Florida International University FIU Digital Commons FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations University Graduate School 11-7-2005 Oman's foreign policy : foundations and practice Majid Al-Khalili Florida International University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd Part of the Other International and Area Studies Commons Recommended Citation Al-Khalili, Majid, "Oman's foreign policy : foundations and practice" (2005). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1045. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1045 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University Graduate School at FIU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of FIU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida OMAN'S FOREIGN POLICY: FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICE A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS by Majid Al-Khalili 2005 To: Interim Dean Mark Szuchman College of Arts and Sciences This dissertation, written by Majid Al-Khalili, and entitled Oman's Foreign Policy: Foundations and Practice, having been approved in respect to style and intellectual content, is referred to you for judgment. We have read this dissertation and recommend that it be approved. Dr. Nicholas Onuf Dr. Charles MacDonald Dr. Richard Olson Dr. 1Mohiaddin Mesbahi, Major Professor Date of Defense: November 7, 2005 The dissertation of Majid Al-Khalili is approved. Interim Dean Mark Szuchman C lege of Arts and Scenps Dean ouglas Wartzok University Graduate School Florida International University, 2005 ii @ Copyright 2005 by Majid Al-Khalili All rights reserved. iii DEDICATION I humbly dedicate this dissertation to my parents. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I could not have produced this dissertation alone. I would like to thank the committee members for their invaluable help and advice, especially Professor Olson for his constructive criticism; Professor Onuf for his kindness, encouragement and personal attention; Professor MacDonald for his seemingly limitless patience and infectious positive attitude; and most especially, Professor Mesbahi for being my mentor and guide over the course of my studies-you were generous with your time and insights, and for these, as well as the countless discussions that have greatly expanded my knowledge-I am eternally grateful. I would also like to thank Jane MacDonald and Paola Roy for proofreading my work; the Dissertation Year Fellowship, without which this dissertation would not have been possible; as well as the Department of International Relations at FIU-I am truly grateful for the outstanding opportunities that I have enjoyed here. Good friends also have encouraged and supported me in my efforts these last few years. Thank you, Alla Mirzoyan-if not for your intelligent and practical advice, this dissertation would never have progressed as quickly as it has. I am inspired by your strength, energy and positive attitude. Thank you, Alex Barder for sufficiently diverting my attention away from the difficult task at hand with your interesting discussions in political theory. Thank you, Fabian Romero for prodding me along with your quick wit and good humor. Your solid advice, too, has served me well. Thank you, Serge Akl for challenging all of my assumptions during those long hours at the blue tables. Thank you, Andy Correa for the steaks and the good times. Thank you, Ronald, Uri and Emily for the coffee breaks. Thank you, Cecilia Novella for your gentle and patient companionship. v Many thanks to my three angels Kathy, Mary, and Martha. Finally, thank you Darwish Kaiyal for being my friend. vi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OMAN'S FOREIGN POLICY: FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICE by Majid Al-Khalili Florida International University, 2005 Miami, Florida Professor Mohiaddin Mesbahi, Major Professor The object of this dissertation is to record and analyze the foreign policy of the Sultanate of Oman from the early twentieth century until 2004. It challenges the central assumption of the contemporary scholarship on the subject that Muscat's modem foreign policy begins in 1970. It is often presumed that the pre-1970 era does not merit a thorough investigation to understand Muscat's modus operandi today. This study argues that for a comprehensive understanding of Muscat's foreign policy since 1970, the frontier of the historical analysis of Oman's regional and international involvement should be pushed back to the 1930's, when the young Sultan Said assumed power over the country divided by the "Treaty" or the "Agreement" of Sib. Indeed, the thrust of this research lies at once in repudiating the conventional wisdom regarding both the persona of Sultan Said and the customary political/historical narrative of Said's reign. The critical analysis of this period is utilized to rebut the pervasive and largely inaccurate historical narrative of the events prior to 1970, to recount an original interpretation of the period, and to use the narrative as a preamble for subsequent foreign policy directions and initiatives. Furthermore, this dissertation covers the gaps in the literature resulting from the absence of any materials that either record or analyze Muscat's foreign policy from vii 1996 until 2004. In addition, his study provides new information and a fresh analysis of the international relations of the region, including great power rivalry, especially the competition between the United States and Great Britain, and the attitudes of major regional actors, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. The use of a thorough historical inquiry is vital to support the central claim of this dissertation; therefore, a large section of this dissertation is based almost exclusively on archival materials collected from the British Public Records Office, the University of Oxford and the Library of Congress. This project represents the most comprehensive use of archival materials on the subject matter to date. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. IN TR O D U C T IO N ...... ... ............................................ ...................................... 1 Approach to Analysis..............................................3 II. THE LEGACY OF HISTORY ................................................................................ 4 The Geography of Oman ......................................................................................... 4 Oman and Ibadism...................................................................................................8 The Arrival of the Portuguese (1507-1650)..........................................................14 The Rise of the Sultanate: Ahmad ibn Said Al-Bu Said (1744-1783)..................16 Imam Sultan Ibin Ahmad (1792-1804).................................................................17 Sultan Said bin Sultan (1806-1856)......................................................................20 The Death of Sultan Said and the Return of the Imamate ..................................... 21 III. THE REIGN OF SULTAN SAID ......................................................................... 24 Revisiting the Reign of Sultan Said.......................................................................24 The 1950's Crisis ................................................................................................... 40 British Objectives and Muscat's Policies .............................................................. 64 Muscat between the Arab League and the United Nations....................................70 The Dhofar Rebellion and the End of Said's Reign ............................................ 107 IV. OMAN'S FOREIGN POLICY (1970-1989) ...................................................... 126 The Sultanate of Oman: Old and New Challenges .............................................. 126 The End of Dhofar's Rebellion............................................................................143 The Sultanate's Strategic and Security Conceptions ........................................... 157 The Sultanate of Oman, the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan .............................................................................................. 165 The Sultanate of Oman and the Gulf Cooperation Council.................................175 V. OMAN'S FOREIGN POLICY (1990-2004) ...................................................... 185 Muscat and the Gulf War (1990-1991) ............................................................... 185 Muscat and Regional Security ............................................................................. 187 Muscat's Policy Toward Iran and Iraq in the 1990's...........................................195 Muscat and Yemen .............................................................................................. 224 The Sultanate of Oman and the Arab-Israeli Conflict ......................................... 230 Muscat, Washington and the Persian Gulf...........................................................241 The Sultanate of Oman and September 11 ................................... ....... 247 V I. C O N C LU SIO N .................................................................................................... 268 ix BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................278 APPENDICES ......................................................................