University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
EMPIRE AND MINORITIES
Outline •Theories about the origins of the Ottomans state •The Role of non-Muslim subjects in the military organization of the state •Social system in the classical period of the Ottoman empire •Breakdown of the social order in the 17th century •Formation of the Ottoman nomenklatura
It was God that I desired Do not cultivate a vineyard, and found, and now what more? you will be bound. Day after day I wept Do not cultivate grains, and then laughed, and now what more? you will be ground. Pull the camel, herd the sheep. Yunus Emre, 13th century mystical poet, A day will come, you will be crowned. Anatolia Nomadic poem from the area where Osman’s tribe one roamed
Gibbons—the Ottoman Race •Dismisses all early Ottoman source as late fabrication •Osman and his followers—pagan Turks •Conversion stimulated proselytizing spirit •Birth of a new race—Osmalis—ex-pagan Turks and ex-Christian Greeks •The expansion of the Ottomans not accompanied by Turks coming from the East but from converted Byzantine Greeks •Thus, the creative force of the Ottoman Empire attributed to European elements
Köprülü-the Turkish origins •Methodology—foundation of the Ottoman state not a isolated phenomenon •Should be studied in the context of the development of late 13th century frontier Anatolian Turkish society •Ottoman state simply the culmination of certain dynamics, skills, and organizational principles that had been imported or developed in Anatolian Turkish society for more than two centuries •Osman just happened to be in the right place at the right time •Thus, the Ottoman state—a creation of the Turks
Wittek—the Gaza ideology •Frontier vs. hinterland society •Placed importance in the gaza milieu of frontier society •The cohesiveness of the beyliks forces stems from common goals and faith not blood •Gazi bands consisted of warriors-adventures (including indigenous elements) of various background not of tribal groups •1337 inscription in Bursa refers to Osman as a gazi University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
•Ottomans—not tribally associated •Thus, the importance of the gaza ideology for the early Ottoman state as a “motive force”
What is Gaza •Not synonymous with Jihad –Jihad defined as war undertaken when the world of Islam or the peace is threatened •Defensive or offensive war? - Ancient concepts of defense and aggression not defined in a world of nation-states and “inviolable” boundaries •Gaza- irregular raiding activity whose ultimate goal was the expansion of the power of Islam •Original meaning “predatory raid” •Lesser category than jihad –14th century codebook does not preclude collaborations •mentions “the share of the infidels” •Gaza as the most desirable means of gaining one’s livelihood •The siege of Constantinople testimony
What is Gaza ideology? •“Gazi theory” critics assume gazis to be orthodox Muslims driven by religious zeal, relentlessly fighting against and forcibly converting infidels, thus –the Ottomans ”crusaders for shamanism rather than Islam” •Ahistorical definition of Gaza as what it ought to have been •Rather, the early Ottomans championed what they thought to be Islam •Historical reality of the marches—convergence of heterodoxy and gazi spirit—”Baba Islam” •Gaza, Jihad, Holy war, alp-hood (heroism) –Ultimately tied to a code of honor •Gaza ideology—”a motive force” or “a sufficient cause”
Lindner—tribal origins •Wittek assumes tribalism exclusive nature—group closed to strangers •Lindner—tribes have inclusive not exclusive nature •Thus, gaza exclusive—holy war ideology would have excluded Byzantines from joining Turks •If gaza ideology important to Ottomans they would not have: –Recruited Byzantines into their ranks –Fought against other Muslim forces –Exerted no pressure to convert or persecute Christians –Displayed religious moderation and an interest in conciliation –Allowed freedom for heterodoxy and pre-Islamic cults •The 1337 inscription may be produced later
The evolution of Gaza •Incorporation of gazis poses challenge of control University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
–The crisis of 1366 –Haji Ilbegi, former Karasi warrior, instrumental for the victory of 1371, killed by Murad •New army – the Janissaries (from slave background) •Creation of the post of Kadi asker •Appointment of uc bey (lord of the frontier) –Political elite no longer band of equal warriors –Many “accommodationist” gazis continued services on the Balkans … but in service of the Ottomans •The gaza spirit subject to a more orthodox interpretation •Autocracy triumphs over gaza in the middle of the 15 c. -Mehmed II refused to stand in front of Gazi music
Impact of Ottoman Conquest on the Balkans •The “catastrophe” theory—Gandev –Demographic catastrophe, biological collapse of the nation •The “blessing” theory—Jirecek, Iorga –Peace and prosperity, liberation from feudal anarchy •The modern approach—Inalcik –Economic integrity of the conquered area preserved –Local taxation practices and production modes maintained –Labor services dues to feudal lords replaced with cash equivalent –Cizye levied at its pre-conquest levels—one golden piece –Orthodox function and structure preserved –“liberation”—only in a sense of eliminating unproductive labor—thus, more time to invest in own farm, to turn increased production into profit and to meet tax obligations
Organization of the frontier •Case study—the sanjak of Nikopol (Ott. Niğbolu), 1516 –Four kazas—Lovetch, Tarnovo, Vratza, Nikopol –The serhad is in the kaza of Nikopol –Fortresses in the kaza—Nikopol, Holovnik, Svishtov, Gurgevo •Organization –80 Mustahfiz—sort of regular army, received timars (26) –441 Muslim households in Nikopol, 112 singles, 396 defenders of the city—1/3 newly converted –795 Christian households, 258 singles, 195 widows—302 hold all military (sailors, gunners, arbalests) and paramilitary positions in the citadels of Nikopol, Holovnik, Gurgevo –150 martolos (out of the 302)—similar to the akriti, militia used for raids and intelligence in enemy territory •Zevaid (reserve) troops –Lots of casualties, not only privileges—163 married, 91 singles, 40 widows registered with the captain of the Nikopol’s fleet –Often included in the raids—51 married, 29 singles, 24 widows •5000 Voynuks (in the villages), 1756 zevaid voynuks •2642 Filorecis University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
•Frontier troops—recapitulation –forces of rapid reaction –completed of local people –Geared for surprise raids, retaliating actions –To hold an enemy army until the main corps—sipahi and janissaries on the second line arrive
Changes in the frontier in the 16c. •Moving to central Europe •Belgrade new center of the serhad since 1521 –20,000 martolos called to restore the fortress –In 1529, 1000 azebi, 400 martoloses, 400 janissaries, 50 gunners –At the same time in Nikopol, 2758 zevaid voynuks and filorecis—half the number of 1516 •Since 1541—the frontier moves to Hungary (Buda) –13 fortresses, 6804 people •All on payroll •Not a single local person—all new comers from the Balkans •Regular troops •Mostly Muslim (27.5% new Muslims)—process of Islamization of Ottoman military power in the serhad
Social Structure •Rigid, strictly defined—official permission needed to pass from one to another •The subjects (reaya—the flock) –Urban (craftsmen) and rural population (cultivators) •Urban subjects exempted from military service and some taxes •Migration to cities controlled—chift bozan resmi •Guild system –Merchants—Bursa, Cairo, Alexandria, Istanbul, Edirne, Salonica •favored by Turkic and Islamic tradition •Hostility on the part of the other subjects, especially guilds –Nomads—outside social structure, restricted •Taxes –Ispenche (25 akches), tithes, head-tax (jizye), extraordinary –Light labor duties (repair of roads, castles) •Privileged reaya (muaf) –Voynuks –The “sheep drovers” (celepkeshan)—well-to-do class •Sub-district of Sofia in 1555, 857 celeps x 41 sheep x 25-35 akches>1,000,000 akches –The guardians of the passes (derbendji) •Special status of bearing arms—sense of dignity •Exempted from extraordinary taxes –The vakif village dwellers—exempted from some taxes –Non-agricultural groups University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
•Miners—large degree of self-government, fixed working hours, paid holidays, freed from most taxes •The Millet system-each religious community under the leadership of its own religious leader and clergy –The Church—part of state apparatus –The power of the patriarch in Constantinople extended over all orthodox Christian subjects of the state
The Askeri Class •Sipahis—40,000 + 40,000 pages •Janissaries –Murad I- prisoners of war (penjik ogulari), Bayezid I-devshirme –Devshirme enforced on regular basis by Murad II, Mehmed II –12,789 (1568) •The palace –The harem –Chief eunuch –inner and outer service •Campaign chamber (seferli koushu) •Kitchen (kiler odasi) (100) •Treasury (hazine odasi) •Privy Chamber (hass oda) (40)
The Devshirme Institution •Collection of non-Muslim boys from the countryside –Urban population, privileged reaya, sons of craftsmen, one son exempted •Two streams –Turk oglans, send to Turkish families in Anatolia –acemi oglans— boys in training palace school •Sipahis in the capital •ich oglans (pages) in the palace—kitchen, treasury, privy chamber •Origins –Kul, Islamic system of slave soldiers –Evidence of official manumission in the 15th century •Development and impact of the institution –Fundament of the state organization –Ibrahim Pasha, Mehmed Sokollu, Bosnian Muslims
Ottoman Bureaucracy •Administration –Imperial Council •Viziers, Grand vizier, provincial governors, treasurer, nishanji, grand admiral, janissary aga, chief military judges •Chancery (divan kalemi)—reis-ul-kuttap –Finances •Chif treasurer (bashdefterdar), scribes (katib) University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
•Registry (defterhane)—basic records •Summary office (icmal)—summary records •Detailed office (mufassal)—itemaized records of revenue sources •Daybook (ruzname)—recording of payments •Accounting (muhasebe)—records of receipts •Auditing •Mortmain—records of vacant and seized property
Breakdown of the social order in the 17th century •Contemporary observers of Ottoman decline –Selaniki, Mustafa Ali, Kochi Beg •Muslim reaya (Anatolia, Bosnia, Albania) “invade” the military –Undermine “classical” social order –Decrease sultan’s authority •Celali rebellions in Anatolia –Rebels (sekban) originated from among the landless young peasants (levends) –What made those peasant paupers turn into celali rebels, organized in bands and even armies that challenged sultan’s authority for more than a decade?
Changes in military technology and organization •Modern warfare rely heavily on the use of handguns •Use of new weapon does not add prestige to existing military elite •Adopted by the lowest stratum in the society, the landless peasants –Easy access to handguns (3-5 gold ducats=1/3 of price of horse) •Ottoman government in a desperate need of infantry men with handguns •Sekbans provide inexpensive and effective solution to the military and fiscal problems •The direct and effective factor drawing peasants away from agriculture –Government increasing demand for mercenary military men
Formation of the Ottoman nomenklatura •Military transformation led to rapid increase of the number of Janissaries •Janissaries dominate the Ottoman capital and central government •1617-1656, state affairs decided be a coalition of: –Sultan’s household—source of legitimate political authority •Dominated by sultan’s mother and palace officials –Higher ulema (sheihülislam) source of religious sanction –High officers of the Janissary corps •1622 incident, Janissary supremacy –Anatolia-the center of opposition •During celali uprisings Janissary garrisons installed in every major town –Eventually become urbanized, integral part of urban society
Janissaries’ control over agricultural land •The state (miri) agrarian system resulted in relatively little interest toward acquiring land in private property University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2
•The conflict between state and elite is not for land ownership but for income from the land •Iltizam—solves the problem of the participation of the elite in the sharing the profit from the land •First tax farmers (mültezims) - local people •Mid 15th c. – mid 16th c. large participation of Christians and Jews with partner Muslim •From mid 16th c. Muslims enter tax farming, Christian farmers—conversion? •From the 17th c. mültezims are mostly from the ruling elite –Holding of land and organization of production risky for private capital –The investment in mukataa is guaranteed plus a large profit
Ottoman nomenklatura—definition •State ownership=Nomenklatura ownership •The elite, privileged class consisting of the people holding positions of authority in the bureaucracy •Social group above ethnicity and nationality, performing certain social functions, connected by mutual interest and ideology (Islam). •The ethnic origin is blurred dominated by the quality of being Muslim •The case of Damad Hasan Pasha, son of a Janissary –Started from the palace school, chief of palace gatekeepers, chief of imperial stables, governor, admiral, vizier, son-in-law of the Sultan –1620, tax farmed the province of Trablus Sham (Lebanon) for 33,760,000—we can only guess what he was able to make –Appointed as the governor of the province at the same time •Able to exploit the economic resources of the province for himself