Florida State University Libraries

Home , Amica (opera), Iris (opera)

2016 The Instrument of Heros and Troubadours: The Harp in Tenor Arias Agnes Hall

Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected]

FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF MUSIC

THE INSTRUMENT OF HEROS AND TROUBADOURS:

THE HARP IN TENOR ARIAS

AGNES E. HALL

A Treatise submitted to the Department of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Music

2016

Agnes E. Hall defended this treatise on April 15, 2016. The members of the supervisory committee were:

Mary Brigid Roman Professor Directing Treatise

Richard Clary University Representative

Alexander J. Jiménez Committee Member

Melanie Punter Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the treatise has been approved in accordance with university requirements.

In loving memory of Thelma Crumble

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I must thank my wonderful harp instructor, Mary Brigid Roman, for her abiding support and knowledgeable guidance over the last four years. Professor Roman consistently goes to great lengths in order to help her students perform, learn, and grow in a supportive atmosphere, and her model of thoroughness and professionalism is an inspiration to those who are fortunate enough to study with her. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the members of my committee for their valuable perspectives and time spent on this treatise. Daron

Kirsch formatted the musical examples, and cheerfully worked with me through several revisions. Over the years I have had the privilege of studying with many fine music teachers:

Donna Rose, Dot Robertson, Shirley Jennings, Carrol McLaughlin, Ann Young, and Katherine

Syer have contributed to my music education and, therefore, this treatise.

My parents also deserve much credit, as they worked hard to provide me with every musical and cultural opportunity our small town could offer, and uncomplainingly financed over a decade of higher education. I must also acknowledge Lincoln and Amelia, two dedicated academicians, whose inspirational sense of discipline and strong work ethic far surpass that of their older sister.

Finally, I would like to extend my gratitude to the outstanding staff of the Florida State

University College of Music, whose helpfulness and knowledge often extend far beyond the duties required of them and work tirelessly to ensure that all of the wheels of the music school turn smoothly. In particular I would like to acknowledge Lauren Smith, Megan McCaskill,

Tiawana Meeks, and Jennie Carpenter for their hard work and excellent communication skills, which have made being a doctoral student at FSU an absolute delight. I am truly honored to be a part of the FSU music school community.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ...... vi List of Musical Examples ...... vii Abstract ...... ix

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2. FROM CULTURAL SYMBOL TO ENSEMBLE INSTRUMENT ...... 4

3.MECHANICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN HARP CONSTRUCTION ...... 13

4. THE HARP AS AN INSTRUMENT OF LAMENT ...... 23

5. THE HARP AS THE INSTRUMENT OF TROUBADOURS ...... 36

6. THE HARP IN VERISMO OPERA ...... 49

7. THE HARP AS A SYMBOL OF RESILIANT LOVE ...... 59

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE ...... 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 78

Biographical Sketch ...... 82

LIST OF FIGURES

1. The crochete method of adjusting a string pitch ...... 15

2. A single-action harp pedal ...... 17

3. A double-action harp mechanism ...... 19

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

1. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 1-6 ...... 26

2. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 16-21 ...... 27

3. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm.24, 27, 39 ...... 27

4. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm.1-6 ...... 28

5. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm. 1-5 ...... 32

6. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm 21-24 ...... 33

7. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm 33-36 ...... 34

8. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm 39-44 ...... 35

9. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 92-104 ...... 40

10. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm 108-109 ...... 41

11. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm 115-121 ...... 41

12. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 181-187 ...... 42

13. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 40-46 ...... 45

14. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 40-46 (edited) ...... 46

15. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 32-37 ...... 46

16. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 67-78 ...... 47

17. Mascagni, “Siciliana,” mm. 5-12 ...... 51

18. Mascagni, “Siciliana,” mm. 5-12 (edited) ...... 52

19. Mascagni, “Siciliana,” mm. 41-49 (edited) ...... 53

20. Rachmaninov, “The Young Gypsies’ Romance,” mm. 11-14 ...... 57

21. Rachmaninov, “The Young Gypsies’ Romance,” mm. 21-26 ...... 58

22. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 20-23...... 62

vii

23. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 20-23 (edited) ...... 62

24. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 24-29 (edited) ...... 63

25. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 96-98 ...... 64

26. Puccini, La Bohéme, Act I, Rehearsal 30, mm. 11-15 ...... 66

27. Puccini, La Bohéme, Act I, Rehearsal 32, mm. 8-12 ...... 68

28. Puccini, La Bohéme. Act 1, Rehearsal 32, mm. 8-12 ...... 68

29. Puccini, La Bohéme. Act 1, Rehearsal 41, mm. 13-15 ...... 69

30 Puccini, La Bohéme, Act 1. Rehearsal 30, mm. 16-27 (edited) ...... 69

viii

ABSTRACT

This treatise primarily examines factors influencing why composers have elected to write for the harp in tenor arias and how composers have done so. In doing so, this treatise traces the evolution of the harp from the simple lyre into the large and intricate instrument that it is today, in order to demonstrate how these mechanical advances influenced how composers incorporated it into tenor arias. Musical examples have been selected based on the harp’s importance in the aria and the work’s place in standard repertoire. The arias are arranged according to the harp’s thematic significance, not in chronological order. Each aria example is accompanied by an explanation of the harp’s musical and theatrical relevance in the passage.

Perhaps most importantly, this treatise aspires to provide a resource to harpists as a primer for collaboration with accompanying vocalists. For this reason, historically-informed performance practice tempos and dynamics as well as suggestions for fingerings, pedaling, and potential emendations have been added.

Views of the harp have been consistent for thousands of years, as evidenced by the surviving art of ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek, and Chinese cultures, documenting their use of the harp. In Western culture, the harp was an important transmitter of oral history and was a cultural symbol in Ireland and Wales. In more recent history, harps and harpists have been perceived as being closely connected to both spiritually transcendent and earthly romantic love. Perhaps drawing upon their own subconscious knowledge of the instrument through Greek mythology and the Bible, early music theorists seeking instrumental classification quickly assigned the qualities of nobility, beauty, and divine inspiration to harp music. Over time, the persona of the traveling minstrel was imbued into the harp’s repertoire, and the harp came to symbolize the earnestness and romance of wistful troubadours.

From opera’s very inception, harp music was an important component in tenor arias as an instrument with powerful mythological, religious, and class associations. Most often, heroic roles in opera are given to the lead tenor. Naturally, then, opera composers employed the harp to signify transcendent moments in a tenor’s character. It was the harp’s historically-rooted and widely-recognized traditional symbol as an instrument of minstrels and bards, as a symbol of heaven, and as a motivic signifier of unshakable love, that composers drew upon. This near- universal recognition, when coupled with the basic pedal mechanism and other mechanical innovations to the harp, allowed composers to further utilize the superb, distinctive balance between the harp and the tenor voice. With some attention, composers might re-familiarize themselves with the harp, and utilize the same poignant and distinctive capacities of the harp, which have supported the extreme emotions of passionate love or utter despair in tenor arias for many years.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

While it is certainly true that “Opera represents the culture that stages it,”1 the harp is a unique instrument in that it represents similar themes across many different cultures. Many of the arias selected for this treatise are from operas that are repeatedly produced, and most of these arias are frequently programmed in concerts and recitals. The musical examples are not presented chronologically, but instead are grouped by the harp’s relevance as an instrument of lament, in troubadour songs, in Verismo opera, and as a musical symbol of resilient love integrated within the music of an opera.

Many of these can be and are performed in a concert setting by harp and tenor, with only a few alterations to the harp parts. For example, the harpist may add the bassoon solo from the beginning of “Una furtiva lacrima.” Other arias, such as “Deh placatevi con me!,” “Dir töne lob!,” and “Deserto sulla terra,” “Siciliana,” and “The Young Gypsies’ Romance,” may be played as written with no significant changes. Although it is rarely employed for vocal recitals, in these cases the harp renders more accurate picture of the composer’s intent than a piano accompaniment does.

The suggested emendations have been made with the intent of increasing the harpist’s dependability, so that they might allow room within the their technique for variations that occur in performance. Relying upon the uppermost limits of one’s technical capacity is often a gamble in performance, and especially during an opera performance. A single missed beat or overlooked pedal can result in an audible derailment for the entire passage. Care has been taken to make

1 Julie A. Buckler, The Literary Lorgnette: Attending Opera in Imperial Russia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), 1. 2 Hans Joachim Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, trans. Maggie Greiffenhagen. (Leipzig: VEB Friedrich

adjustments within the original harmonies, keeping in mind that composers often wrote while considering the available players, capabilities, and limitations of a specific ensemble. Even the most confident orchestrators seemed unsure of themselves when it came to the harp, including

Wagner who allowed harpists to edit his parts.2

In performance, there are many factors outside of a harpist’s control. The provided harp’s pedaling or string tension may be too tight, the tenor may rush, or the acoustics of the opera house may demand that a delicate piano section be played forte. Above all, this treatise is intended to encourage a thoughtful approach to these harp parts, in hopes that providing context will encourage additional performances.

Since many opera parts are rented only a few weeks in advance, a harpist’s time with the music before the first rehearsal is often limited. In these cases, it is often difficult to discern what must be played exactly as written and what could be edited for ease of playing. The harpist must know which aspects of the music should be focused upon to achieve the most effective performance. Some topics that will be addressed and problems to solve are:

• Commonly used tempos • Which notes in a chord to most prominently voice • Whether to roll a chord before or on the beat • Performance practices not written in the score (such as rubatos taken by tenors) • What to do with pianistic parts that don’t work well on the harp • Large, very fast jumps between the high and low range of the harp. • Smooth modulations between key and harmonic changes

When examined within the context of their entire operatic output, few composers demonstrate the ability (or interest) in evolving their writing for the harp. Donizetti, Verdi,

Wagner, Mascagni, and Puccini’s harp writing remains uniform over the span of their careers.

Each of these composers appears to have quickly determined just what their approach to the

2 Hans Joachim Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, trans. Maggie Greiffenhagen. (Leipzig: VEB Friedrich Hofmeister, 1969), 178.

instrument would be. For example, the progression of time did not do anything to temper

Wagner’s notoriously difficult (and frequently inaudible) harp parts. Similarly, Puccini’s earlier harp parts demonstrate an affinity for the harp consistent with his later operas.

A few notes on the notation of the musical examples:

1. In harp fingering, 1 designates the thumb, 2 the index finger, 3 the third finger, and 4 the ring finger. A long solid line placed after a pedal marking (such as Bݡ-ݠ-ݡ) indicates that .2 the harpist should not notch the pedal, but should be prepared to move it again soon. 3. Pedal markings are placed with right foot over left foot. 4. Conventional stemming has been adjusted to improve legibility for the harpist. Harp music is much easier to read if stems for all right hand notes go up, and stems for all left hand notes go down. This practice leaves more room between the staff, which is where most harpists add their pedal markings. 5. A bracket connecting notes indicates that all fingers within the bracket should be placed. 6. Notes that may be added to the original score appear in parenthesis. 7. A diamond-shaped note indicates a note that may be placed ahead of time.

One reason that these arias continue to maintain their relevance is because perceptions of the harp have changed little over the centuries. Although it has physically evolved over the last four hundred years, the harp continues to represent truth, goodness, and a beauty almost out of grasp for the mortals of this world.

CHAPTER 2

FROM CULTURAL SYMBOL TO ENSEMBLE INSTRUMENT

By the time the Motevardi’s opera Orfeo premiered in 1607, the harp had enjoyed a highly visible presence for over three thousand years. The harp, in combination with the voice, has long been a popular means of musical entertainment. From the beginning of civilization through the nineteenth century, the harp was held in high esteem by both religious institutions and popular culture.

Ancient sculptures cave drawings, and relics suggest that the harp played a vital role in humans’ earliest musical presentations. The predecessor of the harp was the lyre. It is distinguished from the harp by its simple two-part construction. In this treatise, the term “harp” will sometimes be used to denote what is technically a lyre. Ancient Greek and Eastern harps

(technically lyres) were composed of two parts: a sound box and a string arm. In modern harps, these are referred to as the “body” and the “neck,” respectively.3 A vase fragment originating ca.

3000 B.C. Bismaya (present-day Iraq) depicts two musicians playing bow-shaped instruments, which are most likely primitive lyres.4 Harps with fifteen to sixteen strings were part of royal entertainment in ancient Egypt, and pharaohs were buried amidst paintings depicting both harpists and actual harps. Harps have been found in both the King’s Tomb at Ur5 (2600-2350

B.C.) and Ramses’ Tomb (1198-1166 B.C.)6 At some point, western Europeans either added a

3 Roslyn Rensch, Harps and Harpists (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 29.

4 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 6.

5 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 6. The harp from the King’s Tomb at Ur has been restored and is now property of The British Museum.

6 Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, 187. For a detailed timeline of important harp dates, see Appendix 1 “Important Dates Added to the Development of the Harp and the Playing of it.”

column to the original two harp parts, or the three-part harp frame was developed independent of the knowledge of the ancient style of lyre building. Pictures of English frame harps have been found which date from as early as the 9th century.7

Perhaps because it was one of the first instruments, the harp quickly became a symbol of

Christianity. As Roslyn Rensch writes in her seminal book Harps and Harpists, the harp was likely an iconographic symbol to early Christian monks.8 Churches were one of the few decorated places most Medieval people ever visited. Cathedrals were important destinations for religious pilgrims, who sought to atone for their sins by visiting these holy spaces. Here, ordinary people could see artistic representations of the harp in many different mediums.

During the Medieval period, the harp was frequently depicted in Psaltery illustrations.

Several of these Psaltery illustrations depict King David playing the harp and it is through his story, told in the first book of Samuel, that many people came to view the harp as an instrument with healing potential. According to the Old Testament, King David cured Saul of evil spirits by playing the harp for him: “And it came to pass, when the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, that David took a harp, and played with his hand: so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him.”9

The Bible also informed the faithful that the harp was a powerful tool of worship.

The harp, along with other instruments, is mentioned in Psalm 98 verses 4-5: “Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all the earth; make a loud noise, and rejoice, and sing praise. Sing unto the

7 Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, 187.

8 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 29. These monks were probably copying pictures of harps from other Psaltry books, rather than drawing them from real life.

9 Piero Weiss and Richard Taruskin, ed., Music in the Western World: A History in Documents (New York: Shirmer Books, 1984), 13.

Lord with the harp; with the harp, and the voice of a psalm.” The harp appears again in Psalm

150: “Praise him with the sound of the trumpet: praise him with the psaltery and harp.”10 In

Psaltery illustrations, women and angels were also illustrated playing the harp in small ensembles with the lute and fiddle.

Not only had Europeans been exposed to the harp in a religious context, but also many had the opportunity to personally experience live harp music. The harp (or some early form of it) featured prominently in nearly every European culture. In a time when very few people could read and travel was difficult, minstrel harpists played a vital role in disseminating news and preserving history. Beginning in the early Middle Ages, the Spanish jongleurs and German minnesingers were a common source of entertainment.11 As Alexander Bruchner writes, “There was scarcely a single novel or poem in the age of chivalry that did not describe the sound of the harp, or in which the account of military adventure was not introduced by a harp-player.”12 Over time, the image of the lovelorn minstrel became a familiar trope. Hundreds of years later, the trope of the minstrel harpist still persisted and would eventually be evoked in the tenor arias of

Verdi, Wagner, Mascagni, and Rachmaninov.

The Harp in Early Opera

The writings of early musical theorists attest to the widespread presence of the harp in

Italy. In Iconologia, (1593) Cesare Ripa wrote that the harp is associated with the expressive mode. In Musica Scenica (ca. 1635) Giovan Battista Doni suggests keeping harpsichords hidden from the audience’s view, but places the harp in a highly visible position “Because the harp and

10 Weiss and Taruskin, Music in the Western World, 12.

11 Alexander Bruchner, Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History, ed. Bořek Vančura, (New York: Crown Publishers, 1973), 18.

12 Bruchner, Musical Instruments, 18.

the viola have a wonderful suggestion of simplicity and majesty. In addition the harp is the best instrument for portraying antiquity.”13 In Musica Scenica II, Giovan Battista Doni goes even further in his endorsement of the harp, and advocated that harps be used onstage in operas:

Since a golden harp is not only a beautiful sight, but its sound carries well and it combines beautifully with the voice. The harp is a noble instrument: it is much preferable to keyboards as it blends well with a violin playing divisions. If one harp is not loud enough for the theater, more could be added; they then could play in turn, the other players resting.14

In seventeenth century Italy, permanent harp positions existed at courts, in the houses of nobility, and at churches, and monasteries.15 Thanks in part to its association with

Greek drama musica, harp was also popular with composers of the blossoming genre of opera.16

Several highly skilled harpists were widely known and sought-after for operatic performances.

One such harpist was Giovan Carlo Rossi (1617-1692). Around 1630, Carlo Rossi arrived in

Rome and by 1635, Rossi was employed as a harpist in the private chapel of the Borghese family. After playing in Rome for over thirty years, in 1661 Rossi was invited to play in

Cavalli’s opera Ercole Amante in Paris, where he remained until 1666 in the esteemed position of Maitre de la Musique de Cabinet du Roy.17

13 Maria Galassi, “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome.” in Historische Harfen: Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis historischer Harfen, ed. Heidrun Rosenzweig. (Basil: Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, 1991), 76. This is Galassi’s translation of Giovan Battista Doni’s Italian text, which read: “L’arpa e viola che hanno non so che più del semplice e maestoso e rappresentano meglio l’antichità.”

14 Galassi, “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” 76.

15 Wiedke Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries” (DMus thesis, Indiana University, 2002), 3. For more on this, see Hannelore Devaere, “The Baroque Double Harp in the Kingdom of Naples,” in Aspects of the Historical Harp: Proceedings of the International Historical Harp Symposium Utrecht 1992, ed. Martin can Schaik (Utrecht: STIMU, 1994), 14.

16 Maria Galassi notes on page 72 of her article that some of these operas are Chi soffre speri and Dal male il bene by Marco Marazzoli and San boni fatio by Domenico Mazzochi.

17 Galassi, “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” 76.

Opera as a fully staged art form was not immediately popular in England. Instead, semi- opera, a spoken play with musical portions and much spectacle, was a popular form of entertainment in England at the end of the 17th century. Oratorios emerged as the result of opera being banned during Advent and Lent. Julius Caesar (1724) by George Frederic Handel was premiered in London and has notable harp accompaniment during several arias. Each of the countries that are now the British Isles had their own distinct kind of harp, such as the Irish harp and the Welsh triple-strung telyn. In the nineteenth century, London was home to several renowned harp virtuosos and teachers, notably Charles Bochsa and Elias-Parish Alvars (of whose playing Hector Berlioz was most enamored).

Opera composers quickly recognized the harp’s ability to blend with the voice, particularly in the tenor range. The trend during the Baroque period was to have vocalists accompanied by interchangeable continuo instruments, such as the keyboard, harp, and Spanish viheula, a type of early guitar.18 Early composers often chose write tenor arias with the harp outlining a chordal accompaniment. As a basso continuo instrument, the harp often shared music with the double bass or harpsichord.

Documentation of the instrument’s powerful sound can be traced back to Greek myth of

Orpheus, a man who “acquired such a skill at singing and playing the lyre that nothing animate or inanimate could resist his music.”19 For Monteverdi’s 1607 debut of Orfeo, he specified using the versatile arpa doppia, a harp with two rows of strings. Seventeenth century Italian culture venerated Greek drama, and composers sought to replicate the art form as accurately as possible.

As Weiss and Taruskin attest:

18 Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 2.

19 Weiss and Taruskin, Music in the Western World, 1.

To the Greeks, music possessed ethos; that is, the power to influence its hearers’ and behavior, indeed their morals. This magical power (recognized, by the way, by all of the world’s cultures, in countless legends) is nowhere so dramatically illustrated as in the ancient, celebrated myth of Orpheus,”20

Frequent depiction of lyres in Greek art led opera composers to believe that they had been an accompaniment for dramatic plays in ancient Greece. Thus, the harp’s association with antiquity made it a popular basso continuo instrumental choice for early operas. In an effort to portray Greek culture as accurately as possible, stage directors and composers alike promoted the harp’s presence both below and onstage. Stile rappresentivo, the predecessor of recitative, consisted of speech-like song that was supposed to be similar to what the Greeks used. Galili advocated for stile rapprensentivo, which favored melodious declamation over vocal counterpoint.

The Development of the Tenor Voice

The Florentine Camerata was a group that met together in Florence during the 1570s-80s to discuss new musical theories and ideas. Donald J. Grout outlines three main objectives from the writings of Florentine Camerata.

1. The text must be clearly understood with no contrapuntal writing. Accompaniments should be kept as simple as possible. 2. Natural declamation should be used. (Nevertheless, ornamentation of the vocal line, a performance practice inherited from the Renaissance, persisted throughout the Baroque period.)21 3. The melody should interpret feeling rather than depicting the text, as in madrigals and motets.22

20 Weiss and Taruskin, Music in the Western World, 1.

21 Donald J. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 3rd. ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 224.

22 Grout, A Short History of Opera, 3rd ed., 41-42.

Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini, two influential members of the Florentine Camerata, were also accomplished tenors. Peri’s and Caccini’s musical theories, in combination with each man’s fine vocal technique in the tenor range, lead to the first operas. One of the musical ideas

Peri promoted was one continuous stream of musical accompaniment, even when there was no singing. 23 This method evolved into what we now recognize as recitative. Daphne (1597) by

Peri was his first work set entirely to music. Taken from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, the story recounts the tale of Daphne and Apollo, who is almost always depicted with his lyre.

Not only an accomplished composer, Peri was a gifted performer, and communicated effectively onstage through his singing and deportment. As John Potter writes, “It was his ability to personalize the narrative with an emotional weight that made his singing so appealing to his contemporaries. Severo Bonini said Peri’s singing ‘would have moved to tears any heart of stone.’”24 The ability to clearly sing a libretto while simultaneously producing strong emotions in the audience is still considered a key component of a compelling tenor performance.

Between the 17th and 20th centuries, the musical language of opera gradually transitioned from the basso continuo and recitative styles to one of denser orchestration. As composers became more interested in orchestral color and less concerned with replicating Greek drama, writing for the harp evolved correspondingly. Popular subject matter for operas generally moved away from antiquity to everyday struggles among ordinary people. This happened to coincide with the shift in popularity away from castrati to a closer approximation of the present-day tenor voice. In seventeenth century Italy, tenors had been edged out by castrati, whose decidedly unnatural voices were considered appropriate for the mythological themes of opera. By the mid-

23 John Potter, The History of A Voice. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 13.

24 Potter, The History of A Voice, 13.

1700s, the mutilation of young boys to make them castrati was considered “barbaric” in

France.25 Not having the “gender ambiguity” of castrati helped open the door for the development of the tenor as a convincing romantic lead.

Verdi may also be credited with the increasing importance of the tenor, and was one of the first composers to consistently portray tenors as heroes and lovers, reserving baritones for comical relief and mature villains. He was most insistent that tenors, not baritones, were more suitable for romantic leads. As John Potter writes,

The disappearance of castrati, and with it the element of gender ambiguity, also clarified the potential roles that tenors could play; Verdi was one of the first composers to become aware of this, refusing, for example, to cast Ernani as a contralto. Bellini had already realized that basses would not make good romantic leads, and Verdi exploited the baritone for mature characters that a hundred years before might have been opera seria tenors. That left tenors free to be lovers, and Verdi recognized that there was something in the color of the tenor voice that was particularly appealing.26

In time, opera composers gradually became frustrated by the enormous liberties taken by singers. Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) was among the first prominent composers to eliminate this problem by dictating vocal embellishments in his scores, rather than leaving embellishments to the discretion of the performer.

While 19th century composers continued to use the harp to accompany the strong positive emotions of the tenor voice, the musical methods to convey these feelings differed. As the harp’s reliability and chromatic capabilities increased, later composers utilized the instrument’s coloristic effects to enhance their scores.

25 Potter, The History of A Voice, 59.

26 Potter, The History of A Voice, 59.

Some composers such as Wagner and Puccini, developed very distinctive orchestration styles. Each composed harp parts representative of their idiomatic compositional styles. Rather than using the harp as a chordal accompaniment, Puccini peppered his harp writing with distinctive reoccurring motives. For example, in La Bohéme a motif consisting of four notes descending appears for the first time in Act 1, Scene 2, as Mimi and Rodolfo are falling in love, and again in the final scene of Act 4, to remind us of that pure love.

Composers of opera have long relied upon audiences' subconscious associations of harp music with noble ideals, nostalgia, and redemptive love. All of these ideals are on full display in the passionate arias of tenors. Jacobo Peri’s early emphasis on the importance of communication with his listeners “ensured that the tenor would become the principal narrative voice in the dramatic music of the future.”27 During their arias, tenors must convincingly embody ideals that, incidentally, harp and harpists culturally represent. As the following musical examples will demonstrate, the ideas presented by the Florentine Camerata and adopted by Gluck helped establish the foundation for the use of the harp in tenor arias.

27 Potter, The History of A Voice, 13-14.

CHAPTER 3

MECHANICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN HARP CONSTRUCTION

The size of the harp stayed consistent between the sixth and sixteenth centuries,28 although the number of strings and type of body construction varied regionally. After a thousand years of only having minor physical adjustments, the genre of opera required an instrument with a more versatile tuning mechanism. Throughout continental Europe, early musicologists documented a staggering variety of harp constructions. Pierre Trichet pointed out in Traité des instruments de musique (1640) that single, double, and triple strung harps were used concurrently, although the single-row harp was the most common.29 Harps with a single row of diatonically tuned gut strings without any kind of tension-adjusting mechanism were called

“common” or “simple” harps.30 It is these so-called simple harps that were referred to in the treatises of Virdung (Musica getutscht, 1511), Lanfranco (Scintille di musica, 1523), Agricola

(Musica instrumentalis, 1528), Bermudo (Declaracion de los instrumentos, 1555) and Galilei

(Dialogo, 1581).31 Bermudo, a Spaniard, actually added supplementary strings to make the harp more chromatic.32 In 1555, the “Welsh Triple Harp” was also documented. In 1581, Vincenzo

Galilei (son of famed astronomer Galeleo) documented the use of a more chromatic the fifty-

28 Bruchner, Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History, 18.

29 Galassi, “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” 69.

30 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 105.

31 Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, 140.

32 Zingel, Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, 187.

eight string double harp. However, it was Praetorius who first documented the use of both chromatic and diatonic harps in Syntagma musicum (1618-1620). 33

Fortunately for harpists, Gluck’s opera reforms favored simple accompaniment to arias over an elaborate orchestration. Since retuning the harp was not quickly achieved, Monteverdi,

Gluck, Verdi and Donizetti used the harp where they deemed it most essential and audible. This usually happened to be during tenor arias. The harp was used considerably less in early 19th century opera than it had been during the basso continuo period. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the reliability and physical development of the harp had not improved as much as that of other instruments, which were increasing in size and volume. Because of the smaller size and less amount of tension placed on the strings, the harps originally used for these operas were considerably softer than the concert grand harps used in opera today. The distance between strings on the single-action harp was also notably smaller and a bit inconsistent among harp makers.34

According to Adelson, Roudier, and Duvernay, the race to develop a reliable solution to the problem of changing pitches on the harp was one of the “great mechanical races of the 18th century.”35 Each geographical area developed its own distinct method for harp construction.

Innovations regarding the physical construction of the harp eventually enabled harpists to play in a greater variety of keys without the burden of retuning. While it is tempting to attribute the

“invention” of certain types of harps to individuals, in truth there were many people (both

33 For a timeline of important writings and events in the harp’s development, see Appendix I in Hans Zingel’s book Neue Harfenlehere Vol. 4, pp. 187-189.

34 Ursula Rempel, “Fanny Krumpholtz and her Milieu,” The American Harp Society Journal, (Winter 1976), 12.

35 Robert Adelson, Alsin Roudier, and Francis Duvernay, “Rediscovering Cousineau's Fourteen-pedal Harp,” The Galpin Society Journal 63 (2010), 159–178; 230-231, accessed February 8 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20753661.

harpists and instrument builders) simultaneously trying to improve the instrument. This point is often overlooked in overly simplified histories of the harp.

In Bavaria around 1720, Jacob Hockbrucker (1673-1783) became among the first instrument builders to make a harp with pedals connected to crochetes, or hooks.36 Each of the five pedals could be moved to adjust all of the C,D,F,G, or B hooks, which in turn adjusted the pitch of the string.37 Crochet harps were typically tuned to F Major. Using the feet to adjust the pitch of the string (as opposed to changing a lever with the fingers) enabled the harpist to continually play with both hands.38 While certainly an improvement, the crochet system was by no means a perfect solution. As figure 1 shows, changing the pitch of a string also moved it slightly out of alignment.

Figure 1. The crochete method of adjusting string pitch.39

36 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 127. Hockbrucker also built lutes and violas.

37 As Roslyn Rensch notes in the first footnote on page 322 of Harps and Harpists, some sources say that the fifth pedal was A, not B. It is entirely possible that both versions existed simultaneously.

38 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 127.

39 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 127.

Additionally, “The tone was dulled, extraneous buzzing noises frequently occurred, and strings were easily broken.”40 The harp with crochets could only be played in a limited number of keys. In spite of the instrument’s propensity towards unpredictable behavior, the crochete pedal harp was extremely popular. Part of this popularity was due to Marie-Antoinette, an enthusiastic harp student to whom numerous opus numbers were dedicated.41 After Marie-

Antoinette’s arrival in Paris in 1770, (when she was still the Princess of Wales) the popularity of the harp escalated. Harp mania seized Paris even more when Marie-Antoinette was crowned

Queen of France in 1774, and began encouraging harp makers to improve upon the crochete harp. A 1784 publication entitled Les tablettes de la renommeé des musiciens listed fifty-eight music instructors, an astounding forty-six of whom were harp teachers.42 Napoleon’s wife,

Empress Josephene, was also a harp enthusiast and student of George Cousineau.43 In 1782,

Georges Cousineau introduced a double-action harp with fourteen pedals in two rows of seven.

For the first time, harpists were able to play in all major and minor keys.44 In spite of its chromatic capabilities, the fourteen-pedal harp was not widely played and therefore is often forgotten. Today, only six of these harps still exist.45

Sébastian Erard introduced the single action harp in Paris in 1795, which he developed with his friend Jean-Baptiste Krumpholtz, a harpist and composer who was seeking to improve

40 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 129.

41 For detailed information on the lineage and fate of Queen Marie Antoinette’s harp instructor, see Alice Lawson Aber’s, “Jean-Baptise Cardon,” American Harp Journal (Summer 1975), 11-17.

42 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 142.

43 Robert Adelson, Alain Roudier, and Francis Duvernay. “Rediscovering Cousineau’s Fourteen-Pedal Harp.” The Galpin Society Journal 63 (May 2010), 159-178; 230-231.

44 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 132.

45 Adelson, Roudier, and Duvernay. “Rediscovering Cousineau’s Fourteen-Pedal Harp.”

the existing mechanism.46 There were seven pedals which each had two positions, as shown in

Figure 2. When each pedal was in its uppermost position, the harp was tuned in the key of E flat.47 Various pedal configurations enabled the Erard harp to be played in eight major and five minor keys.48

Figure 2. A single-action harp pedal.49

Krumpholtz later worked with harp maker Franz-Joseph Naderman to develop an eighth pedal, or “swell pedal,” for the purpose of controlling volume and resonance. Although most single action harps consisted of seven pedals, eight-pedal harps were not uncommon and were still played after the invention of the double-action pedal harp. An excellent description of the eight-pedaled harp comes from an 1816 article in Gentleman’s Magazine:

The harps in use at present are strung with catgut and the number of strings is different on different harps: those with the latest improvements have forty-three and a compass of six octaves. They are tuned to the diatonic major scale of E flat…For playing compositions in the key of A flat, all the D’s must be tuned a

46 Donald C. Spinelli. “Beaumarchais, Krumpholtz, and the Harp: An Unidentified Letter,” World Harp Congress Review 4 no 1 (Fall 2000), 15.

47 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 127.

48 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 127.

49 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 128.

semitone lower, making the fifths to A flat: for other keys, the pitch of the string is altered as required, by depressing a number of pedals at the bottom of the instrument… Between the E and B pedals at the centre of the body of the harp] is sometimes placed another, called the swell or pédale de la soupape, which produces its effect by opening the back of the instrument.50

The eighth swell pedal was moved with the left foot after playing chords in order to keep the chord ringing longer. As harp music became more chromatic and the physical size of the harp increased, the swell pedal fell out of favor as demands for pedaling techniques increased.

In 1810, Sebastian Erard introduced the double action pedal harp (harp à double movement), which was so successful that over three thousand were built between 1811 and

1835.51 By the late 1830s, over 4,000 double-action Erard harps had been sold.52 One would naturally assume that the double-action harps cost substantially more than the single-action harps. In fact, the price of some harps actually decreased from 1800 to 1824. Around 1800, a single-action Erard harp cost between 1,200 to 1,500 francs. From 1824-1834, single and double-action Erard harps were priced between 1,000 to 2,000 francs.53

While it is also reasonable to surmise that harpists would flock to the new, improved instrument, many still clung to the familiar single action harp. The double action pedal harp actually existed for many years before it enjoyed complete prominence in the professional world.

This is due to two factors: the difficulty harpists had in adopting a new pedaling system, and the

50 Ursala M. Rempel, ‘Méthodes de harpe: an Introduction to Eighteenth-Century Tutors,’American Harp Society Journal Winter 1982. 15-28. See footnote 7 on page 28. Originally, this appeared in “Review of New Musical Publication,” Gentleman’s Magazine, 86 (Jan-June 1816), 443.

51 Jean Mongrédien, “Instrumental Music” From French Music from the Enlightenment to Romanticism 1789-1830. Edited by Reinhard G. Paul. Translated by Sylvain Frémaux. (Portland: Amadeus Press, 1996), 275.

52 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 150.

53 Wiedke Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 12. Today, the price for concert grand harps begins at around $22,000.

stubborn resistance from single-action harp makers. The instruction at the Paris Conservatoire also continued to promote the single-action harp. The Conservatoire harp instructor, François-

Joseph Naderman (1781-1835) and his brother Henri manufactured single-action harps. In order preserve their business, François-Joseph refused to embrace the new mechanical advancements.54

The Naderman brothers’ refusal to endorse the more versatile double-action harp may have discouraged many composers from writing for the harp altogether. Ironically, although Paris was the center of both the opera world and harp culture, the Paris Conservatoire harp instruction did not help students meet the demands of many current ensemble compositions.

Figure 3. The double-action harp mechanism.55

Some renowned professional harpists found the transition to the double-action harp too difficult. One well-known example is that of Dorrette Spohr, (1787-1834) a virtuosic harpist who performed professionally with her husband, the composer, conductor, and violinist Louis

54 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 144.

55 Roslyn Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 149.

Sphor.56 Even the smallest Erard harp demanded more strength than she was capable of playing with, and “having become acquainted with its superior tone and mechanism, she could not return to playing the single-action harp.”57 But adapting to the improved mechanism wasn’t simply a matter of strength: harpists transitioning to the double-action harp also had to completely re-train the muscle memory of their feet for changing accidentals. Harp pedaling techniques and accuracy are not mastered quickly, and retraining the brain and feet to override one’s muscle memory would have been a Herculean task.

As harp markers continued to seek mechanical perfection, several other interesting types of harps were invented. Though now considered an antiquated novelty, the Pleyel company’s harp chromatique was introduced in 1897 and was quite popular for a time, particularly in

Brussels and Paris.58 The cross-strung harp chromatique consisted of two rows of strings meant to loosely correspond to the black and white keys on the piano. With an additional twelve buttons on the neck to control string vibration and tuning, surviving examples of the harp chormatique weigh over one hundred and thirty pounds!59 It is somewhat surprising, then, that the Pleyel harp chormatique enjoyed some prominence and was played in numerous performances spanning from Donizetti to Mascagni. In fact, the extent to which the harp chromatique was utilized in opera orchestras may have affected how composers approached writing for the harp.60 Even with the many mechanical innovations that enabled harpists to easily

56 Roslyn Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 150.

57 Roslyn Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 155.

58 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 115. Claude Debussy was commissioned by the Pleyel firm to write his now-famous Danse sacreé et danse profane especially for the harp chormatique.

59 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 115.

60 There are several sources available that describe the Pleyel harp and detail its technique. One of these is Lee-Fei Chen’s DMA treatise “The emergence of the double-action harp as the standard instrument: Pleyel’s chromatic harp

change keys, the tradition of playing the harp chromatique in opera continued through the first quarter of the twentieth century.61

By 1810 there were hundreds of amateur harpists in Paris, many of whom embraced the double-action harp. As the nineteenth century progressed, manufacturing of the piano quickly outpaced the harp. This is due to a combination of supply and demand, cost, and the labor involved per instrument. While pianos could be mass-produced, harp builders were limited in the number of steps that could be mechanized. Even today, most steps in the harp building process must be done entirely by hand. For comparison: the Erard firm was averaging only 150 harps per year between the 1810s and the late 1830s, but was capable of churning out nine hundred to twelve hundred pianos yearly.62 Meanwhile, pianos became more affordable with varying models offered at a range of price points. Ironically, the improvements to the harp’s construction rendered it unaffordable for most people. It is difficult to believe that, for a time, the harp was just as popular (if not more so) than the piano, and both were considered the only suitable instruments for young women.63

The ability of the harp to blend beautifully with the voice was no match for the convenience of the piano, and eventually it fell from its prominent place to that of an auxiliary instrument. Thanks in part to its royal patronage, the harp reigned supreme as the instrument of choice for nobility, lending credence to Doni’s claim nearly two hundred years earlier that the

and Erard’s double-action harp.” Chen’s treatise also enumerates the various operas played on the Pleyel harp. (merge this footnote with the other page)

61 Andrew Lawrence King is one of the few living harpists today who is proficient on the double-strung harp. King is primarily concerned with reviving and recording Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque pieces for harp.

62 Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 37.

63 Rempel, “Fanny Krumpholtz and her Milieu,” 11-15.

harp was “the queen of instruments.”64 The harp’s dominance as the instrument of choice for accomplished young ladies continued well into the nineteenth century.

Unfortunately, the fervor of instrument makers and wealthy patrons was not matched by the enthusiasm of prominent symphonic composers. Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart all expressed disdain for the instrument and left the harp out of their major symphonic works. Thus, the harp remained a “symbol of distinction for the upper classes”65 rather than a revered instrument with a venerable repertoire.

64 Galassi, “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome,” 76.

65 Wiedke Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 78.

CHAPTER 4

THE HARP AS AN INSTRUMENT OF LAMENT

Orfeo ed Euridici (1762) Music by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787) Libretto by Raniero de Calzabigi Act 2 No. 22 “Deh placatevi con me!”

Score consulted: Chrisoph Williblad Gluck, Orfeo ed Euridici, Hermann Abbert, Ed. (Vienna: Osterreichischer Bunderverlag, 1914), 59-62.

According to Greek mythology, Orfeo played a kithara, (also known by its Latin name of cithern) with which he was often depicted in ancient art. Greek vase paintings show kitharas with seven strings, which were played with a pick held in the right hand as the left hand muffled the strings. The kithara was not an instrument associated with amateurs, but was played by skilled musicians to accompany dances, recitations, and epic songs. Ovid details the profound affect of Orfeo’s musical talent in Metamorphoses:

The bloodless ghosts were in tears. Tantalus made no effort to reach the waters that ever shrank away, Ixion’s wheel stood still in wonder, the vultures ceased to gnaw Tityus’ liver, the daughters of Danaus rested from their pitchers, and Sisyphus sat idle on his rock. Then for the first time, they say, the cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, for they were overcome by his singing. The king and queen of the underworld could not refuse his pleas. 66

It may have been with this passage in mind that Gluck decided to include the harp in

Orfeo ed Euridici. The original production took place in Vienna in 1762. Though the opera’s librettist Raniero de Calzabigi (1714-1795) interpreted the initial reception of Orefo ed Euridici as being “undecided,” other sources suggest that it “was immediately perceived as something

66 Piero Weiss and Richard Taruskin, ed., Music in the Western World: A History in Documents. (New York: Shirmer Books, 1984), 2.

new and remarkable.”67 Immediately, the strong visual affects of the opera were felt and

Giovanni Quaglio’s scenery was the topic of much discussion. Count Carl Zizendorf68 wrote about some of the first performances (and their initial reception) in his diary.69

In Act 2, Orfeo stands before the entrance to Hades as he tries to enter the underworld and save his wife Euridici. The god of love, Amor, has told Orfeo that he may go down to Hades and retrieve Euridici, provided that he resists looking at his beloved wife’s face until they have returned safely to Earth. The situation is made even less palatable for Orfeo when he comes upon the formidable Furies barring his way. Orfeo’s pleading aria “Deh placatevi con me!”70 begs the

Furies to calm their raging wrath and take pity on him.

Traditional staging directions dictate that Orfeo pretend to play the kithara onstage as harp music plays from the orchestra below. However, several recent productions have eliminated this element from the drama. Depending on the director’s vision, the Furies’ obstructionism may be voiced from offstage, or as they swirl intimidatingly around Orfeo. The Furies make their displeasure with Orfeo’s mission known by interjecting “No! No!” many times throughout his song. With the determination and bravery befitting a Greek hero, Orfeo will not be dissuaded and

67 Patricia Howard, Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 58.

68 From page 49 of Patricia Howard’s book Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents: “Count Carl Zizendorf arrived in Vienna in 1761. From 1752-1813, he filled over fifty volumes in his diary with social, political, and cultural commentary on Viennese life.” His diaries, which are still unpublished, are written in French and housed in Haus-, Hof-, und-Staatsarchiv in Vienna. Count Zizendorf wrote that debates immediately arose in aristocratic circles and at court “Over aspects of the action and particularly the scenery, for which Quaglio’s designs were perceived as puzzlingly original.”

69 Howard, Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents, 58. In particular, Quaglio’s choice of color for the Elysian Fields was energetically contested. Some members of the Royal Court decreed that the Elysian Fields should be green, while others maintained that they should be gray.

70 In English, “Take mercy on me!”

continues his attempts to placate the Furies with his steady harp playing. The English translation of Orfeo’s lament is as follows:

O be merciful to me! Furies, spectres, phantoms terrific! O let your hearts have pity on my soul tormenting pain! O be merciful, be merciful to me!

The 1774 production of Orfeo ed Euridici for the Académie Royale de Musique in Paris significantly changed several aspects to suit French tastes. This edition was dedicated to Marie-

Antoinette, to whom he had previously given harpsichord lessons in Vienna.71 The entire libretto was translated from Italian into French in accordance with standard operatic practices of the day.

The French libretto by Pierre-Louis Moline is a very close translation of Raniero de Calzabigi’s original text, yet this poses some problems when combined with the music. Although both are romance languages, French and Italian have different declamatory styles and rhythms.72 In general, Italian opera emphasized the creation of arias and melodic material, while French opera focused on the overall spectacle. This visual splendor included elaborate costumes and stage machinery. Other substantial revisions made for the Paris version included the addition of ballet numbers and the replacement of the title castrato role with a haute contre, or high tenor, voice.

Haute contre singers typically sang the heroic roles in French opera, as castrati were no longer in favor in Paris at the time.73

While the original Italian version is the one most frequently performed today with a female vocalist singing the castrato role, the French version periodically enjoys a revival with a

71 Giroud, Vincent, French Opera: A Short History, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 82. 72 For an in-depth look at the differences in French and Italian versification, see “Rhythm and stanza in French and Italian librettos” in Verdi and the French Aesthetic: Verse, stanza, and melody in nineteenth-century opera by Andreas Giger (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 7-42.

73 As Vincent Giroud notes on page 315 of his book French Opera: A Short History, Castrati appeared in concert in Paris, but had not appeared on a major stage since 1660.

tenor singing. The most historically accurate performance, of course, would be one in which

Orfeo was sung with the high, ethereal voice of a counter tenor. As vocal experts attest, “The visual, vocal and musical impact of a male high-voice singer today performing a male role written for a castrato, an ‘altered’ male, is increasingly considered more effective at evoking the original musical epoch than when it is sung by a woman, however fine a singer she may be.”74

A standard tempo for this aria hovers around ninety beats to the quarter note. Examples

1,2, and 4 contain fingering suggestions to enable a clear execution. Since the harp was used as a basso continuo instrument, it would be quite in character with the piece (and perhaps even expected) that the harpist would supply a bass line. Therefore, the harpist may opt to double the bass line of the cellos and the double basses, instead of only playing the top line. Adding a subtle, steady pulse in the left hand (examples 1 and 2) is an excellent way for the harpist to feel each beat of the orchestra.

Example 1. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 1-6.

74 Peter Giles and J.B. Steane, "Countertenor," Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed March 24, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/06694.

Example 2. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 16-21.

It is important that the harpist does not lag, and keeps the flow of the aria going by slightly anticipating each beat. In example 3, the harpist may elect to play some of the notes of the triplet with the left hand. This prevents the third finger of the right hand from having to move as often, and results in an overall stronger, more controlled sound.

Example 3. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 27, 34, 39.

Some notated accompaniments (see example 4) add chords in place of a single-line bass.

In a concert setting without a string section, the harpist may elect to add multiple notes from the string part. However, in an opera performance, the aria needs the sense of urgency that the repeated single-note bass line imbues.

Example 4. Gluck, “Deh placatevi con me!” mm. 1-6.75

The editor of the Correspondance littéaire, a widely read cultural journal, did not take kindly to Gluck’s innovations. In a scathing review of Orfeo ed Euridici, Baron Freidrick

Melchior von Grimm wrote: “This work, of which I have had the opportunity to see the score, seemed to me almost barbaric. Music will be ruined if this genre ever gets established.”76 As we know, the genre that showcased Gluck’s and Calzigabi’s innovations was established, and rather quickly.

75 Hans Joachim Zingel. Neue Harfenlehere: Vol. 3: Introduction in Orchestra Playing (Leipzig: VEB Friedrich Hofmeister, 1969), 16-17.

76 Howard, Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents, 65.

Gaetano Guadagni was the castrato who helped solidify the notion of the heroic tenor.

Music historian and opera critic Charley Burney lavished praise upon a 1770 performance:

[Guadagni’s] figure was uncommonly elegant and noble; his countenance replete with beauty, intelligence, and dignity, his attitudes and gestures were so full of grace and propriety, that they would have been excellent studies for a statuary […] I frequently tried to analyze the pleasure he communicated to the audience, and found it chiefly arose from his artful manner of diminishing the tones of his voice, like dying notes of the Aoelian harp. 77

Gluck’s method of blending music and drama was still relevant over two hundred years later, when F.A. Gevaert advised that composers study Gluck’s scores so that they may also be able “To assemble forces not according to a uniform model dictated by general usage, but according to the contents of the drama.”78 Such literal interpretations of the harp as a component in the drama unfolding would later be used by Wagner, while Rossini, Verdi, Rachmaninoff,

Mascagni, and others followed Gluck’s precedent in slightly less literal terms.

L’elisir d’amore (1835) Melodramma giocoso in Two Acts Music by Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848) Libretto by Felice Romani Act 1 No. 11 “Una furtiva lacrima”

Score consulted: Gaetano Donizetti, L’eliser d’amore, (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1962), 552-557.

Donizetti’s use of the harp in “Una furtiva lacrima” is an excellent example of his creative reinterpretation of musical and cultural conventions. He relies upon the audience’s

77 Howard, Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents, 57.

78 F. A. Gevaert, “First Lesson: Preliminary Instruction” in Cours méthodique d’orchestration, from Orchestration: An Anthology of Writings ed. Paul Mathews. (New York: Taylor and Francis Group 2006), 54.

associations with the harp as an instrument of lament. He uses the harmonies of the harp arpeggios to musically express the aria’s text and thus, the tenor’s epiphany. Closely related text and music are underlying elements of the most successful tenor arias and it is unusual to find such a close relationship between the text and the score in bel canto writing. One present-day critic even complains that when it came to a bel canto opera’s libretto, “The dramas rarely bore any organic relationship with their underlying music.”79

Rossini was the dominant opera composer when Donizetti moved to Paris in 1838. By that time, Donizetti had established bel canto opera as his compositional trademark. Bel canto

“emphasized clear melodic lines embellished with abundant musical decoration and ornamentation.”80 In Paris, Donizetti initially followed Rossini’s strict structural guidelines for opera buffa and opera seria.81 But it is clear that by the time Donizetti set out to compose

L’elisir d’amore, he was already altering conventions. For example, the stock character buffoon,

Doctor Dulcimara, is the only role that can be classified as being purely derived from the commedia del arte tradition. While certainly romantic, the tenor Nemorino is not the typical love-struck, simplistic tenor that appears in traditional commedia del arte opera.

As discussed in Chapter 1, when tuned to E-flat, the single action harp could play in eight major keys and five minor keys. To play in the key of B flat minor, all of the D and G strings had to be tuned down half a step to D flat and G flat. (The D and G strings were tuned to natural as the pitches could only be raised, not lowered, by a pedal.) Donizetti’s choice of key demonstrated that he was familiar with the new capabilities of the double action harp, but

79Burton D. Fisher, A History of Opera: Milestones and Metamorphoses (Coral Gables: Opera Journeys Publishing 2003), 15.

80Fisher, A History of Opera, 18.

81 Fisher, A History of Opera, 15.

understood that the only harp available might be a single action one. While professional harpists at major opera houses may have had access to the double-action harp, a composer could not rely on always having one readily available. This was particularly true in Germany, where Donizetti was extremely popular and where both Berlioz and Wagner continually complained about the quality of the harps. As L’elisir d’amore was frequently performed in Germany, it is likely that

“Una furtiva lacrima” was frequently performed on a single-action harp.82

Donizetti used the harp not only for its music, but also for its cultural associations. By invoking the noble instrument of King David, Apollo, and Orfeo, Donizetti imbues the otherwise näive peasant Nemorino with virtuous qualities. Although L’elisir d’amore is a comedic opera,

Donizetti wrote a touching, poignant aria for Nemorino. During the bel canto period, it was quite fashionable to parody fixtures of previously popular opera genres. In a bold decision, Donizetti invoked the musica drama staple of the “aria of lament” without even a tinge of parody. Indeed, it is “Those moments of genuine pathos…that keep this comedy from seeming merely heartless or cruel.”83

In this scene, gentle Nemorino is in love with Adina, a wealthy farm proprietress.

Unfortunately for hapless Nemorino, in addition to being a flirt, Adina is also in love with another man, Sargent Belcore. Nemorino’s aria is often misinterpreted as being altogether too tragic. In fact, the music perfectly depicts that Nemorino is simultaneously experiencing the sensations of both despair (B flat minor) and love (B flat major). In the end, the key of love triumphantly prevails.

82 After its 1834 debut in Berlin, the opera “proved a hardy staple on German-language stages for a number of years.” William Ashbrook. "L’ elisir d’amore," The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 24, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/O901438.

83 Ashbrook. L’eliser d’amore (‘The Elixir of Love’) Grove Dictionary of Music Online.

It is important for the harpist to know that the first eight bars of the aria (example 5) comprise an introduction. This consists of a bassoon solo with harp and pizzicato accompaniment in the strings. For an effective concert performance, the harpist may choose to play this bassoon solo while simultaneously playing the arpeggios. Nemorino does not begin singing until measure nine. Octaves in the lower registers of the harp, when played together with the pizzicato of the strings, provide a steady heartbeat-like pulse. Performance tempos tend to hover around fifty four beats per minute, with plenty of allowances for the tenor’s rubatos. In bel canto vocal technique, the vocal line is considered malleable and can be “bent, flexed stretched, speeded up, or slowed down,”84 so the harpist should be prepared to watch the conductor closely.

Example 5. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm. 1-5.

84 Fisher, A History of Opera, 19.

In example 5, the level of subtlety of the pizzicatos in the strings on beats one and four will significantly affect how the harp part is perceived. For example, if the pizzicatos are very dry and loud, they will markedly contrast with the resonating octaves of the harp. In another musical interpretation, heavier pizzicatos that last the full beat will blend in with the legato texture of the harp. Although the dynamic level for the harp part in example 5 is marked piano, a subdued mezzo forte is probably necessary in order for this crucial accompaniment to be projected from the orchestra pit. Throughout the aria, steady arpeggios in the harp smoothly unify Nemorino’s transition between despondency and joy.

Example 6. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm. 21-24.

In example 6, after mournfully singing about Adina’s pain due to his flirting with other girls, Nemorino comes to the realization that Adina loves him. This emotion is quickly reflected in the exuberant D flat harp arpeggios as he exclaims, “She loves me! I see it!” The harpist should be prepared to rush ahead with the solo in measure 21 (example 6). In the event that the tenor runs out of breath on the high “F,” or forgets to count a beat. Momentum from the left hand playing fingers 2-1 on F and A should be used to get down to the D flat octave as quickly as possible for the downbeat of measure 22.

After a brief return to B flat minor in measures 26-30 (not shown) as Nemorino sings “Un solo istantei palpiti de suo bel cor sentir,” the continuous harp arpeggios in F major and B flat major signify Nemorino’s return to his positive epiphany.

Example 7. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm. 33-36.

In example 7, the harpist should be prepared to use a technique called cross-pedaling, in which one foot crosses over to the side of the harp it usually doesn’t play on in order to change a pedal. In measure 33, the left foot crosses over to the right side of the harp to change the E pedal, thus leaving the right foot free to change the G pedal. Although notes may sometimes be deleted to avoid cross-pedaling, in this instance both the E and G natural notes should be played, as they are integral parts of Donizetti’s texture and harmony.

In example 8, the harpist should closely follow the tenor line, as rubatos are often taken.

In a concert performance setting, some conductors and tenors end the aria immediately following the cadenza, while others opt to finish the piece. In this case, the instruments enter again in measure 46 (not shown). The music reflects Nemorino’s love and compassion at seeing Adina’s tears, and “He is overcome with joy... it is a moment of heroic victory.”85

Example 8. Donizetti, “Una furtiva lacrima,” mm. 39-44.

85 Fisher, 26.

CHAPTER 5

THE HARP AS AN INSTRUMENT OF TROUBADOURS

Tannhäuser und der Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg Music Drama in Three Acts Music and Libretto by Richard Wagner (1813-1883) First Production 1845 Act 1, Scene 2 “Dir tone Lob!”

Score consulted: Richard Wagner, Tannhäuser in Full Score. Edited by Felix Mottl, (Leipzig: C.F. Peters, 1920); New York: Dover Publications, 1984, 73-80.

The harp has enjoyed popularity in the German domestic sphere since the Middle Ages, when the epics King Rother and the Fairytale of Alfred the Anglo-Saxon described early harps and how they were played.86 In the seventeenth century, musicians from Tyrol, Germany devised a way for increasing the chromatic capabilities of the harp without also increasing the number of strings.87 This instrument, the Harkenharfe, consisted of seven strings per octave with levers that could be lifted by the left (or eventually, the right) hand to raise or lower the strings a semitone.88

In nineteenth-century Germany, the harp was still widely played on the streets, in taverns, and in pubs.89 Minnesingers favored small harps that could be hung around their necks with a strap, thereby facilitating movement as they played standing up.90 Despite its ubiquity in Germany, the harp did not enjoy the esteemed place in high musical culture that it did in France and Italy.

86 Zingel, Neuh Harfenlehere Vol. 4, 163.

87 Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 2.

88 Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 3. As Dirks-Hunt writes, levers were initially only added to a few strings. Attempts were made to affix levers to both sides of the harp neck, so that either hand could adjust pitch. Today, the levers on most lever harps are located on the left side of the harp neck and adjusted with the left hand.

89 Dirks-Hunt, “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp,” 78.

90 Alexander Bruchner, Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History, 18.

German musicologists also carefully considered the nature of the harp and reached conclusions similar to that of their French and Italian predecessors. In Historisch-technische

Beschreibung der musikalischen Instrumente, (1834) H.W. Schneider gave three separate designations for use of the instrument, writing that it could be used as a ripieno-instrument, to accompany singing, or to give chords in recitative.91 D.F. Schubart wrote in Ästhetik der

Tonjunst (1839) that the harp had much “solemnity, devoutness, and spiritual elevation.”92 The early 1800s heralded a renewed interest in German legends, fairy tales, and medieval literature.

Additionally, the glorification of pastoral subjects and common people took root during the early

Romantic period, which helped further popularize the harp as a cultural symbol.

Despite the widespread visual presence of harps and minnesingers in Germany, professional classical harpists were scarce. Those harpists that were available were often considered unsatisfactory. Records show that single-action harps were still being used professionally in Dresden as late as 1846.93 Recalling his 1843 tour of Germany, Berlioz had similar problems. He wrote that in Germany, “harpists in general cannot play the harp”94 and was disgruntled that many of his prized harp parts had to be played by a pianist.95 Given that

91 Zingel, Neuh Harfenlehere vol. 4, 178.

92 Zingel, Neuh Harfenlehere vol. 4, 178.

93 Adam Carse, The History of Orchestration, (New York: Dover Publications, 1964), 399.

94 Hector Berlioz, The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz, vol. 2 Including His Travels in Italy, Germany, Russia, and England: 1803-1864, corrected ed. Translated and edited by Davis Cairns. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), 139.

95 Some notes on the harpists present in 19th-century Germany: The Berlin harpist Grimm was the founder of “the Berlin school” of harp playing, and was widely sought-after throughout the country (Zingel, Neue harfenlehre vol. 4, 176). Beginning in the 1840’s, Milanese harpist Antonia Zamara was solo harpist with the Vienna Court Opera and instructor at the Vienna Conservatory. Zamara was a student of renowned music theoretician Simon Secheter. Edmund Shüecker (1860-1911) was principle harpist with the orchestras in Amsterdam, Hamburg, Dresden, and Leipzig beginning from 1877 to the 1890s (Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 167).

Wagner had been able to enjoy the widespread availability of double action harps during his

1839-1842 stay in Paris, returning to Germany must have been an unpleasant jolt.96

But the lack of suitable instruments and harpists did not dissuade Wagner from adhering to his to strong conception of Gesamtkunstwerk,97 and he composed according to his own vision rather than any limitations at hand. Surprisingly, Wagner asked for the advice of notable harpists

98 and allowed them to edit and some passages, presumably provided that the changes were still in keeping with his overall vision. In general, the chord spacing in “Dir töne lob!” suggests that harpists may indeed have edited this part. Still, the piece is not without its challenges.

Wagner became familiar with the fifteenth-century ballad Tannhäuserlied and the early thirteenth century poem Der Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg99 while residing in Paris. He combined these two legends during his journey home to Dresden in 1842.100 The choice of harp accompaniment for the lead male role had several precedents. In Tannhäuser, Wagner cleverly uses the harp for both its symbolic importance as well as its melodiousness. The text of “Dir tone

Lob!” portrays both Tannhäuser’s devoutness (he will soon turn away from the pleasures of

Venusburg and spend the rest of the opera seeking forgiveness from the Pope) and foreshadows his unquenchable desire for combat: (“Hence, to the death I seek!/I am drawn to death!”)

96 Carse, The History of Orchestration, 399.

97 Generally translated as “total artwork” in English, this term was coined by Wagner to describe the all- encompassing vision he had for each opera. As conceived by Wagner, Gesamtkunstwerk encompassed visual as well as musical elements of an opera production.

98 Specifically, harpists J. Dubez and Auguste Tombo. See Zingel, Neue Harfenlehre Vol 4, 178.

99 In English: The Song Contest at Wartburg.

100 Brett Van Gansbeke, “Tannhäuserlied Der Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg,” The Orchestral Bassoon, accessed November 14, 2014, http://www.orchestralbassoon.com/wagner-tannhauser/#_ftnl.

The first act takes place in Venusberg, a fictional place inspired by the real Warburg

Castle, situated in a valley.101 This valley forms the setting for the second scene of Act One. In the stage directions for the opening of Scene 2, Wagner specifies that Tannhäuser’s harp should be by his side as he kneels with his head in Venus’s lap. Usually, Tannhäuser holds a harp as a prop during his aria. However, for the 1861 Paris revision, Wagner called for one harp to be placed and played onstage by an actual harpist. Tannhäuser’s aria “Dir “töne Lob!” is a departure from Wagner’s trademark dense orchestration. For several minutes, the harp is the lone accompaniment to the serenade. Even amidst the sublime pleasures of Venusburg, Tannhäuser feels out of place and longs for home. Venus commands him to take up his harp and “celebrate love.” Even as he is singing about being chosen by the Goddess of Love herself, Tannhäuser’s words are tinged with his own mortal dissatisfaction despite his seemingly ideal circumstances:

Though a god may incessantly savor enjoyment, I am subject to change: not pleasure alone lies close to my heart- in the midst of joy I crave after pain. From your kingdom I must fly – O queen, Goddess, let me go!102

It is important to note that even the newest pedal harp available in the 1840’s would have been smaller and had much less tension than the harps of today. Harps with less tension require less strength and are easier to pluck, especially at Wagner’s specified tempo of sixty-nine beats to the half note. In the examples below, several notes that may be omitted are indicated in parenthesis. These emendations have been suggested to facilitate speed, increase the volume of the harp accompaniment and provide additional focus and security of execution.

101 Van Gansbeke, “Tannhäuserlied Der Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg.”

102 Dimitry Murashev, “Tannhäuser Act I,” DM’s Opera Website, libretti and translation database, accessed November 14, 2014, http://www.murashev.com/opera/Tannhäuser_libretto_English_Act_1.

In example 9, on beats four and one of measures 99-100, it is effective to place the second finger of the left hand on A (omitting the octave) while bracing the thumb on the D above it, in preparation for the next measure. (The alternative is to release the left hand and jump to the next chord.) This placement facilitates a stronger, more precisely placed downbeat in measure

100, bringing clarity to the passage. In nearly every instance, the third finger of each hand would ordinarily play the omitted note.103 The suggested omitted notes are usually also inner chord notes that are already doubled.

Example 9. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 92-104.

In example 10, measure 108, the right hand wrist must be relaxed and supple as it rotates between the third finger and thumb on the second beat.

103 In harp arpeggios, the third finger is usually the weakest finger, as it is attached to the fourth finger and therefore the least independent.

Example 10. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 108-109.

As Grout writes, “In the 18th century, the functions of voice and orchestra were clearly defined… In the 19th century, the orchestra not only creates moods and provides exotic suggestion, but also enters intimately into the pattern of the drama itself.”104 This is especially true of Wagner’s music, in which leitmotivs are assigned to characters and reappear throughout the opera. Additional emendations and fingerings are suggested in example 11.

Example 11. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 115-121.

In general, the bass wire strings are more difficult to pull than gut or nylon strings and the added resistance can slow a harpist (and hence, the pace of the aria) down. The tension of the

104 Donald J. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 438.

bass wires is also slightly greater when playing in a key with multiple sharps. Consequently, in measures 183 to 184 below, it would facilitate the left hand to omit the octaves on beats three and four and place fingers 1-2-4 on F-D-A first. While the fourth finger plays A, on the downbeat of measure 184, the wrist slightly pivots as fingers 3-2-1 are simultaneously placed on

C-E-A. When placing the left hand on the second beat of measure 185, it is advisable to also simultaneously place 2 and 4 on E and A in the chord on the downbeat of measure 186. Because one movement has been eliminated, placing ahead of time in this manner will enable faster execution. In measure 186, the left hand may need to play the E-A-C eighth notes in the treble clef, while the right hand sets fingers 2 and 1 on high F and G, respectively. Then, while the right hand plays the chord on the downbeat of measure 187, the left hand will already be set and prepared for the upcoming eighth notes, G-B-E if the E on the downbeat is eliminated.

Example 12. Wagner, “Dir töne Lob!,” mm. 181-187.

In a November 2, 1908, lecture presented at the Musical Association in London, Alfred

Kastner called the Tannhäuser harp part “the most difficult part in modern opera.”105 As a skilled orchestral harpist with extensive experience in both Europe and America, Kaster certainly had a wide frame of reference on which to base this claim. Other harpists had similar reactions to

Wagner’s harp parts. Theodore Thomas recounts in his autobiography that Adolphus Lockwood,

(whom he called “London’s finest harpist”) “nearly went crazy” during the first few weeks of rehearsal.106 Tannhäuser may be challenging, but it is also quite rewarding to have so difficult a part prominently featured. It contains several of the rare instances in his entire operatic opus in which the sound of the harp is not submerged within the dense texture of the orchestra.

Il Trovatore (1853) Opera in Four Acts Music by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) Libretto by Salvatore Cammarano (with additions by Leone Emanuele Bardoe) Act 1 No. 3 “Deserto sulla terra”

Score consulted: Il Trovatore, Opera in four acts. (Milan: Ricordi; Mineola: Dover Publications, 1994), 66-71.

Verdi seemed to like the harp and wrote that his ideal makeup for an opera house included two harps.107 Although he later used the harp in a more sophisticated style in Un ballo mascera, (1859) and Aida (1871),108 for Il Trovatore’s score he called upon associations with the instrument’s troubadour past. In The Operas of Verdi, Julian Budden explains what the concept

105 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 175.

106 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 174. From Theodore Thomas, A Musical Biography, vol 2, ed. George P. Upton, (Chicago: 1905), 26.

107 Pierre Waleffe, Giuseppe Verdi, trans. Adel Negro (Geneva: Minerva, 1969), 95.

108 In Un Ballo Mascera and Aida, Verdi used the sound of the harp to evoke the harps associated with heaven, particularly in these operas’ final scenes when death besets the protagonists.

of “the troubadour” meant in Verdi’s time: “The troubadour was a potent symbol for the romantic age: the lonely outcast, the champion of freedom, whose love-lorn melancholy songs were a constant reproach to the heartless society that would have none of him.”109

Salvatore Cammarano was chosen to write the opera’s libretto after the play El Travador by Antonio García Gutiérrez.110 Cammarano was notoriously slow and, to Verdi’s frustration and dismay, his approach to writing Il Trovatore was in keeping with his usual pace.111 Il Trovatore finally premiered on January 19, 1853. As the son of a gypsy, Manrico must successfully overcome many challenges to elevate his station in life. Torn between his gypsy mother Azucena and his love for the aristocratic Lenora, Manrico constantly finds himself the victim of unfortunate circumstances, many of which he is able to overcome through valor.112

The harp is Verdi’s instrument of choice for this character of humble origins. Manrico is defined not by his social position, but by his own virtuous traits. Ironically, it is Manrico’s guiding principles of love and honor that ultimately lead to his downfall as he struggles to make decisions that are in the best interests of both his mother and Leonora. Verdi illustrates

Manrico’s internal conflict in the aria “Deserto sulla terra,” which is presented as an offstage serenade to Leonora. It is first time in Il Trovatore that the audience learns about Manrico through his own words. Several complexities are revealed, as the harp music actually informs the

109 Julian Budden, “Il Trovatore,” In The Operas of Verdi vol 2: From Il Trovatore to La Forza del Destino, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 78.

110 William Weaver, The Golden Age of Italian Opera from Rossini to Puccini, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980), 139.

111 Weaver, The Golden Age of Italian Opera, 139.

112 John Hanlon, "Fatalism, Tragedy, and Morality: A Study of the Men in Verdi's 'Il Trovatore'” (Outstanding Student Works, Digital Commons at Illinois Wesleyan University, 2011), accessed November 13, 2014, http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/music_papers/3.

audience more about him than his love for her. In this seemingly simple serenade, Verdi’s music for Manrico hints that he might not be quite as simple as he appears.

The aria begins in E flat minor and gradually modulates to E flat major by the end. The harp accompaniment actually does more than the vocal line to establish the transition in character that Verdi is trying to convey. Although at first glance the harp part seems merely a simple strumming accompaniment, the chord inversions Verdi selects add depth and tension otherwise unachievable in the solo vocal line.

In a concert setting, the first eight bars comprise a solo harp introduction, (mm. 33-39) and the tenor does not begin singing until the ninth measure. However, during an opera performance, Count di Luna is still singing to Leornora, and stops when he hears Manrico’s arrproach. Because this is the harp’s first entrance in the opera, the harpist may choose to set the

C and G pedals ahead of time. This prevents having to change to a C flat and a G flat soon after the harp’s entrance. In example 14 in measures 42, 44, and 45, the the thumb of the left hand and third finger of the right hand have the same note. Perhaps this is how Verdi originally notated it or, perhaps more likely, a copyist who could not read his notation assigned the same note to both hands.

Example 13. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 40-46.

As example 14 shows, by taking the top note of the bass octave with the right hand, the left hand is able to give a stronger upbeat.

Example 14. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 40-46 (edited)

The same principles of finger placement could also be employed in Example 15 between measures 32-33 and 34-35. Placing as many notes as possible with the right hand will free the harpist’s eyes for watching both the conductor and the left hand, which has constant leaps. Thus, the suggested fingering eliminates jumping and hand position changes.

Example 15. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 32-37.

Unlike some composers, (such as Bizet and Rachmaninoff, both of whom will be subsequently discussed) Verdi worked closely with his librettists and was rarely satisfied with

the initial drafts presented to him. Such careful consideration is evident even when the score and libretto seem to be at odds with each other. When Manrico sings “High over kings would soar” three times in succession from measures 63-78, the first two times the melody actually descends and it is not until the third try that Manrico finally “soars” up to the high G.

Example 16. Verdi, “Deserto sulla terra,” mm. 67-78.

The only other place the harp appears in Il Trovatore is in the fourth act, when it is used before “Sento mancarmi miserere.” This time, Verdi has written for the harp in A flat major, the character key of Manrico’s gypsy mother. Although the harp part of Il Trovatore is not large, what it lacks in length is made up for in symbolic meaning. This music showcases Verdi’s ability to convey complexities of his characters by fusing together music with the drama of the libretto.

It is the subtle, integrated layers of detail such as those found in Deserto sulla tulla that imbue

Verdi’s operas with meaning that transcends time.

CHAPTER 6

THE HARP IN VERISMO OPERA

Cavalleria Rusticana (1890) Melodrama in one Act Music by Pietro Mascagni (1863-1945) Libretto by Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and Guido Menasci Act 1, Prelude and Introduction “Siciliana”

Score consulted: Pietro Mascagni, Cavalleria Rusticana: Melodrama in One Act. (New York: Broude Brothers), 5-9.

Cavalleria Rusticana was composed by Pietro Mascagni as an entry for a competition held by Edoardo Sonzogno, head of one of the lesser-known Italian publishing firms.113

Mascagni’s opera was the obvious choice for winner. The libretto was written by Giovanni

Targioni-Tozzetti and Guido Menasci. The plot was based on a play by Giovanni Verga, who was one of the most widely known authors in Italy at the time.114 However, the dramatic tale had to be completely reworked in order to accommodate the requirements of the stage. The opera’s first performance took place at the Constanzi Theater in Rome on May 17, 1890.

The characters in Cavalleria Rusticana spoke “an involuted, poetic, high-flown Italian, more familiar to operatic heroes and heroines than to remote Sicilian villages.”115 Because the

Sicilian dialect is so difficult to translate into English, the tenor aria at the beginning of the opera is often referred to simply as Siciliana. The song was Mascagni’s own touch to the beginning of

113 Alan Mallach, Pietro Mascagni and His Operas (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002), 43.

114 Alan Mallach, Pietro Mascagni and His Operas, 46. As Mallach writes, for the play version Varga specified a time (Easter Sunday morning) and a place (outside of Turridu’s mother’s wine shop) in which the dramatic situations could unfold. Much of the language was changed from the Sicilian dialiect to more standard Italian. In addition, for the play Verga moved the knife fight between Turridu and Alfio was moved offstage so as not to offend or shock his audience.

115 William Weaver, The Golden Age of Italian Opera from Rossini to Puccini, . (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980), 206.

the opera, added after he had won the competition. Working as his own librettist, Mascagni selected the text from a poem that had been either written or collected by one of his friends near

Sicily.116 Mascagni was especially tormented over the Siciliana: although he was convinced it was a valuable asset to Cavalleria Rusticana, he was unsure if the competition’s judges would view it the same way. So, he eliminated the Siciliana from his original contest submission and waited to unveil it after he had already been named as a finalist.117 Like Manrico’s aria in Il trovatore, “Siciliana” should be sung from offstage to better give the impression of a serenade shrouded in secrecy.

Mascagni’s choice of the harp to accompany a serenade was natural in light of the instrument’s similar sound quality to a guitar. This shows Mascagni’s awareness of Verdi and

Rossini’s serenades that also use the harp.118 If his operas are any indication of his instrumental preferences, Mascagni seemed to have been quite fond of the harp, for which he wrote quite well. In addition to writing for the harp in Cavalleria Rusticana, he also included the harp in his operas L’amico Fritz, Iris, and Amica, which he scored for four harps.

Cavalleria Rusticana requires two harps, although the second harp often doubles the first. Clearly, it was very important to Mascagni to have two harps within the orchestral texture.119 However, the Siliciana requires only one harp. Mascagni wanted the instrument to provide a distinctive sonority in the larger aural texture, and was careful not to allow any other instruments to compete with its sound. As the Preludio e Siciliana portion of the score does not

116 Allan Mallach, Pietro Mascagni and His Operas, (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002), 50.

117 Mallach, Pietro Mascagni and His Operas, 50.

118 Although now commonly played by a guitar, the serenade in The Barber of Seville can be played by a harp if a guitarist is unavailable.

119 Cavallieria Rusticana is often double-billed with Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci. So, two harps should frequently be available for Cavalleria Rustincana. Pagliacci has two harp parts, which are quite independent of each other.

have measure numbers or rehearsal letters, for the purposes of this treatise, measure one in the

Siliciana corresponds with the tempo change and entrance of the harp in measure 37. When performed in a concert setting, the harp typically has a four-measure introduction before the vocal entrance in the sixth measure.

Turridu is serenading his former girlfriend Lola, who impetuously married another man

(Alfio) when Turridu left for the army. The dark harp chords in the key of F minor foreshadow

Turridu’s fate, which will soon be death at the hands of those he has betrayed. As if the key signature were a reflection of Turiddu’s inner state, the harp’s accompaniment key designation is unstable for the first half of the aria.

The bass line played by the harp and the tenor voice line are often harmonized in perfect fifths and octaves. The brisk tempo (eighth note = 144) demands that either the harpist edit the entire song, or remember to change the stemming designation in every measure.

Example 17. Mascagni, Cavalleria Rusticana, “Siciliana,” mm 5-12.

In example 17, the “v” symbol in measures 5 and 6 indicates that the harpist should be prepared to “jump,” or remove the hand from the harp in order to replace the fingers onto the next chord. While playable at a slower speed, jumping and alternating hands so frequently may prove too precarious for the tempo of 144.

Example 18. Mascagni, “Siciliana,” mm. 5-12. (edited)

The re-stemming as indicated in example 18 replicates the notes while facilitating negotiability as well as legibility. This way, the right hand must only be picked up once per measure. Throughout the aria, the passionate key of F minor is sometimes presented in the harmonic minor form, and sometimes in the melodic minor form. Turridu begins by describing

Lola’s physical beauty of her white face and red cheeks and lips. He moves on to invoke red

imagery again by mentioning the color of blood outside her doorway. He sings twice that if he dies and goes to Paradise, he will not go in if she is not there as well. With this line, Turridu is actually prophesizing his own fate, which is to die while Lola remains alive. One particularly excellent translation is as follows:

O Lola whose face is milk-white like her blouse and red like a cherry when she makes a smile. Blessed he that gives you your first kiss! Outside your door is smeared with blood but I don't care if I die there, murdered. And if I die and go to paradise If I don't find you there I won't even go in!120

Example 19. Mascagni, Cavalleria Rusticana, “Siciliana,” mm. 41-49. (edited)

120 Mike Giuseffi, post to “Opera L Archives,” March 15, 2009 [11:41:51 p.m.], Accessed November 16, 2014, http://listserv.bccls.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=OPERA-L;Mlf8Gg;20090315234151-0400c

Mascagni juxtaposes the predictable Sicilian rhythm with several unexpected changes in key, thus adding a layer of complexity to the otherwise simple serenade. Finally, the last few bars as seen in example 19 vacillate between the dark F minor and bright B flat major chords, as if Turiddu is grasping at a happy fate that ultimately eludes him. And so, the optimistic qualities of the harp chords fade away into a minor, tragic key.

Aleko (1893) Opera in One Act Music by Sergi Rachmaninov (1873-1943) Libretto By Vladimir Nemivoch-Danchenko No. 12 “The Young Gypsy’s Romance”

Score consulted: Sergi Rachmaninov, Aleko: Opera in One Act, arr. For voice and piano by S. Rachmaninov, (Moscow: 1966), 157-159.

Other composers sought to replicate Verdi’s use of harp accompaniment in Deserto sulla terra, and did so with varying degrees of success. Italian opera first appeared in the Russian court in 1726, and by the 1770’s operas with original Russian librettos were appearing.121

Russian language operas were further popularized during the reign of Alexander I (1801-1825).

In general, the harp is used quite differently in Russian operas than it is in French and Italian ones. Rather than appreciating the instrument as a unique voice in the orchestra, the Russian school of thought advocated composing chordal harp parts to reinforce a passage’s harmony.

Sergi Rachmaninov composed Aleko in 1892 as an assignment which was required for graduation from the Moscow Conservatory. The assignment was also a competition, in which three composers were given the identical task of writing a one-act opera based on the poem The

Gypsies by Alexander Pushkin. Vladimir Nemivoch-Danchenko, Rachmaninov’s librettist for the

121 Grout, A Short History of Opera, 531.

occasion, was widely thought to have written “a dramatically unsatisfactory libretto.”122

However, the libretto is not entirely Danchenko’s own work: it is primarily derived directly from

Pushkin’s poem.

After watching the last rehearsals of Aleko at The Markinsky Theater in 1893,

Tchaikovsky asked Rachmaninov if he would agree to have it performed the following season in conjunction with his own Iolante. Rachmaninov recalled the meeting: “Timidly and modestly, as if he were afraid I might refuse, he asked me if I would consent to have my work produced with one of his operas…He wanted to help me, but was anxious also not to offend or humiliate me.”123 In a May 1893 letter Tchaikovsky wrote, “I like this lovely thing [Aleko] very much.”124

As Norris asserts, Aleko is very derivative of Tchaikovsky’s own works in terms of

“orchestration and use of the voices.”125 Tchaikovsky similarly features the harp in Iolante during the Minstrel’s Canzonette, a harp and violin duet played at the beginning of the opera.

Unfortunately, even Tchaikovsky’s approbation was not enough to earn Aleko a permanent spot in the international operatic repertory. After a stint in London in 1915, the work was not performed there again until the 1972 Camden Festival.126 In subsequent years, Aleko was rarely performed outside of Russia, where it was one of only three Russian operas that was allowed to be regularly performed during the time of the Soviet Union.127

122 Geoffrey Norris, Rakhmaninov (London: J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd. 1976), 133.

123 Sergei Bertensson and Jay Leyda with Sophia Satina, Sergei Rachmaninoff (New York: New York University Press, 1956), 53.

124Bertensson and Leyda, Sergei Rachmaninoff, 54.

125 Norris, Rakhmaninov, 136.

126 Norris, Rakhmaninov, 133.

127 Norris, Rakhmaninov, 133.

Current perceptions of Aleko’s quality are widely varied, but “The Young Gypsies’

Romance” remains in the lyric tenor repertoire. In Aleko, it is apparent that young Rachmaninov was still trying to develop a style of writing for the harp, which he eventually solidifies in

Rhapsody On a Theme of Paganini (1934). Although there were certainly Russian precedents for the harp in opera and orchestra, most examples adhered to Rimsky-Korsakov’s and

Tchaikovsky’s use of the harp as a chordal instrument.

During the mid-19th century, most harpists in Russia were not native Russians. Albert

Heinrich Zabel (1834-1910) was appointed harpist with the Berlin Opera in 1848, but moved to

St. Petersburg in 1854 to play with the Imperial Russian Ballet.128 In 1864, Zabel joined the Saint

Petersburg Conservatory of Music and taught there until at least 1904.129 Hoping to educate composers about his instrument, Zabel published a brochure entitled “A Word to Composers on the Practical Usage of Harp in Orchestra” in St. Petersburg in 1898.130 This was probably a pamphlet similar to the tri-lingual Method für Harf Zabel published in Leipzeg in 1900. By the mid 19th century, harp instruction at the Smolny Institute had dwindled to almost nothing, and was not formally resumed until 1891.131

Rachmaninov’s gypsy is not quite as multifaceted as Gluck’s Orfeo, Donizetti’s

Nemorino, or Verdi’s Manrico. The gypsy’s utter simplicity is reflected in his harp accompaniment, which moves from I-V in B flat major many times over the course of the song.

In fact, it is not until measure fifty-eight of the sixty-three bar song that the harp has a note not in the B-flat major scale. Although Rachmaninov is not particularly creative with his use of the

128 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 169.

129 Rensch, Harps and Harpists, 169.

130 Natalia Shameyva, The Development of Harp Music in Russia: XXth Century. (Bloomington, IN: Tichenor Publishing, 2004), 11.

131 Shameyva, The Development of Harp Music in Russia, 11.

harp, he does display an awareness of his predecessors’ use of the instrument and a willingness to write within most harpists’ comfort range.

The text for “The Young Gypsy’s Romance” is taken directly from Pushkin’s poem. In this poem, the Young Gypsy is having a secret affair with Zemfira, whom Aleko mistakenly thought was monogamous in her romantic relationship with him.

Example 20. Rachmaninov, “The Young Gypsies’ Romance,” mm. 11-14.

In example 20, measures 12 and 14, using fingers two and four in the left hand enables a faster jump up to the next chord than using fingers one and three would. This fingering shortens the distance the thumb must travel to reach the right hand thumb F above middle C. Additionally, the harpists will not need to change the position, as the second and fourth fingers will already be set in the interval of a fifth required for the rolled chords.

In example 21, measures 21 and 23, unnecessary jumping may be avoided by bracing right hand the thumb on the high A. This fingering useful fingering principle may be easily superimposed onto other harp parts, where several three note chords are followed by a four note chord.

Example 21. Rachmaninov, “The Young Gypsies’ Romance,” mm. 21-26.

Part of the disjointedness that Aleko impresses upon its listeners lies in the disparity between the text and the music, which is evident even in this, one of the opera’s most effective arias. Pushkin’s poetic phrases in Russian do not easily lend themselves to the more Western

European phrasing style in four and eight bar phrases. Each of the last four phrases of “The

Young Gypsies’ Romance” begins with Kto, which is the word for “who” in Russian. The harp is supporting the voice and provides an aural picture of rising to the heavens. Shortly after this serenade, the bucolic mood disappears when Aleko discovers the Young Gypsy and Zemfira together and kills them both in a fit of rage.

CHAPTER 7

THE HARP AS A SYMBOL OF RESILIANT LOVE

Les pêchuers de perles (1863) Opera in Three Acts Music by Georges Bizet (1838-1875) Libretto by Michel Carré and Eugéne Cormon Act I Scene 2 “Au fond du temple saint.”

Score consulted: Georges Bizet, Les pêchuers de perles, (New York: Kalmus), 51-67.

The premiere of Les pêchuers de perles (The Pearl Fishers) took place on September 29,

1863 at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, where it ran for eighteen performances. Bizet’s reputation as a stellar composer preceded him and many people eagerly flocked to see Les pêchuers de perles. However, upon seeing the opera, audiences were typically more surprised than pleased.132

Berlioz wrote in Les Débates that “The score of the opera has attained a real success; it contains a considerable number of beautiful and expressive pieces, full of fire and of rich coloring.”133

Undoubtedly, one such example of the “fire and color” to which Berlioz was referring was the duet “Au fond du temple saint.” Despite the widely perceived shortcomings and incongruences found in Les pêchuers de perles, this duet has remained a staple of the tenor operatic repertoire.

Like his mentor Gounod, Bizet sought to find middle ground between the heroic world of French grand opéra and the opera comique genres. In fact, in order to accommodate genre guidelines

Bizet originally inserted periods of recitative into the score. Until the 1864 law on the liberty of theaters was passed, composers had to fit their works into one of the two strict genres.134 The

132 Douglas Parker, Bizet, (London: Routledge Kegan Paul Ltd, 1951), 23.

133 Mina Curtiss, Bizet and His World, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958), 140.

134 Vincent Giroud, French Opera: A Short History, 161.

only viable option for the premiere of Les pêchuers de perles was the Theatre-Lyrique. In existence between 1847 and 1870, the Theatre Lyrique staged 137 works for a burgeoning middle-class audience.

In 1887 Les pêchuers de perles was introduced in Italian in Covent Garden as Leila, although the Italian-language production was never widely performed.135 After copies of the original score were found in 1975, Les pêchuers de perles enjoyed a temporary revival. At its heart, the story is about turmoil and dissolved friendships caused when romantic love is chosen over filial love.

Les pêchuers de perles consists of three acts rather than the four or five found in grand opéra. Act I takes place on a wild beach on the island of Ceylon, (modern Sri Lanka) as a chorus of fishermen, women, and children have just unanimously elected the pearl fisherman, Zurga, as their leader. His long-lost childhood friend Nadir suddenly appears136 and the two recall their trip to the port of Candi, when they both fell in love with the same veiled priestess.137 Zurga and

Nadar describe the intoxicatingly mysterious atmosphere that gave rise to their love for the priestess, whom they later learn is named Leila.

The title “Au fond du temple saint” translates to “At the back of the holy temple,” which is where two important moments of Zurga and Nadir’s friendship occur. The back of the holy temple is where Zurga and Nadir first saw Leila, and it is also where Nadir and Leila are discovered in a their passionate, betraying embrace.

135 Parker, Bizet, 24.

136 Through Nadir’s later aria “Je cris entrentre encore,” we learn that his appearance in the fishing village isn’t such a coincidence, after all: he has been dreaming of Leila, the priestess, and followed her to the fishing village.

137 Parker writes on page 160 of his book Bizet, that the virgin who succumbs to the temptation of love’s pleasures was a favorite nineteenth century theme. He notes that this variation on the theme of the fallen women can also be found in Bellini’s Norma and La Vestale.

In this, his second opera, Bizet is beginning to experiment with the device of assigning melodic themes to certain characters. The harp is the primary accompanying instrument in “Au fond du temple saint,” which steadily plays underneath the melody of solo (and later harmonized) flute. The flute theme that is introduced in the beginning of “Au fond du temple saint” later reappears during Nadir’s aria “Je cris entrentre encore” to symbolize his love for her.

By the 1860’s, the pairing of flute and harp was increasingly popular, replacing other previously favored combinations of horn and harp and violin and harp. The scoring is quite sparse at first, and more instruments are added as the duet builds in fervor and intensity. Puccini later exploits the technique of using themes to portray certain characters and emotional states in La Bohème.

Like other composers who gave their librettists enormous freedoms, Bizet was ultimately dissatisfied with their work and realized that the quality of the libretto did not match the quality of his music. One commentator wrote that “The librettists seem never to have heard the music until the final orchestra rehearsals[…] Eugéne Cormon remarked that had he and Carré realized

Bizet’s talent, they never would have given him “that white elephant.”138

Bizet demonstrates an awareness of the common practices in harp writing with his sixteenth note arpeggios in groups of four. The sound of the flowing arpeggios joins the various voices and instruments together as they enter into the musical texture. The harp part was most likely composed while Bizet was seated at a piano, as the stretches between the third and fourth fingers in the left hand in example 22 pose too large a stretch for a harpist.139 In general, the less a harpist moves the hands, the better. This leaves the eyes free to watch the conductor. In order to play example 22 exactly as it was written, a harpist must divide each four-note grouping

138 Curtiss, Bizet and His World, 135.

139 Bizet had a reputation as a formidable pianist and often transcribed orchestra music for piano by sight. Curtiss, 141.

between the right and left hands. In addition to the awkwardness of crossing the left hand over the right several times within a measure, there is a real risk of the harpist losing track of the beat, since the beat would be played by a different finger every time.

Example 22. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 20-23.

Example 23. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 20-23. (edited)

A fingering solution is shown in example 22, which edits a few notes to make it more easily playable. While the chords remain the same, some inversions are different. The first beats of measures 20-22 show revised groupings. These are virtually sightreadable for an experienced harpist. It is often helpful to indicate the next chord placement with diamond note groupings, as shown in measure 23 below. While this practice requires a bit more preparation on the part of the harpist, they will find that the brain and fingers can more quickly register blocked chord placings than a stream of individual notes.

In example 24, pedal markings and octave placement preparations have been suggested.

The harpist may also find it beneficial to double several octaves, as indicated by the notes in parenthesis below. As the instrumental texture is very sparse, the added octaves can lend a bit of sustainability and support to the harmony. In measure 27, the C flat and E are are enharmoic respellings for the B natural and D sharp that appear in Bizet’s score. Most of measures 28 and

29 may be respelled entirely enharmonically. In measure 28, the C flat was B natural, F flat was

E natural, A flat was G sharp, and D flat C was sharp. Though looking for enharmonic equivalents may be more work initially, the rewards are substantial. In addition to reducing the number of pedals that must be moved, the harp is more resonant with pedals in the “flat” position that when they are in the “sharp” position.

Example 24. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 24-29. (edited)

At times, it is best not to divide hands into four-note groupings, such as in example 25. It is awkward for the left hand to cross over into the upper reaches of the treble clef, and many harpists struggle with maintaining tone evenness in that range. The fingering solution provided in

example 25 minimizes the number of times the harpist must replace the hands, and also enables the right hand thumb to end on the down beat of measure 98.

Example 25. Bizet, “Au fond du temple saint,” mm. 96-98.

The score of Les pêchuers de perles was (and still is) widely criticized for being overly influenced by Wagner and derivative of Gounod, Bizet’s mentor. While much of the material is melodic, only a few melodies are sufficiently developed to stand on their own. The motive for

“Au fond du temple saint” reoccurs whenever Zurga and Nadir’s friendship is tested, and “is not strong enough to bear the weight put upon it, especially as it is not in any way developed.”140

While select arias are beautiful, the opera as a whole suffers because of the poorly conceived libretto. Another common criticism of the score is that the young composer tried to include too many musical influences and exotic elements into the score, though Winton Dean disagrees: “On the contrary, a multiplicity of influences in a young composer is a healthy sign: it shows him prepared to found his own style on the widest basis.”141 In Act 3 at the end of the opera, Zurga,

Nadir, and Leila are engaged in a trio (“O lumiè re sainto”) as Zurga takes compassion on those

140 Winton Dean, Bizet, (London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd, 1948), 137.

141 Dean, Bizet, 139.

who have betrayed him and pardons Nadir and Leila. As Nadir and Leila run off together, the sound of the harp is subtly reminiscent of the duet “Au fond du temple saint,” which in turn reminds the audience of the filial love Zurga still has for his friend who has betrayed him.

La bohème (1896) Opera in Four Acts Music by Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) Libretto by Giuseppe Guacosa and Luigi Illica Act I, Rehearsals 30-41 “Che Gelida manina!”

Score consulted: Giacomo Puccini, La bohème, (Milan: Ricordi, 1920), 89-116.

The libretto by Giuseppe Guacosa and Luigi Illica is based on the book Scènes de la Vie de Bohème by Henry Mürger, which was first published in serial form in Le Corsaire between

1845 and 1848.142 The stories were so successful that Mürger, together with Thédore Barrière, adapted them for theater in a five-act play entitled La Vie de Bohème. By the time Puccini decided to compose an opera with a libretto formed by the fusion of the book and the play, the public was well acquainted with the bohemian characters he would present. La Bohème initially provoked an onslaught of negative press from opera critics, who deemed it inferior to Manon

Lescaut. But despite La Bohème’s initially unfavorable reviews, the opera quickly gained footing and established Puccini as “the chosen bard of the now potent Italian middle class.”143 Although the polish of his orchestration indicates otherwise, Puccini was still composing as the opera was going into its first rehearsals in Turin.144

142 Mosco Carner, Puccini: A Critical Biography, (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1958), 310.

143 Weaver, The Golden Century of Italian Opera, 218.

144 Weaver, The Golden Century of Italian Opera, 217.

By the end of the 19th century, the role of the orchestra in Italian opera was no longer definable in the absolute terms previously dictated by opera seria and opera comitique. Elements of thematic continuity were now provided through tuneful musical motifs. Gone were the days of arias halting the drama in order to make grandiose declamations. Instead, most arias were integrated into each act with less easily defined boundaries. In spite of these changes, the sound of the harp continued to be featured prominently in many tenor arias and represent similar ideals.

In general, Puccini’s music demonstrates less reliance on conventional operatic forms than Bizet, enabling the orchestra to play an even more important role in character and plot development. In La bohème, melodies often stand alone to signify a certain emotional theme, which is then invoked over the course of the opera. One such theme may be found in the opening measures of Rodolfo’s aria “Che gelida manina!,” as shown in example 26.

Example 26. Puccini, La Bohéme, Act I, Rehearsal 30, mm. 11-15.

In the fourth act, the harp plays this important motif again when it is revisited one last time as Mimi is dying. The harp melody in example 26 is made especially distinctive by its grace notes, which are to be delicately played before the beat.

Puccini’s writing for Rodolfo’s character is distinguished by “leaping anacruses, diatonic steps, restless changes of the rhythmic shape and ‘emotional’ triplets.”145 The poet’s passionate, artistic temperament is portrayed through the “emotional triplets” that occur in the harp music of

“Che gelida manina!,” and signify that he is an ardent young man in love. Like Rodolfo’s emotions, these triplets soar up and descend down at various intervals in example 27, measures

9-12. Puccini understood that writing for the harp on every pulse of a triplet figure would help ensure rhythmic accuracy.

In example 27, the varied rhythmic figures in the violins, violas, and cellos add textural variety, while the harp and double bass provide a steady pulse on every beat. In example 27, the harp part has been moved closest to the vocal line to better illustrate this point. The continuity of the aria is dependent upon the harpist lands squarely on every chord. The chords in measures 9-

12 should be played plaque, or plucked rather than rolled. Although the tempo isn’t terribly fast, the amount of movement required of the right hand is less than ideal for such an important part. One possible fingering solution to help facilitate this challenge is provided in example 28.

In example 28, by playing the bass line with the fourth finger, the harpist is able to quickly jump up to play the main beats in every measure. The left hand does not need to change hand positions, and may easily move back and forth with a somewhat closed hand position. In the right hand, placing fingers 2-3-4 and thumb at the same time eliminates changing position on the inner beats, which enables a more legato sound between chords.

145 Carner, Puccini: A Critical Biography, 528.

Example 27. La Bohéme, Act I, Rehearsal 32, mm. 8-12.

Example 28. Puccini, La Bohéme. Act 1, Rehearsal 32, mm. 9-12.

These so-called “emotional triplets” occur again as Mimi and Rodolfo sing together at the end of the scene (example 29). As Rodolfo has now fallen in love with Mimi, it is no coincidence that his harp triplets have now modulated to a key of higher tension, both literally and figuratively.

Example 29. Puccini, La Bohéme. Act 1, Rehearsal 41, mm. 13-15.

Example 30. La Bohéme, Act 1. Rehearsal 30, mm. 16-27. (edited)

The delicate texture of the music in example 30 allows both the tenor and the embellishing harp part to be appreciated. As indicated in example 30, the harpist may choose to very quietly double the left hand harmonics an octave higher with the right hand, eliminating the

risk of inaudible harmonics played on the bass wires. This method of doubling harmonics is an excellent way to combine the ethereal tone of harmonics with the reliability of playing with the pads of one’s fingers. As with all slow sections, the harpist should closely watch the conductor to see if the measures of rallentando (measures 20 and 21) are conducted in four rather than in two.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The harp has long enjoyed a highly visible presence as part of musical life in many different cultures. From ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia to the present, it has been employed for both personal expression and public entertainment. Artwork, manuscripts, and writings indicate that the harp has long been perceived as an instrument imbued with noble (and often regal) qualities. In ancient Greek civilization, the harp was a favorite instrument of both gods (Apollo) and human heroes (Orfeo). In medieval culture, the harp was frequently depicted in religious art and ales of the instrument’s expressive and healing powers were taught from in the Bible through the Psalms and in the story of King David.

Not only an instrument with religious and heavenly associations, the harp was also highly valued in secular medieval culture. In a time when few people could read, traveling troubadours played a vital role in transmitting news and preserving local history through their songs. In

Italy, harpists held positions in courts, in churches, and later, in orchestras that accompanied the blossoming genre of opera. Early opera composers such as Monteverdi sought to replicate Greek drama as accurately as possible and thus included the harp as a basso continuo instrument.

The harp has dramatically evolved from the simple lyres described in the early musical treatises or Virdung and Praetorius to the complex, highly mechanized instrument it is today.

Sixteenth century music theorists and historians documented a wide array of harp types and constructions, such as double and triple-strung harps were popular, which were especially popular in the British Isles.146 In the eighteenth century, harpists and instrument makers began seeking ways in which to improve the pitch adjustment mechanism, with some very interesting

146 Within the last century, traditional methods of playing the Welsh telyn and the Irish harp have enjoyed a renaissance. Where there was once a marked divide between the classical and folk harp worlds, many prominent classical harpists are now interested in exploring traditional harp repertoire, techniques, and harp constructions.

results. Some of the of these innovations (such as the crochete harp and single-action harp) were embraced by professionals and enthusiastic amateurs, while others (such as Pleyel’s harp chromatique and Georges Cousineau’s fourteen-pedal harp) did not gain lasting popularity.

Ultimately, the double-action pedal mechanism introduced by Sébastian Erard in 1810 emerged as the most reliable and versatile type of harp, and today the double-action harp is the instrument of choice for most pedal harpists.

Although Gluck’s opera Orfeo ed Euridici was initially received with mixed reviews, the notion of the heroic tenor was solidified with Gaetano Guadagni’s convincing portrayal of Orfeo.

One of the most well-known arias from this opera is the “Deh placatevi con me!,” which features a triplet-figure harp accompaniment throughout. In this lament, Orfeo tries to subdue the Furies with harp music so that he may be granted admission into Hades and be reunited with his beloved wife Euridici. While there are several ways to interpret this basso continuo harp part, the harpist may elect to keep in time by softly playing quarter notes from the string parts. In “Una furitva lacrima,” Donizetti masterfully uses the harp figures to reflect the humble peasant

Nemorino’s evolving inner state, which transitions from sorrow (in the key of B flat minor) to happiness (in the key of F major). Although Orfeo and Nemorino are both lamenting their present circumstances, the harp parts of these arias reflect momentary sadness rather than utter despair.

The harp has also historically been a means of expression for troubadours and thus was an appropriate choice of accompaniment for the tenors in “Dir öne Lob!” and “Deserto sulla terra” by Wagner and Verdi, respectively. The harp was highly visible in German culture as a folk instrument, where it was played by the protagonists in the legends Tannhäuser and the

Singing Contest at Warburg, and also in Tristan and Isolde. During a performance of “Dir töne

lob!,” the harp is prominently showcased and is sometimes even placed onstage, as Wagner specified for his 1861 Paris revision. Though it may require emendations, the chromatic writing of “Dir tone lob!” demonstrates that which Wagner was keen to employ the capabilities of the double-action harp. In “Deserto sulla terra,” Verdi masterfully employs different chord inversions in the harp accompaniment in order to convey the complexities of his character

Manrico, who is actually a nobleman raised by a gypsy mother. A staple of the concert stage,

“Deserto sulla terra” showcases Verdi’s meticulous attention to ensuring that the libretto and music complement one another.

Verismo composers also drew upon the harp’s historical association with gypsies and troubadours. In an effort to replicate the authentic sound of a folk instrument, Mascagni and

Rachmaninov each wrote a harp accompaniment for “Siciliana” and “The Young Gypsies’

Romance.” Although both are essentially romantic serenades, Rachmaninov’s text and music are highly repetitive, while Mascagni juxtaposes the Siciliana rhythm with a poetic libretto and harmonic variety. Each of these arias may be effectively performed by tenor and solo harp in a concert setting and show that, regardless of a character’s humble station in life, harp music often signifies an aspiration to noble ideals such as the importance of remaining steadfast in love.

Resilient love is a theme that is also explored in Les pêchuers de perles by Bizet and La bohème by Puccini. Filial love and loyalty are expressed in Nadir and Zugra’s duet, “Au fond du temple saint” which is accompanied by harp arpeggios and melodic woodwinds. Throughout Les pêchuers de perles, the theme of this aria is invoked whenever two men reach obstacles in their friendship.147 Although Bizet’s pianistic scoring requires many emendations, these changes may be easily integrated while still preserving the original harmonies. In “Che gelida manina!” from

La bohème, Puccini evokes the romantic love Rodolfo immediately felt for Mimi with a

147 Dean, Bizet, 162.

distinctive harp theme that first occurs in the beginning of “Che gelida manina!” (examples 26 and 30). Puccini also assigned a harp triplet motif to Rodolfo’s character, which undergoes several transformations and key changes as he falls deeper in love with Mimi (examples 27 and

29).

In addition to exploring the themes of love, each of the arias selected for this treatise features either a bass with rolled three-note chords, or flowing arpeggios. Though separated by centuries and, in many cases, different inherited musical traditions, each of these composers chose to pair the harp and tenor voice in remarkably similar ways. The selected examples demonstrate a superb sense of balance between the harp and other instruments, as well as masterfull blending of the harp with the tenor voice. In this way, the unique timbre of the harp is showcased within the ensemble, even when it is playing the same pitches as other instruments.

This is quite a different approach from assigning the harp a line originally intended for double bass, or the same five-fingered arpeggios as the piano.

Perhaps the basic pedal mechanism was slow to become standardized, the perceived limitations of the harp have long informed the type of music written for it. A simple harp accompaniment to tenor melody is always appropriate and successful. However, it is also important that composers take into account the great strides that have been made in harp construction, and not to be afraid to compose distinctive musical material for the harp in opera.

One thing that all of the above examples have in common is that they were written with the harp, not the piano, in mind.148 The harp’s potential contributions to compositions have been underutilized in more contemporary pieces, frequently resulting in the harp and piano having similar scoring. As Mahler chastised a young composer in a letter: “Next, you must shake off

148 The exception might be “Au fond du temple saint.” Here, a young Bizet clearly wrote with the sonority, but not the finger spacing, of the harp in mind.

the pianist! None of this is a movement for orchestra- it is conceived for the piano and then rearranged for orchestra without getting free of the trammels of that instrument.”149

Learning how to write a successful harp part can be as easy as learning basic arpeggio figurations, stemming methods, and appropriate spacing for chords. Essentially, the more thoughtful the approach to writing a harp part, the less editing the harpist will have to do and the more successful the performance will be.

Berlioz’s Treatise on Orchestration has an excellent section in which he describes common mistakes to avoid, such as intricate passagework on the bass wire strings, (the sound gets muddled) and rapid arpeggios doubled at the octave. For chord spacing and fingering,

Berlioz advises:

Having explained the nature of the instrument, we will now discuss its fingering, wrongly confused by many composers with piano fingering, with which it has nothing in common. Each hand can strike four-note chords whose outer notes fall within an octave, as in Ex. 62a. By stretching the thumb and little finger, however, one can reach chords of a tenth, and this allows chords to be spaced as in Ex. 62b.150

Unfortunately, the necessity of writing appropriate harp parts is not stressed in many orchestration classes. Nor are the nuances of the harp thoroughly taught in music education methods classes, which is entirely understandable in light of the limited exposure most other musicians have to the instrument.151 Not technically a “stringed instrument” and very different from other percussive instruments, the harp can be difficult to categorize. Rather than create distinctive, original material for the harp, many present-day composers assign the harp an

149 Paul Mathews, ed. Orchestration: An Anthology of Writings. New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2006, 49.

150 Hector Berlioz, Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration, enlarged and revised by Richard Strauss, trans. Theodore Front, (New York: E.F. Kalmus, 1948), 66.

151 Of course, part of the responsibility for promoting knowledge and cultivating an interest in the harp partially rests with harpists themselves.

amalgamation of other instruments’ parts. Just as one would not write identical parts for the flutes and violins, the harp and piano should not write identical parts for the harp and piano.

Notwithstanding that two instruments can play similar figures in the same range, does not mean that they should.

Composers who take the time to learn about the instrument will find that, when used effectively, the harp’s unique timbre can contribute a valuable layer of texture and color. While simple scoring for can be sublimely effective (as in the Verdi and Donizetti examples) composers should not be shy about writing creatively for the harp provided that they have devoted time to understanding it. Debussy, Puccini, and more recently, Britten, all wrote extremely challenging harp parts. The genius of their orchestration lies in that it pushes the harpist to their technical limits without going past those limits. Debussy’s Trio for Flute Viola, and Harp and his as well as all of his orchestral works contain excellent examples of how to challenge the harpist without the need for emendations.

Much like the harp itself, the tenor voice has significantly evolved over the last five hundred years. Various techniques emerge, gain popularity, and may eventually loose favor to make way for yet more innovations. As with any instrument, tenors, harpists and composers all continue to push established rules and boundaries. Perhaps some of the harp’s enduring appeal is due to the close physical relationship between the harpist and the instrument itself. A harp player must physically envelop the instrument with the entire body, and physically produce sound with no intermediary bow, mallet, or valve. Even the slightest variation of height, hand size, fingertip shape, or arm span may substantially alter a harpist’s approach to their craft. Apart from the obvious requirement of using one’s fingers, a harpist must be constantly aware of the feet, back,

shoulders, and head placement. It could be argued that, apart from the human voice, few other instruments can boast of such closeness between musician and instrument.

In performance, an aria’s overall effect is more important than any one instrumental part.

All of the operas discussed were originally written to be played on instruments that are smaller than today’s harps, with a wide variety of pitch adjustment devices. Therefore, an occasional emendation is not out of the question. Editing suggestions have been made to increase the harpist’s predictability, in order to take focus off of the instrumental accompaniment and shift more attention to the dramatic action onstage and make the tenor shine.

In real life, people are often inarticulate in moments of extreme emotion, whether those emotions are ardent love, lamenting sorrow, or the irresistible combination of the two. But in opera, even the most passionate male characters are at the height of their expressive powers.

With, of course, a little help from the harp.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aber, Alice Lawson. “Jean-Baptise Cardon.” The American Harp Journal 5, no. 4 (Summer 1975): 11-16.

Adelson, Robert, Alain Roudier, and Francis Duvernay. “Rediscovering Cousineau's Fourteen- pedal Harp.” The Galpin Society Journal 63 (May 2010): 159–178, 230-231. Accessed February 8 2016, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20753661.

Ashbrook, William. "L’elisir d’amore," The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed March 24, 2016, Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/O90 1438.

Bertensson, Sergei, Jay Leyda and Sophia Satina, Sergei Rachmaninoff. New York: New York University Press, 1956.

Berlioz, Hector. The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz, vol. 2. Translated and edited by Davis Cairns. New York: W.W. Norton, 1975.

______. Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration. Enlarged and revised by Richard Strauss, trans. Theodore Front. New York: E.F. Kalmus, 1948.

Bizet, Georges. Les pêchuers de perles, Opera in three acts, Libretto by Michel Carré and Eugéne Cormon. Paris: Chaudens; New York: Kalmus.

Buckler, Julie A. The Literary Lorgnette: Attending Opera in Imperial Russia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.

Budden, Julian. The Operas of Verdi vol. 2: From Il Trovatore to La forza del Destino. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Bruchner, Alexander. Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History. Edited by Bořek Vančura. New York: Crown Publishers, 1973.

Carse, Adam. The History of Orchestration. New York: Dover Publications, 1964.

Carner, Mosco. Puccini: A Critical Biography, London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1958.

Curtiss, Mina. Bizet and His World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958.

Dean, Winton. Bizet, London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd, 1948.

Devaere, Hannelore. “The Baroque Double Harp in the Kingdom of Naples,” in Aspects of the Historical Harp: Proceedings of the International Historical Harp Symposium Utrecht 1992, ed. Martin van Schaik, 13-30. Utrecht: STIMU, 1994.

Dirks-Hunt, Wiedke. “The paucity of interest in composing for the pedal harp in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” DMus thesis, Indiana University, 2002.

Donizetti, Gaetano. L’elisir d’amore, melodramma giocoso in two acts. Libretto by Felice Romani. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1962.

______. L’elisir d’amore. Harp part. New York: Kalmus.

Fisher, Burton D. A History of Opera: Milestones and Metamorphoses. Coral Gables: Opera Journeys Publishing, 2003.

Gevaert, F.A. Nouveau Traité d’instrumentation. Paris: Lemoine et Fils, 1885. Accessed August 27, 2014. http://burrito.whatbox.ca:15263/imglnks/usimg/3/36/IMSLP298520- PMLP483649-Gevaert_FA_Nouveau_trait___d_instrumentation__Lemoine_.pdf.

Galassi, Mara. “The arpa e tre registry in Seventeenth-Century Rome.” in Historische Harfen: Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis historischer Harfen,ed. Heidrun Rosenzweig. Basil: Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, 1991.

Giger, Andreas. Verdi and the French Aesthetic: Verse, stanza, and melody in nineteenth-century opera. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Giles, Peter and J.B. Steane. "Countertenor." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed March 24, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/066 94.

Giroud, Vincent. French Opera: A Short History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.

Giuseffi, Mike. Post to “Opera L Archives,” March 15, 2009, Accessed November 16, 2014, http://listserv.bccls.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=OPERA-L;Mlf8Gg;20090315234151-0400c.

Gluck, Willibald. Orpheus, Kalmus Vocal Scores. Libretto by Raniero de Calzabigi. New York: Kalmus.

______.Orpheus ed Euridici. Libretto by Raniero de Calzabigi. Edited by Hermann Aber. Vienna: Osterreichischer Bundersverslag; Mineola: Dover Publications, 1992.

Grout, Donald Jay and Hermine Weigel Williams. A Short History of Opera, 3rd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.

Hanlon, John. "Fatalism, Tragedy, and Morality: A Study of the Men in Verdi's 'Il Trovatore.'” Outstanding Student Works, Digital Commons at Illinois Wesleyan University, 2011. Accessed November 13, 2014, http://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/music_papers/3.

Howard, Patricia. Gluck: An Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and Documents. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.

Konhäuser, Ruth and Helga Storck, Test Pieces for Orchestral Auditions: Harp Excerpts from the Operatic and Concert Repertoire. Mainz, Germany: Schott 1994.

Lee-Fei, Chen. “The emergence of the double-action harp as the standard instrument: Pleyel’s chromatic harp and Erard’s double-action harp.” DMA thesis, University of Miami, 2008.

Mallach, Allan. Pietro Mascagni and His Operas. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002.

Mascagni, Pietro. Cavalleria Rusticana, Melodrama in opera in one act. Libretto by Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and Guido Menasci. New York: Broude Brothers.

Mathews, Paul, ed. Orchestration: An Anthology of Writings. New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2006.

Mongrédien, Jean. French Music from the Enlightenment to Romanticism 1789-1830. Edited by Reinhard G. Paul. Translated by Sylvain Frémaux. Portland: Amadeus Press, 1996.

Dimitry Murashev, “Tannhäuser Act I.” DM’s Opera Website. Accessed November 14, 2014. http://www.murashev.com/opera/Tannhäuser_libretto_English_Act_1.

Norris, Geoffrey. Rakhmaninov. London: J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd, 1976.

Parker, Douglas. Bizet. London: Routledge Kegan Paul Ltd, 1951.

Parsons, Jeffery Lee. “The Emergence of Harp in Opera.” The American String Teacher 39, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 91-94.

Potter, John. The History of A Voice. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.

Puccini, Giacomo. La Bohème, (Scenes of ‘La vie de Bohème’ by H. Murger) In four acts. Libretto Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa. Milan: Ricordi, 1920.

Rachmaninov, Sergi. Aleko Opera in One Act. Arranged for voice and piano by S. Rachmaninov. Moscow: 1966.

______. Aleko, Opera in One Act. Moscow: Muzgiz, 1953.

Rempel, Ursula. “Fanny Krumpholtz and her Milieu.” The American Harp Society Journal 5, no. 4 (Winter 1976): 11-15.

‘Méthodes de harpe: an Introduction to Eighteenth-Century Tutors.’ American Harp Society Journal 8, no. 4 (Winter 1982): 15-28.

Rensch, Roslyn. Harps and Harpists. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.

Schirinzi, Alba Nova, ed. Passi difficili (studi d’orchestra) per arpa tratti da opera liriche di Boito, Mascagni, Massenet, Puccini, Verdi, Wagner. Milan: Carische S.p.A., 1961.

Shameyva, Natalia. The Development of Harp Music in Russia: XXth Century. Bloomington: Tichenor Publishing, 1994.

Silke, Leopold and Irene Zedlacher. “The Orchestra in Early Opera.” The Musical Quarterly 80, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 265-68. Accessed August 15, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/742365.

Spinelli, Donald C. “Beaumarchais, Krumpholtz, and the Harp: An Unidentified Letter,” World Harp Congress Review 4 no.1 (Fall 2000): 19-25.

Waleffe, Pierre. Giuseppe Verdi. Translated by Adel Negro. Geneva: Minerva, 1969.

Wagner, Richard. Tannhäuser in Full Score. Libretto by Richard Wagner. Edited by Felix Mottl. Leipzig: C.F. Peters, 1920; New York: Dover Publications, 1984.

Weiss, Piero and Richard Taruskin, ed., Music in the Western World: A History in Documents. New York: Shirmer Books, 1984

Weaver, William. The Golden Century of Italian Opera from Rossini to Puccini. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980.

Van Gansbeke, Brett. “Tannhauser.” The Orchestral Bassoon website. Accessed November 14, 2014, http://www.orchestralbassoon.com/wagner-tannhauser/#_ftnl.

Verdi, Giuseppe. Il Trovatore, Opera in four acts. Libretto by Salvatore Cammarano. Piano and Vocal Score. Translation by Natalia MacFarren. New York: Shirmer,

Il Trovatore, Opera in four acts. Milan: Ricordi; Mineola: Dover Publications, 1994. International Music Score Library Project. Accessed March 28, 2016, http://hz.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/1/13/IMSLP48611-PMLP06712-Verdi_- _Il_Trovatore_-_Part_1__orch._score_.pdf .

Zingel, Hans Joachim. The Development of Harp Playing from the Beginning to the Present Day. New Harp Instruction Vol. 4. Translated by Maggie Greiffenhagen. Leipzig: VEB Friedrich Hofmeister, 1969.

______. Introduction in Orchestra Playing. New Harp Instruction Vol. 3: Leipzig: VEB Friedrich Hofmeister, 1969.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

As a central Louisiana native with little access to live opera, Agnes Hall first began listening to opera on National Public Radio on Saturday afternoons. While an undergraduate harp student of Carroll McLaughlin’s at the University of Arizona, Agnes appeared in over seventy five concerts with HarpFusion, including performances in Belgium, Holland, Germany,

Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Mexico, Brazil, and at seemingly every church, RV resort, and senior center in the greater Tucson area. She was also proud member of Delta Delta Delta and enjoyed sampling the scones and petit fours at Loews Ventana Canyon Resort, where she played the harp for afternoon tea three days a week.

After two years at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, studying performance, pedagogy, and harp literature with Ann Yeung, Agnes happily moved to sunny Florida, where moving harps in winter was much easier. At Florida State University, Agnes Hall played harp in the inaugural recording of Ernst von Dochnanyi’s Symphony No. 2 and was also featured playing

Tzigane (Ravel) and Scottish Fantasy (Bruch) with acclaimed violinist Joshua Bell. Other recent performance highlights include playing principle harp with the Tallahassee Symphony Orchestra and the Panama City POPS! After graduation, Agnes hopes to record an album of hymn arrangements and will begin work on a book about auditioning for college harp programs, a topic on which she is moderating a panel discussion at the American Harp Society Conference in July

2016.