Perspectives

PERSPECTIVES

several organizations that were set up to SCIENCE AND SOCIETY continue the campaign. In both the United States and Europe, the debate about animal experimentation waned Animal experimentation: with the advent of the First World War, only to re-emerge during the 1970s, when anti- the continuing debate vivisection and animal-welfare organizations joined forces to campaign for new legislation to regulate animal research and testing. In the Mark Matfield United States, the public debate re-emerged in a more dramatic fashion in 1980, when an The use of animals in research and there was considerable protest from some activist infiltrated the laboratory of Dr Edward development has remained a subject of members of the audience and that, after one Taub of the Institute of Behavioural Research public debate for over a century. Although animal had been injected, an eminent med- at Silver Spring, Maryland (BOX 1). This attack there is good evidence from opinion surveys ical figure summoned the magistrates to on Taub’s research was organized by a tiny that the public accepts the use of animals in prevent the demonstration from continuing. animal-rights group called People for the research, they are poorly informed about the The Royal Society for the Prevention of Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), which way in which it is regulated, and are Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) brought a pros- has since grown to dominate the campaign in increasingly concerned about laboratory- ecution for cruelty, and several of the doctors the United States. animal welfare. This article will review how present at the demonstration gave evidence public concerns about animal against Magnan, who returned to France to The anatomy of the campaign experimentation developed, the recent avoid answering the charges. The press fol- The United Kingdom still remains the country activities of animal-rights groups, and the lowed these events with interest and there was in which the debate is most intense, with opportunities and challenges facing the a heated debate about vivisection in the pages some of the antivivisection organizations that scientific community. of popular magazines. The very first anti- were founded in the late 1800s still campaign- vivisection pamphlets, calling for legislation ing actively. The organizations that are The historical context to ban animal experimentation, appeared in opposed to animal experimentation fall into The origin of public and political debate about London only months after the BMA meeting. three broad groups. The legitimate animal- animal experimentation throughout the world Over the next two years, the debate con- welfare organizations, such as the RSPCA, occurred at the Annual Meeting of the British tinued to escalate. The first antivivisection take a pragmatic approach. Although they Medical Association (BMA) that was held in society was formed, bills were introduced into espouse the long-term objective of ending Norwich in 1874. The BMA had invited the Parliament, the scientific community fought animal experimentation, they accept that this French scientist Eugene Magnan to lecture on back, a Royal Commission of Enquiry was is not going to happen within the foreseeable the physiological effects of alcohol. After the held, and compromise legislation was even- future. In the meantime, they seek to work lecture, Dr Magnan gave a demonstration of tually pushed through by the government1. with scientists to improve the welfare of lab- the induction of experimental epilepsy in a dog In the United States, the origins of the oratory animals and develop alternative, by the intravenous injection of absinthe. At this debate paralleled developments in the United non-animal, methods. time, physiological research in continental Kingdom. In 1874, Henry Burgh started the The mainstream antivivisection and ani- Europe had a tradition of experimenting on first antivivisection campaign under the aus- mal-rights groups campaign very actively, but animals that had become firmly established pices of The American Society for the are careful to remain within the law and, in before the introduction of ether and chloro- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), some cases, are respectable enough to have form for general anaesthesia. In the United and later introduced a bill into the New York representatives on government committees. Kingdom, however, very little animal experi- legislature to make vivisection a misde- Some of these campaigning organizations mentation was carried out, chiefly because meanour2. However, adverse reports from take a dogmatic line, and argue that animal few scientists would contemplate invasive medical societies throughout the country pre- experimentation is scientifically invalid and experiments on conscious animals. vented the bill from gaining any real political has never produced any medical benefit. There is no accurate record of what hap- support. The American Anti-Vivisection Others prefer to use the selective presentation pened at the meeting, but it is known that Association, founded in 1883, was the first of of information to suggest that animal research

Box 1 | The case of Dr Edward Taub more recent times, the debate has also focused on whether animal research is necessary, what In May 1981, Dr Edward Taub of the medical progress it has produced and whether Institute of Behavioural Research at Silver alternatives could be used. A careful analysis Spring, Maryland, allowed a political science of the public debate about animal experimen- major at George Washington University, tation shows that essentially all of it revolves named Alex Pacheco, to work in his around two basic arguments: is animal experi- laboratory. Taub was studying the mentation cruel, and is it necessary5? The somatosensory apparatus, trying to ‘necessity’ argument is presented in different determine whether primates could re-learn ways, such as citing the use of alternative the use of deafferented limbs. Pacheco methods, or questioning the ‘validity’ of animal volunteered to work in Taub’s laboratory, claiming to be interested in medical research. research, but ultimately they are all arguing In fact, Pacheco was one of the founders of a about whether there is a need for animal tiny protest group called People for the research. Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), which Two recent opinion surveys conducted in had been organizing protests outside the the United Kingdom have given an important National Institutes of Health (NIH) only insight into the nature and origins of the UK weeks before. Pacheco’s colleagues in PETA public’s views on the issue6,7. They revealed decided to send him to infiltrate Taub’s that most of the general public accepted that laboratory and expose what they considered animals should be used in research, but with to be cruel and unnecessary experiments12. some very important qualifications. Their In September that year, Pacheco made a series of allegations that resulted in Taub’s arrest and acceptance was conditional on the purpose of 119 charges. Of these charges, 113 were dismissed at the first court case, 5 more in the second case, the experimentation being for important and the last charge was overturned 2 years later13. With the string of court cases and media medical research, that the animals should be attention, the whole situation became a cause célèbre. The NIH started an investigation and rodents and that they should not suffer. If any suspended Taub’s research funding. The primates were seized by the police, were allegedly of these three factors were altered, the level of kidnapped by PETA, returned, handed back to Taub, then almost immediately remanded to the acceptance diminished substantially. NIH Animal Centre in Poolesville. Their custody and fate became the subject of a series of court When the respondents were asked about 12 cases that lasted for more than a decade . how they thought animal research should be PETA used the case of the ‘Silver Spring Monkeys’ as a springboard to national attention, regulated, they spontaneously suggested all eventually building itself into being the leading animal-rights organization in the United States. the key elements of the existing UK system of Indeed, it has been described as “…probably the most aggressive aboveground animal-rights regulation. This indicates that, if they were organisation in the world”12. Alex Pacheco has been Director or Chairman of PETA for most of its existence. more aware of the existing regulatory system, Despite the fact that three leading scientific organizations (the American Psychological Society, they might have stronger support for the way the Society for Neuroscience and The American Physiological Society) held separate animals are used in research in the United investigations into the allegations against Taub and each vindicated him, the controversy and the Kingdom. damage to his reputation delayed his research for most of the decade that followed the infiltration. Taub himself was left without a job, as his salary depended on his research funding, The scientific community’s response and, being at the centre of the controversy, he found it difficult to secure another position. After In those countries in which the scientific being without a post for five years, he was eventually offered a position at the University of community has been faced with a vocal cam- Alabama13. This gave him the opportunity to translate his findings from the primate studies to paign against the use of animals in research, stroke patients, and he developed the method of constraint-induced movement therapy to restore they have responded by setting up organiza- the use of affected limbs in stroke victims14. (Photo courtesy of Dr Edward Taub.) tions to represent their perspective in the public and political debate. The first such organization, The Physiological Society, was is of questionable value, is conducted poorly The United States also has its share of founded in the United Kingdom in 1876. and always causes great suffering. animal-rights extremism, which seems to However, over the years it evolved into a con- Over the past 30 years, the philosophical have grown out of radical environmental ventional scientific association, and its role in idea of animal rights has grown and come to activism, but has been strongly influenced by the debate was taken over by the Research dominate this movement3. Perhaps as a result, UK extremists. Although the actual number Defence Society in 1908 (REF.1). In the same the movement has also grown a radical edge, of animal-rights extremist attacks in the year in the United States, the American composed of activists and loosely knit groups United States is much smaller than in the Medical Association responded to the grow- that are willing to go much further than the United Kingdom, it has included several seri- ing activity of the antivivisection movement campaigning antivivisection organizations. ous cases of arson4. by forming the Council for the Defense of Some of the radicals limit themselves to Medical Research2. demonstrating outside laboratories and Key issues in the debate Pro-research organizations normally shouting abuse. However, the extremists, The historical perspective gives us a clear indi- enlist the active support of scientists from working under the banner of the Animal cation of the main factors that underlie public both academia and the pharmaceutical Liberation Front, are willing to use intimida- attitudes towards animal experimentation. In industry to provide advice and support and tion, damage to property and even violence to nineteenth-century Britain, the protest was to act as spokespersons and advocates for the further their aims4. about cruelty to animals in laboratories. In use of animals in research. In addition, many

and attacks on staff and suppliers imposed Once the UK government understood that security costs that the firm was unable to they were dealing with an issue of strategic afford. When the breeder closed down in importance to the future of the country’s 1997, it was greeted as a huge victory by the bioscience-based industries, they moved activists8. In 30 years of animal-rights swiftly to introduce legislation to deal with activism, they had never forced a company to animal-rights extremists. The police were close before. Focused campaigns suddenly given powers to prevent activists demon- became the main tactic adopted by activists. strating outside people’s homes, including the The same tactic of aggressive targeting was power to arrest protestors who refused to halt then used against several other small breeders, such demonstrations. The government who were relentlessly forced out of business, strengthened existing legislation against one by one. Hillgrove Farm, a cat breeder, was harassment and malicious communications forced to close in 1999, followed by the primate to criminalize other tactics used by the supplier Shamrock Farm, and Regal Rabbits activists. They also made changes to the legisla- in 2000. With each ‘victory’, focused cam- tion concerning company directors, permitting paigns gained more support from rank-and- them to keep their home addresses out of the file animal-rights activists. In the face of these public domain10. campaigns of harassment and intimidation, Perhaps the most radical action taken by the mainstream antivivisection organizations the government was to set up a special police Figure 1 | Protesting against Huntingdon Life adopted a low profile, not wanting to associate squad, which works at a national level and is Sciences. (Photo courtesy of Huntingdon Life themselves with the often illegal activities of dedicated to tracking down animal-rights Sciences.) these campaigns, but equally reluctant to extremists and prosecuting them for their mount competing campaigns against other offences. In July 2001, when HLS were unable targets, which might have failed due to lack to find banking facilities, the UK government pharmaceutical trade associations have devel- of support. took the unprecedented step of allowing them oped their own pro-research communication After closing down four small laboratory- to use an account with the Bank of England. resources to engage directly in the debate. A animal breeders, the small group of activists few individual companies have also become that was organizing the focused campaigns directly involved. However, most companies decided to attack a much larger target, and prefer to rely on the skills and experience launched the current campaign against “Focused campaigns developed by the dedicated pro-research Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS), the largest suddenly became the main organizations, rather than having direct cor- contract research company in Europe (FIG. 1). porate involvement. This arrangement works With the impetus of the previous successes, the tactic adopted by activists.” well as long as the debate and campaigning is HLS campaign soon grew to completely domi- focused on the issue at hand. However, when nate the UK animal-rights movement, and a particular company becomes the target of a even became a major animal-rights issue in the Public opinion starts to change campaign, they have to develop the skills United States. In addition to attacks on the The extremist behaviour of the animal-rights needed to respond as rapidly as possible. This company and its staff, secondary targets, such activists had also started to swing public has recently been seen in the case of as the banks and stockbrokers used by HLS, opinion, which in the United Kingdom is Huntingdon Life Sciences. also received the unwelcome attention of the usually tolerant of protestors, against their activists. When they started targeting the campaign. A few days before Christmas 2000, The recent changes pharmaceutical companies that were clients of the Marketing Director of HLS was attacked The past few years have seen a major change HLS, there were nervous discussions in board- outside his home by masked activists who in the campaigning activities of the animal- rooms around the world. sprayed a noxious liquid into his eyes. rights movement in the United Kingdom, Fortunately, he managed to get inside his which is starting to alter the nature of the Reaction to the HLS campaign house and close the door before they had debate. Until recently, the movement was very The activists’ success in their campaign against done more than land a few blows on his back. fragmented, with numerous groups adopt- HLS finally provoked the UK government into A far worse incident took place in February ing different targets and different styles of action. In January 2001, the Royal Bank of 2001, when three masked activists wielding activity. Although there was a significant level Scotland gave in to pressure from animal- pickaxe handles attacked Brian Cass, the of animal-rights activity, it was directed at a rights activists and refused to renew a loan of Managing Director of HLS. He sustained a range of targets, including universities, breed- US$20 million that was essential to the survival bad head wound and broken ribs before a ers and contract research companies, as well of HLS. The realization that animal-rights neighbour intervened and the attackers fled11. as fur shops, butchers and fox hunts. The style extremism could bring Europe’s largest con- These incidents were widely condemned, of campaigning activity ranged from peaceful tract testing company to the verge of financial and the government made several high-profile and legitimate protests to the sending of letter ruin prompted the personal intervention of statements about the importance of animal bombs. However, in 1996, a group of radical the Science Minister, Lord Sainsbury, who experimentation for the pharmaceutical and activists started to focus on Consort, a small had a leading role in the negotiations that biotechnology industries. Media coverage of laboratory dog breeder located near Hereford resulted in the US investment company the issue shifted significantly, with most of the in the United Kingdom. The repeated Stephens, Inc. taking over the loan to HLS in news focusing on the problems caused by demonstrations, harassment, intimidation January 2001 (REF.9). animal-rights activists. This media coverage

NATURE REVIEWS | DRUG DISCOVERY VOLUME 1 | FEBRUARY 2002 | 151 © 2002 Macmillan Magazines Ltd PERSPECTIVES was based on the premise that animal question of the necessity of the experiments. experimentation. We have responded when research was essential for medical research. The scientific community seems to have put criticized and complied when regulated. This Some of the longer news items would explain far less effort into discussing the welfare issue, passive, reactive role has always left us at a this in detail, whereas the shorter items simply and one of the probable reasons for this is that disadvantage, allowing the antivivisection took it for granted as a known fact. This was it is far less cut and dried. In some experiments, movement to control the debate. Surely, the in marked contrast to the way in which the animals do suffer. That cannot be denied. time has come for us to take some of the ini- media had handled animal experimentation However, there is a great deal that can, and tiative and seek to influence the way in which as a controversial issue for the previous is, being done to reduce any distress or suffer- this debate develops in the future. Instead of decade or more, always taking care to present ing to a minimum. Almost every country being cast as ‘the bad guys’ because we experi- two opposing views about it. with a significant bioscience research base ment on animals, scientists should be seen as The introduction of measures to tackle the also has a system to regulate experiments on people who seek to improve the well being of extremism and the shift in public opinion had animals to ensure they are conducted in an both humans and animals. a noticeable effect on the campaign against ethical and humane manner. There are two Mark Matfield is at the Research Defence Society, HLS. The unwavering tactical focus that had different types of regulatory system. Some 58 Great Marlborough Street, London W1F 7JY, UK. been the hallmark of these campaigns soon countries, particularly those with a long history e-mail: [email protected] began to break down. Some of the leading of public debate on the issue, such as the DOI: 10.1038/nrd727 activists called for a more moderate approach, United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland, 1. French, R. D. Antivivisection and Medical Science in wanting to win back public support, although opted for government regulation, with the Victorian Society (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 1975). others deliberately undermined their attempts decisions about what experiments could be 2. Lederer, S. E. in Vivisection in Historical Perspective (ed. Rupke, N. A.) 236–258 (Croon Helm Ltd, to make the protests more peaceful. A third done and how they should be done being Beckenham, Kent, 1987). faction started to refocus the protests against made by government officials. Other countries 3. Regan, T. The Case for Animal Rights (Univ. California Press, Berkeley, 1983). environmental targets, such as Shell and Dow have adopted the ‘ethical committee’ app- 4. Matfield, M. The ALF: terrorist attacks on medical Chemicals. Others drifted into campaigns roach, in which the decisions are made by an research. Scand. J. Lab. Anim. Sci. 23, 31–35 (1996). 5. Matfield, M. Addressing the two basic questions — is it against other targets, such as a proposed pri- institutional committee. Both scientists and necessary and is it cruel? Res. Def. Soc. News 8–9 mate research facility at Cambridge University. the institute’s animal-welfare staff are nor- (April 1996). 6. Coghlan, A., Copley, J. & Aldhous, P. Let the people At the time of writing, the campaign against mally represented on such committees. In speak. New Scientist 26–31 (22 May 1999). HLS seems to be fragmenting. some cases, the members also include non- 7. Davies, B. In-depth survey of public attitudes shows surprising degree of acceptance. Res. Def. Soc. News scientific staff, external lay members and 8–11 (April 2000). representatives of animal-welfare or anti- 8. Davies, B. Hillgrove farm closes down. Res. Def. Soc. News 1 (October 1999). vivisection organizations. 9. Anon. Lessons from Huntingdon. Nature 409, 439 (2001). “Surely, the time has come There are benefits and risks associated 10. Davies, B. Government gets tough on animal rights extremism. Res. Def. Soc. News 1–3 (April 2001). for us to take some of the with including external members on such 11. Anon. Animal-lab director injured in attack. Nature 410, committees. Although including them can 8 (2001). initiative...” 12. Morrison, A. R. in Animal Research and Human Health: promote greater ethical debate and increased Advancing Human Welfare Through Behavioral Science public credibility, some antivivisection rep- (eds Carroll, M. E. & Jovermier, J. B.) 361–384 (American Psychological Association, Washington, 2001). resentatives have used their membership to 13. Guillermo, K. S. Monkey Business: the Disturbing Case The challenges ahead attempt to delay or block the approval of ani- that Launched the Animal Rights Movement (National With the campaign against HLS starting to mal-research projects. Exactly how to strike the Press Books, Washington, 1993). 14. Liepert, J., Bauder, H., Miltner, W. H. R., Taub, E. & wane, and increasing evidence of support for balance will depend on a number of factors, Weiller, C. Treatment-induced cortical reorganization after the use of animals in biomedical research and including the institutional culture and national stroke in humans. Stroke 31, 1210–1216 (2000). development from both the government and attitudes towards animal experimentation. Online links the public, the scientific community in the However, it is also important that the public United Kingdom has an excellent opportunity is made aware of the way in which animal FURTHER INFORMATION The American Physiological Society: http://www.the- to present their side of this debate to the public research is regulated and the ethical and wel- aps.org/pub_affairs/pa_animal.html more effectively than ever before. Over the fare standards that are applied. Given the American Psychological Society: http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ past decade, most of the activity by the scien- degree of public concern, we have made little The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty tific community on this issue has been effort to inform the public about our contri- to Animals: http://www.aspca.org/ Americans for Medical Progress: directed at the question of the necessity of butions to laboratory-animal welfare, particu- http://www.amprogress.org/ animal research. The evidence from opinion larly in the light of our strong credentials in Animals in Medicines Research Information Centre: http://www.lifesci.org/asg/default.htm polling indicates that this message has reached this area. Essentially, all the main alternative Association of Medical Research Charities: the public. However, the animal-rights move- methods (such as methods that either replace http://www.amrc.org.uk/aboutmedicalresearch/animalsinmedi calresearch.html ment will always attack that position, so the the use of animals, reduce the number of ani- Biomedical Research Education Trust: scientific community will need to continue to mals used in a procedure, or reduce the wel- http://www.bret.org.uk/ Foundation for Biomedical Research: reinforce this argument. fare impact on the animals), and many of the http://www.fbresearch.org/ The current situation presents an ideal ways in which the welfare of laboratory ani- Research Defence Society: www.rds-online.org.uk The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty opportunity for the scientific community to mals is improved (by using anaesthetics, anal- to Animals: http://www.rspca.org.uk/ extend the debate and begin to address the gesics, humane end points and environmental Seriously Ill for Medical Research: http://www.simr.org.uk/pages/simr/index.html other main issue: the welfare of laboratory enrichment), were developed by scientists. Society for Neuroscience: animals. From the perspective of the general For more than a century, the scientific http://www.sfn.org/ UKLSC Animal Science Group: public, whether or not animals suffer in community has had a passive role in the http://www.lifesci.org/asg/default.htm experiments is at least as important as the public and political debate about animal Access to this interactive links box is free online.