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EMPIRE and MINORITIES Outline •Theories About the Origins of The University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2 EMPIRE AND MINORITIES Outline •Theories about the origins of the Ottomans state •The Role of non-Muslim subjects in the military organization of the state •Social system in the classical period of the Ottoman empire •Breakdown of the social order in the 17th century •Formation of the Ottoman nomenklatura It was God that I desired Do not cultivate a vineyard, and found, and now what more? you will be bound. Day after day I wept Do not cultivate grains, and then laughed, and now what more? you will be ground. Pull the camel, herd the sheep. Yunus Emre, 13th century mystical poet, A day will come, you will be crowned. Anatolia Nomadic poem from the area where Osman’s tribe one roamed Gibbons—the Ottoman Race •Dismisses all early Ottoman source as late fabrication •Osman and his followers—pagan Turks •Conversion stimulated proselytizing spirit •Birth of a new race—Osmalis—ex-pagan Turks and ex-Christian Greeks •The expansion of the Ottomans not accompanied by Turks coming from the East but from converted Byzantine Greeks •Thus, the creative force of the Ottoman Empire attributed to European elements Köprülü-the Turkish origins •Methodology—foundation of the Ottoman state not a isolated phenomenon •Should be studied in the context of the development of late 13th century frontier Anatolian Turkish society •Ottoman state simply the culmination of certain dynamics, skills, and organizational principles that had been imported or developed in Anatolian Turkish society for more than two centuries •Osman just happened to be in the right place at the right time •Thus, the Ottoman state—a creation of the Turks Wittek—the Gaza ideology •Frontier vs. hinterland society •Placed importance in the gaza milieu of frontier society •The cohesiveness of the beyliks forces stems from common goals and faith not blood •Gazi bands consisted of warriors-adventures (including indigenous elements) of various background not of tribal groups •1337 inscription in Bursa refers to Osman as a gazi University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2 •Ottomans—not tribally associated •Thus, the importance of the gaza ideology for the early Ottoman state as a “motive force” What is Gaza •Not synonymous with Jihad –Jihad defined as war undertaken when the world of Islam or the peace is threatened •Defensive or offensive war? - Ancient concepts of defense and aggression not defined in a world of nation-states and “inviolable” boundaries •Gaza- irregular raiding activity whose ultimate goal was the expansion of the power of Islam •Original meaning “predatory raid” •Lesser category than jihad –14th century codebook does not preclude collaborations •mentions “the share of the infidels” •Gaza as the most desirable means of gaining one’s livelihood •The siege of Constantinople testimony What is Gaza ideology? •“Gazi theory” critics assume gazis to be orthodox Muslims driven by religious zeal, relentlessly fighting against and forcibly converting infidels, thus –the Ottomans ”crusaders for shamanism rather than Islam” •Ahistorical definition of Gaza as what it ought to have been •Rather, the early Ottomans championed what they thought to be Islam •Historical reality of the marches—convergence of heterodoxy and gazi spirit—”Baba Islam” •Gaza, Jihad, Holy war, alp-hood (heroism) –Ultimately tied to a code of honor •Gaza ideology—”a motive force” or “a sufficient cause” Lindner—tribal origins •Wittek assumes tribalism exclusive nature—group closed to strangers •Lindner—tribes have inclusive not exclusive nature •Thus, gaza exclusive—holy war ideology would have excluded Byzantines from joining Turks •If gaza ideology important to Ottomans they would not have: –Recruited Byzantines into their ranks –Fought against other Muslim forces –Exerted no pressure to convert or persecute Christians –Displayed religious moderation and an interest in conciliation –Allowed freedom for heterodoxy and pre-Islamic cults •The 1337 inscription may be produced later The evolution of Gaza •Incorporation of gazis poses challenge of control University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2 –The crisis of 1366 –Haji Ilbegi, former Karasi warrior, instrumental for the victory of 1371, killed by Murad •New army – the Janissaries (from slave background) •Creation of the post of Kadi asker •Appointment of uc bey (lord of the frontier) –Political elite no longer band of equal warriors –Many “accommodationist” gazis continued services on the Balkans … but in service of the Ottomans •The gaza spirit subject to a more orthodox interpretation •Autocracy triumphs over gaza in the middle of the 15 c. -Mehmed II refused to stand in front of Gazi music Impact of Ottoman Conquest on the Balkans •The “catastrophe” theory—Gandev –Demographic catastrophe, biological collapse of the nation •The “blessing” theory—Jirecek, Iorga –Peace and prosperity, liberation from feudal anarchy •The modern approach—Inalcik –Economic integrity of the conquered area preserved –Local taxation practices and production modes maintained –Labor services dues to feudal lords replaced with cash equivalent –Cizye levied at its pre-conquest levels—one golden piece –Orthodox function and structure preserved –“liberation”—only in a sense of eliminating unproductive labor—thus, more time to invest in own farm, to turn increased production into profit and to meet tax obligations Organization of the frontier •Case study—the sanjak of Nikopol (Ott. Niğbolu), 1516 –Four kazas—Lovetch, Tarnovo, Vratza, Nikopol –The serhad is in the kaza of Nikopol –Fortresses in the kaza—Nikopol, Holovnik, Svishtov, Gurgevo •Organization –80 Mustahfiz—sort of regular army, received timars (26) –441 Muslim households in Nikopol, 112 singles, 396 defenders of the city—1/3 newly converted –795 Christian households, 258 singles, 195 widows—302 hold all military (sailors, gunners, arbalests) and paramilitary positions in the citadels of Nikopol, Holovnik, Gurgevo –150 martolos (out of the 302)—similar to the akriti, militia used for raids and intelligence in enemy territory •Zevaid (reserve) troops –Lots of casualties, not only privileges—163 married, 91 singles, 40 widows registered with the captain of the Nikopol’s fleet –Often included in the raids—51 married, 29 singles, 24 widows •5000 Voynuks (in the villages), 1756 zevaid voynuks •2642 Filorecis University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2 •Frontier troops—recapitulation –forces of rapid reaction –completed of local people –Geared for surprise raids, retaliating actions –To hold an enemy army until the main corps—sipahi and janissaries on the second line arrive Changes in the frontier in the 16c. •Moving to central Europe •Belgrade new center of the serhad since 1521 –20,000 martolos called to restore the fortress –In 1529, 1000 azebi, 400 martoloses, 400 janissaries, 50 gunners –At the same time in Nikopol, 2758 zevaid voynuks and filorecis—half the number of 1516 •Since 1541—the frontier moves to Hungary (Buda) –13 fortresses, 6804 people •All on payroll •Not a single local person—all new comers from the Balkans •Regular troops •Mostly Muslim (27.5% new Muslims)—process of Islamization of Ottoman military power in the serhad Social Structure •Rigid, strictly defined—official permission needed to pass from one to another •The subjects (reaya—the flock) –Urban (craftsmen) and rural population (cultivators) •Urban subjects exempted from military service and some taxes •Migration to cities controlled—chift bozan resmi •Guild system –Merchants—Bursa, Cairo, Alexandria, Istanbul, Edirne, Salonica •favored by Turkic and Islamic tradition •Hostility on the part of the other subjects, especially guilds –Nomads—outside social structure, restricted •Taxes –Ispenche (25 akches), tithes, head-tax (jizye), extraordinary –Light labor duties (repair of roads, castles) •Privileged reaya (muaf) –Voynuks –The “sheep drovers” (celepkeshan)—well-to-do class •Sub-district of Sofia in 1555, 857 celeps x 41 sheep x 25-35 akches>1,000,000 akches –The guardians of the passes (derbendji) •Special status of bearing arms—sense of dignity •Exempted from extraordinary taxes –The vakif village dwellers—exempted from some taxes –Non-agricultural groups University of Ottawa Anton Minkov HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman Empire- Class 2 •Miners—large degree of self-government, fixed working hours, paid holidays, freed from most taxes •The Millet system-each religious community under the leadership of its own religious leader and clergy –The Church—part of state apparatus –The power of the patriarch in Constantinople extended over all orthodox Christian subjects of the state The Askeri Class •Sipahis—40,000 + 40,000 pages •Janissaries –Murad I- prisoners of war (penjik ogulari), Bayezid I-devshirme –Devshirme enforced on regular basis by Murad II, Mehmed II –12,789 (1568) •The palace –The harem –Chief eunuch –inner and outer service •Campaign chamber (seferli koushu) •Kitchen (kiler odasi) (100) •Treasury (hazine odasi) •Privy Chamber (hass oda) (40) The Devshirme Institution •Collection of non-Muslim boys from the countryside –Urban population, privileged reaya,
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