous no.3284, 1935. cultural, academic and public bodies in various 69 CAD, ARB 640, file B650, Notes of discussion capacitiesand in 1973 was appointedchairperson between the Railway Department and the of the commissionof investigation into Coloured Department of Labour, 2-8-1935; p. 4. See also affairs. TML, Report of the committee appointed, p.23. 46 Verslag van die Spoorwegwelsynswerkdeur die 70 TML, Report of the committee appointed, p.23. Voortsettingskomitee van die Volkskongres, 71 ThiQ.,pp.27 -28. 1934, p.4 (my translation). 72 ThiQ.,p. 26. 47 TML, Rules, Village Hygiene and Occupation. 73 "Arbeidslus se eerste stoeiwedstryd" SAR & H Seealso" Arbeidslus" in Forward, 27/3/36. Magazine, February 1936, p.245. 48 Seequote from Theronabove. 74 TML, Report of the committee appointed ..., p.21. 49 TML, Rules,Village Hygiene and Occupation. 75 "Arbeidslus se eerste stoeiwedstryd", p.245. 50 Ca!)e Argus, 15-3-1935. 76 I. Abedian and B. Standish, "Poor Whites and the 51 TML, Rules, Village Hygiene and Occupation. role of the state: The evidence". The South Seealso ~Delea',"Die Modeldorpe", p.1562. African Journal of Economics, vol.53, no.2, 1985, 52 Verslag van die Spoorwegwelsynswerkdeur die pp.163-164. Abedian and Standish use this term Voortsettingskomitee van die Volkskongres, to refer to ~awhole array of educational, medical, 1934,p.58. transport and social services' which contributed to 53 TML, Reportof the committee appointed..., p.27. the ultimate eradication of the poor white 54 Th!.d. problem. 55 ~Delea',"Die Modeldorpe", pp. 1561-1563. 77 TML, Report of the committee appointed, p.31. 56 TML, Rules, Village Hygiene and Occupation. 78 ThiQ. 57 Cape Argus, 23-3-1935. In an article on the 79 See for example D. Hobart Houghton, ~ ~ImportantModel Village Experiments' a highly- economic !>roblems of the Bantu in South Africa placed (government)official is quotedas saying, (Johannesburg, 1938); De Kiewiet. History of ~you must give these people their self-respect; South Africa, p.224, F. Van Biljon. State you must make them realise the dignity of interference in South Africa (Westminster, 1938), labour...'. pp.244, 283 and 286-288. 58 TML, file~C. M. Hoffe': Hoffe -C. Malan, 21-11- 80 See for example S. Herbert Frankel. The railway 1929. See also G.H. Pirie, "Sleepers beside ~licy of South Africa (Johannesburg, 1928), Tracks:: Housing in South Africa's state railway pp.55-59 and 88; Abedian and Standish, "Poor corporation," South African GeograDhical whites and the role of the state", p.162. Journal,vol. 64, no. 2, 1982, in which it is shown 81 Debates of the House of Assembly, 14-3-1934, that racial separationwas a factor in the Railway col.1399. housingpolicy. 82 ThiQ.,11-4-1934, col.2044. 59 CAD, SAS 1866, ftIe RHOW35/4, Minutes of a 83 TML, Report of the commission appointed, p.31. meeting of the Welfare Committee, Cape eastern 84 ThiQ.,p 30. system,5-12-1945. 60 C. W. de Kiewiet, A history of South Africa. social and economic (London, 1941). See CAD, SAS 1870, ftIe RHOW35/11, List of prescribed books for the training of Lady Welfare Officers, purchasedduring 1943-44, appendix to minutes of a meeting of the Central Welfare Committee, SAR & H, 21-10-1947. 38 CONTREE 35/1994