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This Electronic Thesis Or Dissertation Has Been Downloaded from Explore Bristol Research This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from Explore Bristol Research, http://research-information.bristol.ac.uk Author: Christodoulou, Panayiota Title: Trafficking of Women for Sexual Exploitation in Cyprus Social Policies and Social Work Practice General rights Access to the thesis is subject to the Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International Public License. A copy of this may be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode This license sets out your rights and the restrictions that apply to your access to the thesis so it is important you read this before proceeding. Take down policy Some pages of this thesis may have been removed for copyright restrictions prior to having it been deposited in Explore Bristol Research. However, if you have discovered material within the thesis that you consider to be unlawful e.g. breaches of copyright (either yours or that of a third party) or any other law, including but not limited to those relating to patent, trademark, confidentiality, data protection, obscenity, defamation, libel, then please contact [email protected] and include the following information in your message: •Your contact details •Bibliographic details for the item, including a URL •An outline nature of the complaint Your claim will be investigated and, where appropriate, the item in question will be removed from public view as soon as possible. Trafficking of Women for Sexual Exploitation in Cyprus: Social Policies and Social Work Practice Panayiota Christodoulou A dissertation submitted to the University of Bristol in accordance with the requirements for award of the degree of PhD in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Law School for Policy Studies September 2017 76,446 Words Abstract This study has used qualitative methods to examine social work practices and social policy regarding the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation in Cyprus. In-depth interviews were conducted with victims of trafficking and key stakeholders, from government and non-government services, aiming to examine the perceptions of both groups of participants and to examine the weaknesses and strengths of the government of Cyprus’ system for tackling trafficking and protecting the victims. It aims to inform the government about ways in which policies and practices can improve. The study adopted a constructivist approach and reflexivity was utilised to interpret the data in order to mitigate any ethical pitfalls. The main finding of this study is that the government of Cyprus has not adequately addressed weaknesses in policy and practice in regard to tackling trafficking of women for sexual exploitation and protection of victims. Although legislation and policy appear to be adequate, there are failures in implementation. The victims’ needs are also not met effectively, especially after their court case is over. The failure of the government to implement its stated policy is found, according to the participants, to result from the lack of political will to change, which is due to preconceptions and biases towards gender equality, racism and xenophobia. In addition, social work practices which specialise in the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation are scarce and there is no indication from the government that this is going to change in the near future. Furthermore, the study finds that the government of Cyprus needs to focus more on prevention measures and interventions which could address discrimination issues amongst the young population and to implement more up-to-date tools for better collaboration and coordination amongst the services involved in tackling trafficking and protecting the victims. ii Acknowledgments The completion of this study could not be possible without the help and support of a few people that were present throughout this research journey. I would like to begin by expressing my deepest gratitude to my supervisors: to Prof John Carpenter, for his valuable comments and support even after his retirement; and Ann Singleton, for her patience all these years, her guidance, advice and encouragement which were very valuable to me. I feel blessed and honoured for having the opportunity to work with both. I would also like to thank the Head of the Department and my colleagues, of the Social Work programme at Frederick University for their patience and support. Many thanks to Sophie Papatheocharous for spending her summer holidays proofreading my work. I am also deeply grateful to the 17 participants who have been interviewed. My special thanks are also given to my closest friends who, without their friendship and support, I would not have been able to maintain my sanity. I am deeply indebted to my family: my parents for supporting me in every possible way throughout my life, for teaching me to never give up, for believing in me and loving me unconditionally, my sisters and brothers-in-law for their encouragement, unconditional love and constant support to uphold my belief. ii Author’s declaration I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements of the University’s Regulations and Code of Practice for Research Degree Programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. Except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate’s own work. Work done in collaboration with, or with the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. Any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. SIGNED: DATE: 15 September 2017 vi Table of contents Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………….. 1 1.1 Background of trafficking of women for sexual exploitation in Cyprus and the research problem ………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Research aims and questions …………………………………………… 3 1.3 Overview of the methodology ……………………………………………. 5 1.4 Overview of the findings …………………………………………………... 6 1.5 Thesis outline ………………………………………………………………..7 Chapter 2: The human trafficking phenomenon with a focus on trafficking in women for sexual exploitation ………………... 8 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 8 2.2 A review of the phenomenon of trafficking ……………………………… 9 2.2.1 Human trafficking – definitions (strengths and weaknesses) ... 10 2.2.2 The history of trafficking …………………………………………....14 2.2.3 Types of trafficking ……………………………………………….. 17 2.2.4 The process of trafficking of women ……………………………. 19 2.2.5 Sex trafficking and risk factors ...………………………………… 23 2.2.6 Consequences of trafficking for the victims ……………………. 26 2.2.7 Traffickers’ profile and modus operandi ………………………... 28 2.3. Theories and their description on trafficking ………………………….. 30 2.3.1. Trafficking as socially / culturally / economically / politically constructed ……………………………………………………….. 31 2.3.2. Trafficking is considered to be shaped by gender ……………. 33 2.3.3 Trafficking as a profitable business …………………………….. 35 2.3.4. Trafficking is considered to be triggered by the economic status of countries ……………………………………………………….. 36 2.3.5 Trafficking is facilitated by armed conflicts and migrants fleeing crisis ……………………………………………………………….. 37 2.4 Suggestions derived from various studies for tackling the trafficking phenomenon ……………………………………………………………… 38 viii 2.5. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 41 Chapter 3: Trafficking of women for sexual exploitation in Cyprus: current social policy responses and social work practice …………………………………………………………… 44 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 44 3.2 The island of Cyprus …………………………………………………….. 45 3.3 Human trafficking in Cyprus …………………………………………….. 48 3.3.1 Statistical presentation of the extent of human trafficking in Cyprus……………………………………………………………… 48 3.3.2 The extent of demand for sex work in Cyprus ………………… 53 3.3.3 Culture’s influence on demand and social prejudice against the sex workers ……………………………………………………54 3.4 The government of Cyprus’ policies and practices on human trafficking ………………………………………………………………….. 55 3.4.1 Prevention ………………………………………………………… 56 3.4.2 Prosecution ……………………………………………………….. 59 3.4.3 Protection ………………………………………………………..... 62 3.4.4 Partnerships ………………………………………………………. 64 3.5 Programmes and services for tackling and preventing women trafficking for commercial sex and for supporting the victims ……….. 66 3.5.1 Government services ……………………………………………. 67 3.5.1.1 Ministry of Interior ……………………………………… 67 3.5.1.2 Civil Registry and Migration Department ……………. 68 3.5.1.3 Police – Office of Combating Trafficking in Human Beings …………………………………………………… 68 3.5.1.4 Ministry of Labour, Welfare and Social Insurance – Social Welfare Services ……………………………….. 69 3.5.1.5 Legal Services of the Republic of Cyprus ……………70 3.5.1.6 National Machinery for Women’s Rights ……………. 70 3.5.1.7 Ministry of Health ………………………………………. 70 3.5.1.8 Ministry of Foreign Affairs …………………………….. 71 3.5.2 Non-Government Organisations ……………………………….. 71 3.5.2.1 KISA – Action for Equality, Support and ix Anti-Racism …………………………………………….. 72 3.5.2.2 MIGS – Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies ………………………………………………….. 72 3.5.2.3 Cyprus Stop Trafficking ……………………………….. 73 3.5.2.4 STIGMA ………………………………………………… 73 3.5.2.5 Future World Centre ……………………………………73 3.5.2.6 Wellspring – Room of Hope …………………………...74 3.6 Social work practice ………………………………………………………74 3.7 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………75 Chapter 4: The European and International policy context and social work practices ……………………………………………………77 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………...77 4.2 Policies for tackling trafficking of women for sexual
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