Making it Happen ii

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen © Centre for Alternative Technology, 2017

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Publisher: Allan Shepherd Editors: Catriona Toms, Alice Hooker-Stroud, Allan Shepherd Proof-reading: Hele Oakley Typesetting and design: Annika Faircloth Illustrations: John Urry

Published by CAT Publications, CAT Charity Ltd. Registered charity no. 265239.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen iii

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Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen iv Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

There are a large number of individuals For their time and expertise to review drafts and organisations who contributed of the report: to this report and CAT is extremely grateful for their help and support. Alex Randall Climate Outreach The report does not necessarily reflect Alexa Spence University of Nottingham their views and any mistakes are Andy Rowell Spinwatch entirely the responsibility of the report Becky Clissman UK Environmental Law Association research team. Becky Willis Green Alliance and University of Lancaster Many thanks to all the following Brenda Boardman Oxford University Centre for individuals and organisations in the Environment alphabetical order by first name. Catherine Butler University of Exeter and British Sociological Association For their contribution of specific pieces that Charlie Wilson University of East Anglia are included or linked to in the report: Christopher Blake Renew Wales Duncan Williamson WWF UK Andrew Simms New Weather Institute Emma Bridge Community Energy England Katharine Knox Joseph Rowntree Foundation Geoff Tansy Food Systems Academy Lucy Neal Theatre maker George Marshall Climate Outreach Oliver Johnson Environmental Industries Commission Godfrey Boyle Open University Sarah Woods Playwright Harriet Bulkeley Durham University Steve Shelley Hertfordshire Business School Helen Grimshaw URBED Tom Crompton Common Cause Foundation Ian Bartle Ian Taylor Transport for Quality of Life For their time to be interviewed for the Jaise Kuriakose Tyndall Centre Stories for Change or the Case Studies: Jane Hindley University of Essex Jenny Hawley Friends of the Earth Agamemnon Otero Repowering London John Barry Queen’s University of Belfast and Anne Meikle WWF Wales Political Studies Association Anna Joyce Flower Pod John Christophers Zero Carbon House architect Arno Schmickler Energiesprong UK John Wiseman University of Melbourne Chris Blake The Green Valleys CIC and TGV Hydro Joseph Milne Temenos Academy Ruben Pastor-Vicedo Robin Hood Energy Karen O’ Brien University of Oslo Sheridan Piggott York Bike Belles Laura Wellesley Chatham House Simon Dale Nottingham City Council Laurence Delina University of NSW Veronica Burke Bread Matters Linda Sygna University of Oslo

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen v Acknowledgements

Lucy Delap University of Cambridge and History Thanks to CAT students Adam Harper and and Policy Richard Couldrey for organising an Open Space event, Lucy Neal Theatre maker Nick Nuttgens for facilitating, and all the participants who contributed. Also thanks to Marianne Heaslip URBED Sarah Warren and all the CAT students who Mike Childs Friends of the Earth volunteered their help with the project. Naresh Giangrande Transition Network

Neil Gavin University of Liverpool and Media For their permission to use images in the Communications & Cultural Studies report: Association

Ralph Underhill PIRC Barilla Centre; Influence Map; ShareAction; Richard Huzzey University of Durham and History Cambridge Carbon Footprint; Urbed/Carbon Co-op; and Policy Daniel Schoenen Ruth Stevenson CAT Sarah Woods Playwright We would also like to thank the following staff Steph Robinson CAT and friends of CAT for reviewing earlier drafts Stuart Capstick University of Cardiff of the report: Sue Dibb Eating Better Adam Harper; Chloe Ward; Christina French; Tamasin Cave Spinwatch Deirdre Raffan; Frances Hill; Jane Fisher; Kit Jones; Tim Valentine CAT Sam Christie; Steph Robinson; Tammi Dallaston; Tom Crompton Common Cause Foundation Tom Barker

For their help with queries and Thanks to Alice Hooker-Stroud, Catriona Toms and other information: Allan Shepherd for editing the report, Hele Oakley for proofreading, John Urry for illustrations, and Annika Alexandra Runswick Unlock Democracy Faircloth for images and layout. Barbara Jones/Clair Walker Straw Works Ltd David Clasby Sustrans Eamon Lally Local Government Association James Greyson Blindspot Jim Seymour Derbyshire County Council Lauren Rickards University of Melbourne Linda Farrow UK Environmental Law Association Shashi Vandegraaff Political Studies Association Tamasin Cave Spinwatch Leo Murray A Free Ride

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen vi Acknowledgements

Report research team and authors:

Paul Allen – Project Coordinator Holding an Honours degree in Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Paul joined CAT in 1988. He assisted in the development and production of a wide range of renewable energy systems and helped develop CAT’s spin-off engineering company, Dulas Ltd. He is currently CAT External Relations Officer and ZCB Project Co-ordinator. Paul has also been a member of the Wales Science Advisory Council (2010), board member of the International Forum for Sustainable Energy (2008) and a Climate Change Commissioner for Wales (2007).

Laura Blake – Food and Diets Researcher Laura has an undergraduate degree in Nutrition and an MSc in Food Security. During her studies she covered topics such as public health, agriculture, climate change and food governance. She researched obesity and developing countries (the nutrition transition) and the interactions among global human population, livestock production systems and sustainability. She believes that food issues should be tackled holistically – addressing health requirements, social justice issues and environmental sustainability together.

Lisa Hopkinson - Researcher Lisa is an environmental and sustainability researcher with over 25 years’ experience in the environmental field in the charitable, educational and private sectors. She has published reports on a wide range of issues including sustainable transport, energy in buildings, air pollution and biodiversity. She was formerly head of research for Hong Kong public policy think tank Civic Exchange, has provided support on environmental matters to UK universities, and managed a behavioural change project.

Philip James – Researcher Having completed a doctorate studying strategies for low and zero carbon homes, Philip was keen to get involved in research looking at the energy system as a whole. He is interested in the ways we can reduce our and make it more flexible, and is working to understand how we can match demand with a decarbonised energy supply.

Martin Kemp Sustainable Economics Researcher. Martin completed his masters degree at CAT’s Graduate School of the Environment before going on to help develop a distance learning MSc for CAT; he also coordinated the second Zero Carbon Britain report. He is now an independent sustainability advisor working with the European Institute of Technology amongst others.

Helen Atkins – Research volunteer Over the last 15 years Helen has worked and volunteered for dozens of local and global charities, NGOs and government advisory groups. Her research focuses on human rights issues, particularly the prevention of violence against women, commercial sexual exploitation, and developing holistic support services. She has held criminological Research Fellowships at the LSE and South Bank University, and has a Law degree from the University of Cambridge. Helen was named one of ‘Britain’s Everyday Heroes’ in Gordon Brown’s inaugural book as Prime Minister.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen vii Acknowledgements

Sarah Woods – Stories for Change researcher Sarah is a campaigner and playwright, creating participatory performances, films and events in collaboration with communities, campaigns, specialists and arts organisations. Sarah’s plays have been produced by many UK companies including The Soho Theatre, Hampstead Theatre, the RSC, BBC TV and radio, many regional theatres and touring companies. Her campaign work includes The Co-operative Group’s Frack Free UK campaign, the Fabian Society’s Commission on Food and Poverty, and the Ashden Trust’s VISIONING LONDON project. Sarah also teaches at Manchester University and is a Wales Green Hero.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen vi Foreword

Foreword

limate change is here. Not only was 2016 another of the hottest C years on record, but increasing incidents of extreme weather, instability in farming around the world and erosion of habitat for many species are now being linked to human-induced changes to our climate. We know that to avoid runaway climate change, with its devastating impacts on humanity and the natural world, we need to take urgent action to decarbonise our society. The UN climate agreement in Paris in December 2015 marked a major step forward as global leaders recognised that rapid reductions in carbon emissions are needed to keep global temperature rises below the crucial 1.5 to 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels. Adrian Ramsay The green movement is now quite rightly focused on how we ensure that Chief Executive, this is delivered at all levels. Centre for Alternative Technology Back in 2007, CAT’s Zero Carbon Britain (ZCB) project was launched as a January 2017 response to the huge gap between the ‘politically thinkable’ decarbonisation options on the table and the rate of change that the climate science actually demands of humanity. We could not find any research outlining a fast enough carbon reduction plan, integrating energy, buildings, food and land-use emissions. So we were compelled to develop a scenario to bridge the gap, getting us to zero emissions in around 20 years.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen vii Foreword

For 10 years now, CAT has been with examples of local initiatives that undertaking increasingly detailed are showcasing new ways forward. research showing that we have the We hope it will help open new technology needed to rise to the climate conversations, forge new connections challenge. This research remains an and encourage others to carry out important tool for campaigners and further research and spread good policymakers needing to showcase how practice. we can overcome the perceived technical Our research uncovered an exciting barriers to change. spectrum of innovative projects and Following the Paris climate ideas from individuals, communities, agreement, however, there is increasing organisations and municipal authorities acceptance that we can and must move around the country. By showcasing towards a zero carbon future. The these examples, and by supporting more challenge is increasingly around how communities to make a difference, we this change is delivered. Rather than can create a sense of collective purpose an unresolved technical challenge, it is that will be an extremely powerful now widely accepted that we face a mix tool as we work to scale up this good of economic, cultural and psychological practice and build a zero carbon future. barriers. But, once again, we could not We have the tools to rise to the find any unified piece of research that climate challenge and create a worked across different disciplines and healthier and happier society. This at a range of levels to explore how we requires concerted effort across all overcome the various barriers, and to sectors and involves people working show the co-benefits and synergies of for change at all levels: as individuals, building a zero carbon future. in communities, at workplaces and Zero Carbon Britain: Making it through local and national government. Happen is our response to that gap. It At CAT, working with the wider green links up emerging findings across a movement, we will provide education wide range of rapidly developing fields, and inspiration to help catalyse the bringing together academic research change.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen viii Contents

Contents

How to use this interactive PDF...... iii 4. Where we are now: four key sectors...... 38 Acknowledgements...... iv 4.1 Food...... 38 Foreword...... vi 4.2 Transport ...... 44 Contents...... viii 4.3 Buildings ...... 49 Executive summary...... 1 4.4 Energy ...... 50 1. Introduction...... 10 5. What needs to change?...... 55 1.1 Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen – 5.1 Food ...... 55 the story of the report ...... 10 5.2 Transport ...... 60 1.2 What is the Centre for 5.3 Buildings ...... 61 Alternative Technology? ...... 11 5.4 Energy ...... 64 1.3 What is the Zero Carbon Britain project? ...... 12 6. Barriers to change...... 67

2: Postcards from the future...... 15 6.1 Worldviews and values ...... 67 2.1 Food...... 16 6.2 Communications ...... 71 2.2 Transport...... 17 6.3 Psychology and behaviour ...... 80 2.3 Buildings ...... 18 6.4 Carbon lock-in ...... 85 2.4 Energy ...... 19 6.5 Economics and finan e ...... 95 3. Where we are now: 6.6 Politics and governance ...... 120 our changing climate...... 21 7. Making it happen...... 141 3.1 Why we need zero carbon...... 21 7.1 Worldviews and values ...... 142 3.2 UK progress towards 7.2 Communications ...... 164 zero carbon...... 24 7.3 Psychology and behaviour ...... 173 3.3 The impacts of climate change and inequalities...... 26 7.4 Overcoming carbon lock-in ...... 181

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen ix Contents

7.5 Economics and finan e ...... 203 7.6 Politics and governance ...... 232

8. Conclusions...... 262 Changing worldviews and values ...... 263 Communication ...... 263 Psychology and behaviour ...... 264 Overcoming carbon lock-in ...... 264 Economics and finan e ...... 265 Politics and governance ...... 266 Final thoughts ...... 267

Index...... 269

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen x Contents

Expert Viev

Katharene Knox: Poverty and climate change – finding solutions...... 32

Andrew Simms: Neo-liberalism? We’re just not like that and we can make it happen...... 105

Paul Allen: The power of history to shift worldviews...... 144

Tom Crompton: Values matter...... 145

Lucy Neal: The Great Imagining: how the arts spark cultural change...... 161

Stories for Change

Veronica Burke, Co-creator, Bread Matters...... 58

Sheridan Piggott, Founder of York Bike Belles...... 91

Arno Schmickler, Programme Director of Energiesprong UK...... 135

Anna Joyce, Project Manager of Flower Pod ...... 184

Chris Blake, Founding director of The Green Valleys Community Interest Company and TGV Hydro...... 223

Agamemnon Otero, Chief Executive Officer of Repowering London...... 252

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 1 Executive Summary

Executive summary

n signing up to the historic Paris Where we are now climate change agreement, the UK I has accepted that it must enshrine Understanding where we are today is in law a goal of reducing its carbon a vital step in exploring what needs to emissions to zero. The UK is also legally change, and how that can be brought committed by its own 2008 Climate about. Change Act to delivering an 80% cut in emissions by 2050. Yet, even based he situation today is a long way on emissions within its borders, not from where we need to be. counting those associated with imports, T Most of the UK’s electricity the UK is not on track to meet this is generated from fossil fuels and the target, let alone reach zero carbon. UK is not on track to meet its target of There is an urgent need to increase generating 15% energy from renewables ambition on delivery. by 2020. The energy system is highly CAT’s previous Zero Carbon Britain centralised and dominated by a small (ZCB) reports, plus a range of other number of large companies, while work, clearly demonstrate that we have community energy schemes supply less all the technologies needed to reach net than 1% of electricity. zero carbon. Rather than an unresolved Most people in the UK are eating too technical challenge, it is increasingly much animal protein and processed accepted that we must overcome a mix foods and not enough fruit and of political, cultural and psychological vegetables. Obesity levels are on the barriers. This report investigates how rise and a huge amount of food is being we can overcome them, linking up wasted. insights from research with examples There is growing car dependency, and stories from individuals and through choice or necessity, while organisations that are living the public transport services are being changes we need to see. cut back. Electric vehicles are still a This report doesn’t claim to provide small percentage of the overall fleet. all the answers – there is a clear need There has been a dramatic growth for more detailed and better resourced in air travel, due to a relatively small work, further linking research and proportion of richer frequent flyers. practice across disciplines, borders, The UK has an ageing and poorly sectors and scales. insulated building stock, with over 2 million households in fuel poverty.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 2 Executive Summary

Inequality in the impacts The barriers to change of climate change Exploring the wider barriers helps us limate change affects everyone, grasp the multifaceted nature of this but some people suffer more challenge. C than others. It reinforces and exacerbates existing patterns of Worldviews and values: Climate change inequality, particularly in developing is not the root problem but a symptom countries. In the UK, worsening storms, of our materialistic culture and growing flooding and heatwaves particularly disconnection from nature and from impact disabled people, children each other. The belief that we are and older people, as well as deprived separate from, or even somehow ‘above’ communities. The UK contributes to nature, allows continued inaction, global climate change impacts through even when there is clear evidence that its domestic emissions plus those our actions are deeply damaging the associated with imported goods and its habitats of other humans and other high carbon investments overseas. species. Our values have a profound effect on our behaviour. As long as What needs to change? values based on image, wealth and status appear to dominate society, here needs to be a significant people will struggle to act on more increase in installed renewable helpful values, such as honesty, social T capacity for electricity and heat. justice and equality. We must increase the amount of plant- based food and reduce the amount Communications: The prevailing of meat, especially beef and lamb, as silence on climate change across well as dairy in our diets. We must the media and in public dialogues significantly reduce the need to drive undermines levels of public awareness or fly by improving public transport, and action. There is significant increasing levels of walking and cycling, media bias, with views of marginal and providing disincentives to drive or climate sceptics given inappropriate fly. All vehicles need to be run on 100% prominence. There is also undue stress renewable energy. on the uncertainty of climate science, New houses need to be built driven through well-funded campaigns to zero-carbon standard and use by industry. Corporate or political low-carbon materials for construction, affiliations can lead to media bias, often while existing buildings need to be because of dependence on advertising retrofitted to significantly reduceenergy revenue. Highly concentrated media demand. All of these changes can result ownership gives a few individuals a in significant social, economic and disproportionate influence on public environmental benefits. opinion. Commercial advertising

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 3 Executive Summary

promotes values that are counter to projects face difficulties in scaling up concern and action on climate. People or spreading ideas into the mainstream. are often unaware of the subliminal Small groups often lack the necessary effects of advertising, and children financial resources, time or skills, – often targeted by advertisers – are making them vulnerable to external especially vulnerable. shocks and problems of fatigue and burnout. Psychology and behaviour: There In many cases there are practical are numerous psychological barriers barriers that make alternatives less preventing people thinking about or convenient or attractive, such as the acting on climate change, even when hassle factor of building retrofits. Local they have high levels of concern about councils are responsible for local policy the issue. Many people fail to take and delivery of planning, housing, responsibility because of feelings of transport and waste but have seen powerlessness or scepticism about the budget cuts that undermine action in efficacy of individual action. In some these key areas. The planning system cases there may be a lack of knowledge has been constantly devalued and local or information about what to do. People planning powers removed. are heavily influenced by others and observed social norms, so will be Economics and finance: The continued reluctant to act if no one else does. belief in the ideology of neo-liberalism, There may also be a lack of urgency deregulation and free markets because climate change is not seen as undermines society’s ability to deal a personal threat or because it’s not with climate change. The systematic recognised as a moral wrong. Many privatisation and contraction of the of the behaviours that need to change public sphere favours returns to are also habitual behaviours that are shareholders over environmental hard to change. There has been undue responsibilities, and means the focus on uncontroversial individual necessary funds are not available behaviour change and not enough for investment in the zero carbon emphasis on more radical action and transition. There is an urgent need for a tackling barriers at social, industrial level playing field for low or zero carbon and governmental levels. alternatives. Fossil fuels receive billions of pounds in subsidies, far higher than Carbon lock-in: Industrialised those given to renewables, and the full economies have become dependent on external costs of fossil fuels are not fossil fuel systems over many years, included in the price, making them developing significant system inertia appear cheaper. that is hugely resistant to change. Higher upfront costs of super- While innovation at the local level can efficient buildings or electric vehicles break through this inertia, many local also impede uptake despite lower

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 4 Executive Summary

whole-life costs than conventional obstacle, with both commitment and alternatives. The government has an cross-party unity on climate change interest in supporting national fossil diminished over recent years. Public fuel production due to the contribution spending cuts have undermined green of revenues to government budgets. investments, while fossil fuel tax breaks There is an investment gap for have increased. renewables, with traditional methods Even when politicians are aware that of financing tending to favour large climate change is urgent and important centralised projects. they may still fail to act because There is a pervasive but mistaken of factors including; undue faith in assumption in society that perpetual future technical solutions, education growth within our finite ecosystem is in neoclassical economics, ‘tendency synonymous with improved well-being for group think’ and a need to avoid and is sustainable and desirable. Also blame. In recent years the government the problems with using GDP as a has shifted away from legislation measure of progress and quality of towards self-regulation and voluntary life have long been recognised by approaches, and has withdrawn or economists and others. repealed key laws and policy, such as the legislation for zero carbon homes. Politics and governance: Changing Many of the remaining policies have systems like energy or food is a shortcomings. The Climate Change Act political power struggle with risks has loopholes that prevent emissions including confronting powerful from the power sector being included vested interests and implementing in carbon budgets, and there is a lack of policies perceived as unpopular. Just accountability for meeting its targets. 90 private and state owned companies It is also difficult for citizens and NGOs are responsible for nearly two-thirds to bring legal cases against polluting of historical cumulative emissions of firms. The changes proposed to Judicial carbon dioxide. Fossil fuel and other Review, an important check and balance high carbon industries successfully on government action, will make it lobby governments to weaken climate extremely difficult for charities to seek legislation and policy, a phenomenon this legal remedy. known as regulatory capture. Current lobbying laws fail to meet international Making it happen principles on transparency and weaken checks on corporate influence. Based on our assessment of the There is also a problem of ‘revolving barriers, we offer a synthesis overview doors’ where politicians and civil of the broad range of current research servants move backwards and forwards and practice demonstrating how these to and from industry. Lack of collective can be overcome. There is no single political will for action is a fundamental approach that guarantees success,

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 5 Executive Summary

but a combination of interventions in The arts have long been a powerful different ways can leverage change. catalyst in transforming worldviews and sparking cultural change, allowing Worldviews and values: The importance imaginations to flourish, glimpsing of feeling connected to nature is a other ways of seeing and feeling. It is long recognised way of fostering from these experiences that different pro-ecological behaviour. Helping futures can emerge. The arts have the people understand that their well-being ability to engage people collectively and is interlinked with the protection of to challenge the status quo. the natural world has been shown to foster more sustainable behaviour Communication: The current as well as leading to higher levels of concentration of UK media ownership health and well-being. Promoting more needs to be addressed through compassionate values is important, so regulation with clear thresholds in law. that these values become strengthened This requires a wide public campaign across society. to build the necessary political support. Reducing the focus on consumption While media misinformation sticks needs to be recognised as a positive shift and is often hard to correct, it can that increases well-being. Measures and should be challenged head-on that can help this include reducing the by climate scientists and activists. working week as a way to break the cycle With limited resources the climate of working to spend, and promotion of movement can use clever and engaging the sharing economy, which enables online communications to counter products and services to be given or misinformation and greenwash. exchanged. On the production side, the Given the pervasive and detrimental circular economy designs out waste in a nature of advertising there is a clear closed loop system. need to better regulate the industry, The main global religions now banning advertising in public spaces show increasing unity around climate and restricting advertising to children. change, with many promoting less Many other countries have introduced materialistic lifestyles and engaging on such restrictions, and it is likely that climate both practically and politically. there would be public support for Outside of organised religion, many this in the UK. The creative power of people now seek spiritual experience the marketing industry can also be that provides meaning in their lives. harnessed in ways that support the zero Some practices, such as meditation and carbon transition. mindfulness, have been shown to foster The prevailing climate silence greater compassion for others and more can be broken using stories that sustainable behaviour. Spiritual practice are more engaging and memorable is also being successfully combined with than information alone, backed by both social and political change. positive images that can have a strong

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 6 Executive Summary

mobilising effect. Communication social action and tackle more damaging that highlights the positive benefits behaviours. The challenge of breaking of mitigation is more effective in ingrained habitual behaviour can be promoting action than fear driven addressed during transition periods, appeals. The use of low-cost accessible such as moving house or changing jobs, social media can enable rapid when habits are disrupted and people communication with a global audience are more open to change. and can be used to mobilise large numbers of people very quickly, as well Carbon lock-in: Thousands of as driving news traffic. community groups across the UK are developing practical, positive examples Psychology and behaviour change: of the zero carbon transition, ranging Positive stories of what can be from waste food cafés to community practically achieved can help counter energy schemes. While many of these feelings of helplessness, demonstrate community-scale projects are small, that other people care, and show that they empower and connect people, help the actions of both individuals and expand the political choices available, communities do make a difference. The give people a sense of agency and help influence of social norms related to how normalise sustainable behaviours. The others behave and what people believe role of intermediary organisations that others expect of them can be harnessed connect and support grassroots projects to encourage more sustainable is very important in helping to scale behaviour. High profile individuals can up and replicate ideas. Government also help normalise new behaviours. support is needed for community action The lack of urgency on climate on carbon in the form of a long-term change can be addressed by making strategy and the provision of necessary the issue more immediate, for example, resources. by emphasising the impacts of severe Making zero carbon alternatives weather. Care is needed, however, to more convenient and attractive is avoid overwhelming people or inducing essential. For example, by making guilt. Engagement can also be increased walking and cycling safer with the by framing climate change as a moral provision of off-road, segregated wrong that needs to be put right, and paths and reduced traffic speeds, or linking action to positive emotions, combining energy works with general such as hope, pride and gratitude. home repairs, maintenance and Behavioural change can be more improvements. closely linked to the wider structural Rethinking planning can help reduce changes needed in society, industry car dependency through measures, such and government. Better programme as an increase in car-free developments, design and targeting can improve higher minimum densities for housing outcomes and can be used to influence and tighter parking provision. There

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 7 Executive Summary

is also a need to restore the rights of citizen finance can assist in providing councils to set higher energy standards investment for zero carbon measures, for local developments. such as renewable energy generation, Local authorities play a key role retrofitting buildings and sustainable in reaching carbon targets. Despite transport infrastructure and services. funding pressures, many UK authorities Low and zero interest ‘pay as you save’ have developed innovative low carbon loans could be provided for energy solutions, and councils can make efficiency measures using successful significant savings from energy examples from around the world to efficiency and earn revenue from remodel the failed Green Deal. renewable energy schemes. Cities New business and ownership models are in an ideal position to catalyse can prioritise environmental and social wider climate action, with higher benefits as much as economic returns; urban densities enabling innovative these include energy co-operatives, approaches. Several world cities plan to social enterprises, new energy supply be carbon neutral within the next ten models, municipally owned companies, years. community and public ownership. There is enormous scope for more Economics and finance: Moving community and public ownership, on from the prevailing and particularly in energy supply and demonstrably failed economic model distribution. This can be achieved by of neo-liberalism with its emphasis strengthening policies that encourage on free markets can facilitate a more community energy projects and through co-operative, fair, enriching, resilient new legislation. and sustainable economic system. Taking assets like the railways or Backed by a shift from a narrow focus national grid back into public ownership on economic growth and GDP, t h i s could ensure that the necessary could transform how society sets out its improvements take place and profits are goals and evaluates progress towards reinvested for the public good rather them. than being distributed to shareholders. Removing the massive subsidies currently given to fossil fuels and Politics and governance: Political action making all energy choices pay their requires increasing the visibility of full societal or environmental costs climate change amongst voters, whilst will help level the playing field for zero providing clear evidence that workable carbon alternatives. This could manifest solutions already exist gives politicians in the form of a carbon tax for fossil no place to hide. Powerful vested fuels, congestion charging, workplace interests and their undue influence parking schemes, taxes on unhealthy on the regulatory process can be foods and a levy on frequent flyers. challenged through shareholder action Local and municipal banks and and divestment campaigns, as well as

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 8 Executive Summary

by increased transparency. The current There also needs to be a better law on transparency of lobbying can system of accountability at all levels. be amended to satisfy international New laws can protect the planet principles of transparency. Rules to and future generations, such as an prevent the problem of ‘revolving international law on ecocide. In Wales, a doors’ must be tightened. groundbreaking new law requires public Mass social movements based on bodies to consider the well-being of coalitions of a broad range of groups future generations in decision-making. will be needed to drive political support Legal access for NGOs and citizens to as individual issue groups are not challenge public policy also needs to be strong enough on their own. Forging improved. a sense of collective identity and finding common values is vital. While Conclusions traditional insider advocacy approaches are valuable, disruptive forms of protest etting to zero carbon will are also needed. Throughout history require radical system change. radical voices have challenged and G All the necessary technologies helped overturn systems of injustice already exist, improvements are and helped shift the window of political appearing all the time and costs are possibility. falling. However, our hesitation to Cross-party political support believe that this transition is possible for both policy and action can be is, in itself, one of the key barriers to built by framing communications achieving that shift. appropriately and by the use of trusted History shows that radical social communicators. Submissions to and technological changes are possible, Parliamentary Select Committees or and can happen within a few years. direct communication with MPs and This transition should not be seen local councillors help build support. as burdensome or a return to the Political risk can also be reduced by past, but as one of the most exciting directly linking climate policies with opportunities in human history. complementary policies, such as health. Isolated, stressful, consumer-focused New and strengthened legislation lifestyles can be replaced by a sense of and policy frameworks are needed. connection with community and nature, Despite government preference for delivering benefits in physical health deregulation or self-regulation, most and psychological well-being. voluntary approaches have performed The overarching headline is that we poorly. The Climate Change Act must need to do this together. It will take be amended to deliver the net zero many of us pulling in the same direction emissions target and to close existing to enable change, and each and every loopholes that exclude emissions from one of our actions can contribute to the power sector. making a zero carbon future happen.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 9 Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1:

Introduction

1.1 Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen – the story of the report...... 10

1.2 What is the Centre for Alternative Technology? ...... 11

1.3 What is the Zero Carbon Britain project? ...... 12

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 10 Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Introduction

that shape our lives exist on many different levels. Tackling such a complex global challenge requires a new kind of approach which joins up research and practice across disciplines, borders, sectors and scales. This new report Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen is CAT’s response to this challenge. It is based on a broad literature review of insights into what is stopping us getting to zero carbon from peer-reviewed journals, as well as books, reports, articles and other sources. The research looked at findings from psychology, sociology, geography, political science, economics and other social sciences, as well as faith and spiritual practice, arts and culture. Paul Allen We have developed dialogues with researchers working in these fields to Project Coordinator, ensure our findings are supported by Zero Carbon Britain good evidence. We have also included input from individuals and organisations that have managed to overcome specific 1.1 Zero Carbon Britain: barriers in innovative ways. Making it Happen – The research team also explored specific issues affecting the four key the story of the report sectors of our Zero Carbon Britain (ZCB) research that we know need to any robust scenarios from be changed: food, transport, buildings across the globe now and energy. However, many barriers M clearly demonstrate that are common to all sectors, or bigger the technologies to reach net zero than any single sector, and can only greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions be tackled at societal level. We have already exist. Yet, changing how therefore presented our findings in millions of people live is a rather terms of cross-cutting barriers and special kind of problem – the forces solutions.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 11 Chapter 1: Introduction

Inevitably, the research has drawn larger-scale. on an extremely wide-ranging and Established over 40 years ago as often complex body of evidence-based an experiment in sustainable living, research in an attempt to uncover the CAT Charity is now known throughout most effective solutions. This report the world as a centre of excellence for is intended as a tool for all those environmental education, with a wide working for a sustainable future and range of short courses, postgraduate seeks to provide an impetus for others degrees and a strong educational interested in pursuing the research programme supporting schools and further. Ultimately this important and colleges in delivering sustainability far-reaching investigation requires education. In-depth information a great deal more resources, plus is available on a wide variety of much wider collaboration across all topics, including green building and disciplines and at all levels. architecture, renewable energy and sustainable land management. The 1.2 What is the Centre for on-site educational experience is Alternative Technology? supported through a visitor centre with a range of educational displays, he Centre for Alternative membership department, green Technology (CAT) helps people accommodation, conferencing, retail T to live well on a finite planet, and catering. from individuals changing their habits Zero Carbon Britain is CAT’s flagship to politicians making decisions on a research programme.

The Centre for Alternative Technology

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 12 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.3 What is the Zero Carbon research. For almost a decade, the ZCB Britain project? team has been engaging with a wide spectrum of society, from faith-groups, ince its inception in 2007, CAT’s local environmental groups, climate Zero Carbon Britain (ZCB) project activists and community groups to S has set out to offer the hard data MPs, Welsh Assembly Members, policy and confidence required for visualising organisations, NGOs, think tanks, a future where we have risen to the international networks and the UN COP demands of climate science; to remove process itself. fear and misunderstandings and Today zero carbon is becoming a open new positive, solution-focused much more commonly accepted goal. conversations. CAT’s work to date has played an Following the UN climate agreement important part not only in raising the in Paris in December 2015 (COP21), profile of ‘zero’ but also in increasing there is clear recognition that long confidence that it is deliverable. industrialised countries such as the UK must now legislate and plan for zero emissions. An Alternative Energy Strategy The range of ZCB reports produced for the UK (1977) since 2007 clearly demonstrate that we can reach net zero emissions Sixteen copies of using only existing technology, and CAT’s ‘Alternative that such a transition offers many Energy Strategy positive co-benefits for society, the for the UK’ were environment and the economy. Through delivered to Tony Benn’s Ministry of researching and communicating this Energy in 1977. This work, CAT aims to stimulate economic was poles apart from and political debate around achieving the official UK en gy zero emissions, engage the research strategy of the time. community and get society thinking in Energy planners expected demand to a new way to help build consensus on grow year-on-year, as it had done since action. the Second World War, fuelled by as yet It is now almost ten years since untapped North Sea oil and the promise CAT’s first ZCB report was launched in of nuclear power, which was going Parliament. Pro-active communication to be “so cheap it wouldn’t be worth has been as important as undertaking metering.” This innovative report showed for the very first time th t an alternative approach could reduce energy demand whilst radically increasing generation from renewable sources.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 13 Chapter 1: Introduction

Zero Carbon Britain: An Alternative exploring food, energy and, in particular, Energy Strategy (2007) carbon capture through changing land use, considered integral to reaching net By the opening of zero carbon emissions. the 21st century, the importance Zero Carbon Britain: of taking action Rethinking the Future (2013) to deal with the climate CAT’s third ZCB challenge had report addressed grown ever more concerns about urgent. However, ‘keeping the lights the UK officia on’ under a variable target (60% reduction of greenhouse renewable energy gas emissions by 2050) fell far short supply, using of what science was demanding and detailed hourly there were no major scenarios that modelling of the explored a suffici tly rapid transition. UK energy system CAT’s first CB report offered a scenario based on ten years of weather data to outlining a pathway to zero emissions simulate energy supply and demand. It over two decades utilising only proven also offered much deeper analysis on diets technologies via a dual process of and land-use, modelling low and minimal ‘powering down’ energy demand, whilst carbon diets. ‘powering up’ renewable energy supplies. Who’s Getting Ready for Zero? Zero Carbon Britain 2030: (2015) A New Energy Strategy (2010) CAT teamed up The economic with Track0 to meltdown of 2007 develop this report made it much and presented it harder to make the at the UN COP21 case for concerted negotiations in action on climate Paris. It maps over change. It became 100 peer-reviewed clear that the ZCB research projects, scenario must plans and practical also highlight on-the-ground projects from across the economic and employment benefit . The globe that demonstrate paths towards second report delivered this, whilst also zero greenhouse gas emissions, using only integrating new research in land-use – existing technology.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 14 Chapter 1: Introduction

Stories for Change

After nourishment, shelter, and companionship, stories are the thing we need most in the world.

Philip Pullman

We all tell ourselves stories, framing events to make sense of our lives. And we do it as societies as well, to help us better understand the world. Stories offer a hugely effective way to transcend the limits of our worldview and rehearse new ways of being. They can enable us to explore our cultural paradigms and how they define our eality, the way we think, the ways problems are solved, what goals we pursue and what we value. Throughout this report are the stories of six people who are living the sorts of change we need in the world, to make it happen:

Veronica Burke Co-creator of Bread Matters

Sheridan Piggott Founder of York Bike Belles

Arno Schmickler Programme Director of Energiesprong UK

Anna Joyce Project Manager of Flower Pod

Chris Blake Founding director of The Green Valleys Community Interest Company (CIC) and TGV Hydro

Agamemnon Otero Chief Executive Officer of Repowering London

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 15 Chapter 2: Postcards from the future

Chapter 2:

Postcards from the future

Being able to envisage positive change is a powerful first s ep in making it happen. Drawn from CAT’s Zero Carbon Britain research, these ‘postcards’ help us visualise what a zero carbon future could look like. Looking back from a future where we have risen to the climate challenge, they explore what changes have occurred in the four key sectors of food, transport, buildings and energy.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 16 Chapter 2: Postcards from the future

2.1 Food

The average diet in the UK is now healthier, more varied and sustainable owing to a mixture of legislation and education. The trend in obesity has been reversed and is no longer a health BY 2.0 BY concern now that the consumption of foods high in fats, salt and sugar has fallen.

Restrictions on advertising, as well as the taxation of junk foods, have helped move the population as a whole to a much more balanced by michel bish / CC by Photo diet. There is a greater understanding of healthy food choices and the benefits of more nutrient-dense foods. This vastly increased awareness of what actually constitutes a diet healthy for both people and planet means people eat significantly less red meat – particularly beef and lamb, but also pork and chicken, and less cheese, milk and eggs. Many people enjoy high quality meat a couple of times a week, and while most still eat a certain amount of dairy produce, plant-based alternatives are everyday fare.

Publicly-funded organisations like schools and hospitals always provide sustainable diets. Restaurants and manufacturers have diversified significantly and the majority of meals on their menus are now non-meat or lower meat choices. Many popular dishes, such as spaghetti Bolognese, are now made by adding a small amount of meat to a plant-based mince. Nobody seems to have noticed the difference.

Farmers grow a wider range of crops, providing more food directly for human consumption, rather than for livestock. The UK grows much more of its own fruit and vegetables. Animal welfare and meat quality is also improved. Pigs and chickens are fed predominantly on food waste, with a small amount of crops still grown to feed livestock, to limit the need for these to be imported from elsewhere. The reduction in livestock farming has reduced water pollution and enabled better protection of the UK’s green spaces and land around streams and rivers, helping wildlife and biodiversity.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 17 Chapter 2: Postcards from the future

2.2 Transport

Towns and cities have become more human- centred and vibrant, with attractive public BY 2.0 BY spaces where people can meet, stroll and shop in traffic-free streets. Cars no longer dominate and vast areas of the land that were once used for car parking have been made into green areas, or converted to low- cost and social housing. by Craig Freeman / CC Freeman Craig by Photo

Public transport is now quicker, more affordable and more convenient than travelling by car. Combined with safer and more pleasant options for cycling and walking, these have become the norm for all sorts of journeys, including to work and to the shops.

All cars, light vans and buses are electric or hydrogen-fuelled, meaning they’re not only cleaner but quieter too. This has been helped by the reduction of traffic speeds in urban areas to 20mph, making residential areas much safer and enabling children to play outdoors in their streets.

In addition to being less stressed by their commute, people use technology to work more flexibly, all of which make for a more productive working day. The school run is a thing of the past as children walk, cycle or catch the bus.

The efficient public transport infrastructure extends to rural areas, where regular bus services connect with rail networks.

Holidaying in the UK is popular again, regenerating the economies of many British seaside resorts and rural areas. Although some people still take occasional flights for family holidays, health or religious reasons, travelling by high-speed train to continental Europe is favoured by many. Rather like the slow food movement, slow travel for leisure has become popular – with the focus as much on the journey as the destination.

People, especially children, are much healthier and less stressed as a result of the cleaner air and from walking and cycling more. This, together with better diets, has averted an obesity epidemic in the UK, saving money on healthcare and increasing overall levels of well-being.

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2.3 Buildings

While many of the UK’s buildings look the same, their performance has dramatically improved thanks BY 2.0 BY to comprehensive energy efficiency retrofitting. This has come about through a mixture of minimum energy efficiency standards for buildings, incentive schemes managed by local authorities to

by Bromford / CC Bromford by Photo ensure secure financial returns, and the provision of low-cost finance.

Building regulations require all new buildings to be built to ‘Passive House or equivalent’ standards, giving everyone – whether they’re home-owners or in the social and rented sectors – homes that are warmer and cheaper to run.

Methods and technologies for achieving these super-high efficiency standards have spread throughout the construction industry. With their wider implementation, costs have reduced significantly and further innovations have been developed. The adjustment in land values to cover increased construction costs has been minimal and many wonder why we didn’t do it sooner!

Zero carbon heating systems, such as heat pumps and solar thermal systems, have become commonplace and people are more aware of their energy use and much better at controlling it using smart-meters and energy control systems. There is also a much increased range of ‘flexible demands’, such as freezer and heat pumps, which can pay the best possible price by automatically selecting to operate at the time when the grid tells them energy from renewables is available.

The materials used in building new buildings and in retrofitting existing ones have changed. Knowledge and information about the embodied energy and carbon of construction materials, as well as the health and well-being benefits of ‘natural materials’, have become widely available and well understood. At long last, as a nation, our housing stock has caught up with that of our European neighbours.

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2.4 Energy

The UK now gets all its energy from renewable sources, from solar panels on roofs and walls, wind turbines on the tops of hills and out at sea, from BY 2.0 BY plantations and energy crops, and agricultural and food waste.

A significant and important percentage

by 10 / CC by Photo of renewables are installed, owned and managed by communities, boosting and stabilising local economies and helping public acceptance. Offshore wind is part-owned privately and part-owned by the public purse, using public sector pension funds. This growth in the renewable energy industry has also created hundreds of thousands of good jobs across the country.

Local authorities return to getting a significant part of their funding from delivering local energy provision, this time sustainably. There is still a national grid, developed to enable a greater proportion of the energy that feeds into it to come from decentralised and community owned sources – for which there is widespread public and political support.

The carbon dividend, an equal per-person refund of revenue raised by a carbon tax, means that although the unit cost of energy has increased, household energy bills are lower as a result of much improved insulation and efficiency. People are still better off than they were, and certainly in a better position than they would have been if dangerous had not been averted.

The renewable energy industry in the UK has also grown strongly, and many see the benefits of the energy transition, particularly the creation of hundreds of thousands of good jobs across the country.

The human and monetary cost of illnesses caused by air pollution has fallen significantly.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 20 Chapter 3: Where we are now: our changing climate

Chapter 3:

Where we are now: our changing climate

3.1 Why we need zero carbon ...... 21

3.2 UK progress towards zero carbon ...... 24

3.3 The impacts of climate change and inequalities ...... 26

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 21 Chapter 3: Where we are now: our changing climate

3. Where we are now: our changing climate BY 2.0 by Christopher Michael Christopher by / CC Photo

3.1 Why we need zero carbon in the atmosphere today are higher than they have been for at least the hen we burn fossil fuels to last 800,000 years (NRC, 2010), and are heat our homes and drive our rising at a rate ten times faster than the W cars, when we use chemical last deglaciation (Shakun et al., 2012). processes in industry, or when we change how we use land and how we 3.1.1 Providing an international produce our food, greenhouse gases, consensus on climate science such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, are emitted. However, the eaching agreement between burning of fossil fuels contributes most nations to act on climate is not to UK greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions R an easy task and so requires a (Baumert et al., 2005). process for reaching clear international Even though plants and oceans consensus on the science. Founded absorb much of the carbon dioxide that in 1988 by the World Meteorological we emit (about 55%), the rest builds up Organization and United Nations in the atmosphere (Ballantyne et al., Environment Programme, the 2012). As a result, greenhouse gas levels Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

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Change (IPCC) is the international body 3.1.2 The international process for deciding for assessing climate science. how to act on climate change It provides policymakers with regular rigorous and balanced ‘Assessment PCC assessments present Reports’ of impacts and future risks, projections of future climate change plus options for both adaptation and I based on different scenarios and mitigation. It provides a unique service the risks that climate change poses. to decision-makers because of its They discuss the implications of intergovernmental scientific approach. response options, but they do not tell Key findings from the most recent policymakers what actions to take. assessment report (AR5) are in the Actions are delivered through a process box below. called the United Nations Framework

Key findings from the IPCC Assessment Report 5

Climate Change 2014 Synthesis has led to atmospheric concentrations of Report Summary for Policymakers carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that are unprecedented in at least the last Observed changes in the climate system 800,000 years. Their effects, together with Warming of the climate system is those of other anthropogenic drivers, have unequivocal, and since the 1950s many of been detected throughout the climate the observed changes are unprecedented system and are extremely likely to have over millennia. The atmosphere and oceans been the dominant cause of the observed have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice warming since the mid-20th century. have diminished, and sea level has risen. Each of the last three decades has been Future climate changes, risks and impacts successively warmer at the Earth’s surface Continued emission of greenhouse gases than any preceding decade since 1850. The will cause further warming and long-lasting period from 1983 to 2012 was likely the changes in all components of the climate warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years system, increasing the likelihood of severe, in the Northern Hemisphere. The globally pervasive and irreversible impacts for people averaged temperature shows a warming of and ecosystems. Limiting climate change 0.85°C over the period 1880 to 2012. would require substantial and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions Causes of climate change which, together with adaptation, can limit Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions climate change risks. Risks are unevenly have increased since the pre-industrial era, distributed and are generally greater for driven largely by economic and population disadvantaged people and communities in growth, and are now higher than ever. This countries at all levels of development.

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Convention on Climate Change. The as China are catching up. India’s Conference of the Parties (COP) is the contribution is also rising, yet it will supreme decision-making body of remain a comparably small contributor the Convention. All nations that are – particularly on a per-capita basis. Parties to the Convention review the (https://www.carbonbrief.org) implementation of current policies and aim to take decisions necessary to meet The Paris Agreement – key decisions the demands of the science, drawn from the IPCC and others. At the Paris Holding the increase in the global average COP21 Climate Summit in December temperature to well below 2°C above 2015, 195 countries agreed that they will pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts collaborate – this is known as the ‘Paris to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C Agreement’. above pre-industrial levels, recognising that this would significa tly reduce the 3.1.3 Reaching a meaningful risks and impacts of climate change. global agreement In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal set out above, Parties he Paris Agreement calls for the aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse total global emissions to reach gas emissions as soon as possible, T net zero by the second half of recognising that peaking will take longer this century. The COP process involved for developing country Parties. Thereafter, all countries putting forward their Parties aim to make rapid reductions in own voluntary emissions reduction accordance with best available science, targets called ‘National Determined so as to achieve a balance between Contributions’ (NDCs). These are either anthropogenic emissions by sources and devised by individual governments removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in or are the result of negotiations the second half of this century, on the basis between regions, trade partners or of equity, and in the context of sustainable other alliances. Core to building the development and efforts to eradicate ambition needed to meet the agreed poverty. (http://unfccc.int) target is the need for recognition of the different historic responsibilities between developed and developing countries. Carbon Brief has developed 3.1.4 Increasing ambition an interactive map of the world to help us understand historical emissions. et, despite having agreed a (https://www.carbonbrief.org). While target of 2°C, or ideally 1.5°C, long industrialised areas such as Y the actions agreed at COP21 the US and EU contribute far more will not, on their own, achieve it. greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, Climate Action Tracker calculate the newly industrialising countries such sum of each nation’s commitment

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agreed in Paris will, at very best, limit gases – those emitted by activity within global temperature rise to around the UK. While these have fallen in 2.7°C to 3.5°C. Although that’s a clear recent years, if emissions associated improvement of 0.4°C since the 2014 with imported goods and services climate summit in Lima, it’s still not (known as ‘consumption’ emissions) are enough (http://climateactiontracker. included, the picture is less clear-cut – org). So there is an urgent need to see figure 3.2. increase ambition. The next review of COP commitments is planned for 2018. Long industrialised countries need to get to zero as quickly as possible to set an example and to allow the Avoiding severe global catastrophe developing countries their fair share is a moral and legal imperative. of the final, residual carbon we can safely burn to put in to place the basic To the extent that human human infrastructure we have enjoyed activity endangers the biosphere, for many decades. Hence the Zero particularly through the effects Carbon Britain scenario was developed to explore how we can reach zero in 20 of human activity on the global years. climate, all States and enterprises 3.2 UK progress towards have an immediate moral and legal zero carbon duty to prevent the deleterious effects of climate change. he UK is legally bound by the 2008 Climate Change Act (CCA) Oslo Principles on Global Climate Obligations, T to reduce emissions by 80% by March 2015 2050 (see box below). In March 2016, the Government confirmed that the UK will enshrine in law a long-term goal of reducing its net carbon emissions to zero, as called for in the Paris Estimates vary because of the Agreement (Hansard, 2016). different ways of calculating these However, the CCA targets only consumption emissions, though figures address part of the greenhouse gas show they are significant, possibly emissions that the UK is responsible 50-80% higher than production for. For example, emissions from emissions (Committee on Climate aeroplanes, not included in the current Change, 2013; DECC, 2015a). While the target, have increased since 1990. The environmental impacts of these mainly targets cover the UK’s domestic, or imported goods may be invisible in ‘production’ emissions of greenhouse the UK, and do not appear on the UK’s

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climate change budget sheet, they are a significant part of the UK’s carbon footprint and contribute to global We are concerned that the UK could levels of greenhouse gas emissions. For be meeting its domestic carbon example, it is estimated that half of the growth in China’s greenhouse gas budgets at the expense of the emissions between 2002 and 2005 was global carbon budget...The UK’s due to production of goods for export, consumption cannot rise indefinitely. mainly to western countries (Guan et al., 2009). The UK’s consumption habits House of Commons Select Committee on drive emissions up around the world, to Energy and Climate Change the detriment of our happiness as well as the future of the planet.

The Climate Change Act (CCA)

The CCA was the world’s first long- erm The Committee on Climate Change (CCC), legally binding framework to tackle climate an independent expert body established by change. The Act set a legally binding target the Act, recommends the levels of budget for the UK to reduce its greenhouse gas and submits annual reports to Parliament on emissions by at least 80% from 1990 levels the UK’s progress towards targets, to which by 2050, consistent with a 50% chance of the Government must respond. Under the limiting global temperature rise to as little as Act the Committee are required to identify possible above 2°C. the contributions to meeting the carbon To ensure that regular progress is made budget by ‘traded’ and ‘non-traded’ sectors. towards this target, the Act also established a The ‘traded’ sector refers to those sectors of system of fi e-yearly carbon budgets. These the economy covered by the EU Emissions are set in law and act as stepping-stones Trading System (EU ETS), primarily electricity towards the 2050 target. The UK is currently generation and energy intensive industry. in the second carbon budget period (2013- The ‘non-traded’ sector covers all emissions 17). Meeting the third (2018-2022), fourth outside the EU ETS, including transport, (2023-2027) and fi th (2028-2032) carbon heating in buildings, agriculture, waste and budgets will require that emissions be some industry. Under the accounting rules of reduced by 35% by 2020, 50% by 2025 and the CCA the contribution of the traded sector 57% by 2030 respectively compared to is determined by the emissions allowances 1990 levels. The carbon budgets exclude allocated to the UK in the EU ETS (Committee international aviation and shipping. on Climate Change website).

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Consumption emissions appear to meet even the current 80% reduction to have peaked in 2007 (DECC, targets by 2050, let alone reach zero 2015a), though some analysts have carbon. suggested that the government figures underestimate the true picture as they 3.3 The impacts of climate assume that production practices and change and inequalities efficiencies around the world are the same as the UK (Owen, 2016). limate change affects everybody, Yet, even based on production but some people suffer more emissions alone, the UK is not on track C than others. Whilst not to meet the 80% target (Committee on creating new forms of discrimination, Climate Change, 2015). The Government the impacts of increasing global has not only ignored recommendations temperatures can reinforce and to strengthen action, it has actually exacerbate existing patterns of done the reverse; for example, cutting inequality. Groups of people at risk kick-start incentives for solar and of discrimination are susceptible onshore wind instead of extending to increased levels of systemic or them (Le Page, 2015). The fifth carbon individual inequality as a result of budget has been criticised for not being climate change, whether directly or ambitious enough in the light of the indirectly (WHO, 2011; Neumayer and Paris agreement (Scott and Sakai, 2016). Plümper, 2007). Fundamental freedoms Clearly the UK still has a long way to go may become harder to uphold, and

Other 2% Waste 4%

Energy supply 32% Agriculture 10%

Residential 12%

Business 17% Transport 23%

Figure 3.2a

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 27 Chapter 3: Where we are now: our changing climate

Other 3% Public 3%

Waste 4% Business 31%

Agricultural 10%

Residential 23%

Transport 26%

Figure 3.2b

Road transport 7%

Household heating 9%

Imports 45%

UK consumption 39%

Figure 3.2c

Fig. 3.1 a, b and c – Breakdown of greenhouse gas emissions generated in the UK by a) source b) user (in 2014) (DECC, 2016a) and c) consumption (in 2012 – latest figures available) (DEFRA, 2016). Also see notes below(1) .

(1) Please note in a) Total emissions in 2014 were 514 million tonnes of CO2eq (not including emissions from international aviation and shipping of 41 million tonnes CO2eq). b) Same total as before but emissions from electricity generation at power stations are attributed to where the electricity is used, such as homes and businesses. c) Including the carbon embedded in the goods and services that we import to the UK (and excluding those exported) the total consumption emissions are 863 million tonnes CO2eq, much higher than that for production emissions alone.

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the most vulnerable people are at risk how to swim or climb trees because of of becoming even more vulnerable gender constructs within family life (Waldinger and Fankhauser, 2015; (Oxfam, 2005), and more likely to be IPCC, 2014). Issues of social justice confined to their household or local area must, therefore, be central to action on for cultural or religious reasons (Ahmad climate change. et al., 2014; Yavinsky, 2012). Globally, many of the regions that Women and girls, particularly in have been prone to natural disasters rural areas of developing countries, are in the past are now experiencing at risk of increased sexual violence as a increasingly frequent and dangerous result of climate change. In Sudan, for extreme weather events (Foresight, example, desertification in the north 2011). When rapid displacement occurs has fostered conflict with the mineral- due to the sudden onset of flooding, rich south, leading to rapid escalation wildfire or landslides, for example, of sexual violence against women immediate survival is placed under and girls (Institute of Development threat. If affected people are unable to Studies, 2008). In Ethiopia, droughts answer the immediate needs of their contributing to water scarcity and families by providing shelter, fuel and deforestation have led to increased sustenance, they are more likely to levels of rape, sexual assault and take risks, potentially increasing their abduction of girls sent further from susceptibility to conflict, violence or home to collect fuel and water (Swarup, exploitation (Detraz and Windsor, 2013). 2010). In the Pacific region, following If displacement is gradual as a Cyclone Zena in 2009, one relief centre result of incremental environmental recorded a 300% increase in intimate degradation (such as deforestation, partner violence (Vanuatu Women’s desertification, rising sea levels or Centre, 2011). freshwater salination), vulnerability at People with restricted mobility home can increase: male relatives may may be entirely reliant upon the relocate in search of urban jobs (Curran help of others to escape a sudden and Meijer-Irons, 2014; Ezra and Kiros, extreme weather event. The 2001), whilst typically women and perception of disability as a special girls remain as primary carers, often needs issue requiring segregation having to travel further afield to find or rarified expertise – rather than basic resources (Abebe, 2014; Haigh and normalisation through mainstream Vallely, 2010). integration – serves to further deter In developing countries, women and an inclusive approach. In 2009, the girls are more likely to die than men Global Partnership for Disability and and boys in extreme weather events due Development stated that, “stigma to a combination of gender-specific risk remains one of the most intractable factors (Abdein et al., 2013; Ikeda, 1995). barriers towards the inclusion of For example, girls are less likely to know disability issues in disaster response”

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(Global Partnership for Disability & heatwaves, various bodies have Development, 2009). researched and developed heatwave In the UK, direct experience of action plans, indices and mapping, climate change in recent years has been which consider the susceptibility of limited to worsening storms, flooding communities and individuals (UNISDR, and heatwaves. Six of the seven wettest 2004). As with all forms of climate years on record occurred after 2000, changing weather, the people in the as did all of the eight warmest years most vulnerable position before a on record (Centre for Ecology and heatwave are the most vulnerable Hydrology, 2014). Such conditions during and after the event. These contribute to significant increased heat risk factors disproportionately risk of injury, illness and death for affect the very young, very old, and disabled people, as well as for babies, the impaired, from restricted mobility children and older people, all of whom to mental health issues, and are may be reliant on others to implement compounded by limited access to protective measures, such as evacuation resources and inadequate interventions or sun protection (Benzie et al., 2011). (Ogg, 2005). Research has tended to Existing vulnerabilities associated with focus on socio-economic demographics, older people, such as chronic illness, rather than vulnerability and resilience susceptibility to infection, and reliance within communities. upon medication or assistive devices, One recent study projected that such as walking frames, hearing aids, heat-related deaths would increase by and glasses may be exacerbated in two-thirds in the 2020s in the absence emergency situations. of mitigation and adaptation efforts (Hajat, 2013). Another study found 3.3.1 Heatwaves that a mere 2°C increase in average UK summer temperatures correlates n Europe in 2003 an estimated with an extra 1,550 deaths. More than 80,000 people died as a result of half these victims are predicted to I heatwaves, including 10,000 in be over-85s and two-thirds women France and 2,000 in the UK (Robine et (Bennett et al., 2014). Disabled people, al., 2008), followed by over 50,000 in especially those with underlying Russia in 2010 (Revich, 2011). Along with health conditions, are generally more flooding, heatwaves pose a growing vulnerable to the impacts of climate major health and safety risk in the change, such as extreme temperatures, UK (Wolf and McGregor, 2013). Some and to other impacts of burning fossil research has identified a link between fuels, such as air pollution. In Britain, mortality and room temperature which there are over 11 million – one in six starts as low as 19°C (Hajat, et al., 2013). people – living with disability (DWP, In response to the 2003 European 2015). Those based in large cities face

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the greatest risk owing to an incubatory BY 2.0 BY ‘urban island’ effect (Souch and Grimmond, 2006).

3.3.2 Flooding

n the last decade, severe flooding has affected every region in the by John Robinson / CC by Photo IUK and provided stark evidence of inequality. December 2015 was the wettest month on record (as measured since 1910), and in June 2016 flash floods in South London measured up to two metres deep. Flooding in the UK has not York floods 2008 traditionally been framed as a matter of environmental justice, however there is communities which are less likely to be a limited but growing body of evidence prepared to cope with flood events and which considers the distributional social consequences. Deprived communities are impact and issues of vulnerability. In more likely to be characterised by poor particular, the sudden onset of flash health, which in turn increases their flooding has been found to aggravate vulnerability to cope with flooding. The existing inequalities. Over 12% of the health impact of flooding is significant, British population live in areas at risk of with over two-thirds (67%) of those flooding, but people in sea flood zones affected by floods in 2007 reporting are 122% more likely to be in the two mental health issues, and 39% suffering lowest deprivation categories (Walker, physical injury (Pitt, 2008). Additionally, 2011). In other words, either the poorest pre-existing conditions and age are 20%, or poorest 40% of the population. major factors in vulnerability to the In 2006, a report by the UK negative health effects of flooding (Few government’s Environment Agency et al., 2004). recognised the importance of In Britain, the impact of severe understanding and addressing flooding has been shown to substantially inequalities in order to provide effective increase the burden of care for women flood risk management across the (Fordham, 1998). Mobility issues in UK. The research found that the flooding are a particular concern, which social impact of flooding in the UK disproportionately affect the very young, is wide-ranging, affecting people’s very old, and disabled people. The British physical and psychological health, Red Cross have identified climate change material goods, assets, households as the key factor likely to increase and communities. Levels of flood vulnerability globally and highlighted risk awareness are lower in deprived the importance of community

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relations (McNulty and Rennick, 2013). 3.3.3 UK investments and global justice Diversity and inclusion of minority and marginalised groups is repeatedly hile this report focuses on cited across UK and global literature the UK it is important to on climate change as a primary W remember that as well as the requirement to improve mitigation and need to reduce emissions associated adaptation strategies (Hamza, 2015; with both production and consumption, Fordham and Gupta, 2011; Brosius, 1998). including imported goods, the UK has Fundamentally, this involves including other global responsibilities. As the more and different types of people box below shows it is also indirectly at every level of decision-making, responsible for global emissions via its governance and implementation. This investment in fossil fuels and industries offers an important and inspiring that contribute directly to climate opportunity to embrace diversity as a change, and political support for vector for positive solutions. regimes that promote this.

UK global responsibilities – the case of West Papua

The British government supports the Capriati et al, 2016). Indonesian occupation of West Papua (known With Indonesian occupation came a by its occupied name of Irian Jaya) along with “slow-motion genocide” (Elmslie and mining, logging and drilling activities in West Webb-Gannon, 2013) aiming to destroy Papua (British Embassy Jakarta, 2013; Capriati the traditional, low carbon Papuan way of et al, 2016). life of the indigenous Melanesian tribes British company BP operates liquefied (Monbiot, 2003). Figures disputed by the natural gas (LNG) projects in West Papua and Indonesian authorities – but extensively is expanding interests there (McKenna, 2015; reported by other sources (for example, Hickman and Barber, 2011). Another British by Yale and Sydney Universities, IPWP and company, RTZ – the second largest mining the US National Security Archive) – put the company in the world with a market value of estimated number of murders committed by $77.1 billion (March 2015) – is partner to US the Indonesian Special Command Kopassus company, Freeport-McMoRan, Indonesia’s over half a century at 500,000 (Barnett, 2005). largest taxpayer at $1.5 billion in 2014. Many of those who survived have been forced The overall motivation for the occupation from their ancestral homes in the jungle to and accompanying scale of destruction in coastal regions where they are exceptionally West Papua is to control and release the vulnerable, in the immediate pathway of immense natural reserves of oil, gas, copper, cyclones and tsunamis, which are increasingly gold, timber and palm oil (Pilger, 2006; frequent in the region (Samuelson, 2013).

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Expert View Poverty and climate change – finding solutions

Katharine Knox

Policy and Research Manager at the Joseph Rowntree Foundation

The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) has long pioneered research on issues of poverty and disadvantage in the UK, seeking out the ‘causes of social evil’ as tasked in our memorandum. In recent years we have developed a work programme to examine the social impacts of climate change and the social justice implications in the UK. This came out of concerns that while social justice was increasingly being considered internationally (though arguably not enough), there had been little consideration given to the implications in the UK itself.

What are the key climate change and social justice issues in the UK?

Our research to date has highlighted a range of injustices in how climate change will affect society closer to home. Low-income households who contribute least to emissions are likely to be among those worst affected by the impacts of climate change. They are also likely to pay proportionately more and benefit less from certain policy responses, while often having least voice in decisions (Banks et al., 2014).

In particular, we know that the highest income households in the UK are on average responsible for three times as many emissions as those on the lowest incomes for direct emissions associated with housing and transport (Preston et al., 2013). These differences in emissions related to income are amplified if other forms of consumption are taken into account.

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At the same time, low-income households will be most adversely affected due to the increase in the costs of living we can expect as a result of climate change – particularly if food prices rise due to impacts of climate change overseas – although they may also benefit from reduced energy costs if rising temperatures reduce demand for home energy heating (Watkiss, 2016).

However, a warming climate will also mean increasing need to consider overheating risks and low-income households are more likely to suffer the health consequences of inadequate housing than be able to afford to install air conditioning (which of course may not be the best solution in any case in light of the carbon consequences). The condition of people’s homes and wider environment will be an important context in which people experience climate change – and whether this helps to act as a buffer or serves to exacerbate risks will affect social outcomes.

This is most starkly brought home in relation to flooding. Deprived communities are disproportionately exposed to coastal flooding compared to less deprived communities and over 1 million people living in deprived areas are at risk of some form of flooding (Sayers and Partners, 2016). The most recent floods in 2015/16 led to average claims of £50,000 on household flood insurance. However, as many as 40% of low-income households don’t have flood insurance; even in areas at higher risk, take-up rates are only marginally higher (Watkiss, 2016). Low-income households in at-risk areas thus face the prospect of a lack of a safety net to deal with the impacts of flooding and a higher impact on their household resources from losses which do occur. Climate change scenarios also indicate that deprived households will see a disproportionate increase in exposure to more frequent floods.

The issue of low-income households paying proportionately more towards the costs of policy measures paid for through energy bills has been widely reported (Preston et al., 2013). But the answer is not simply to avoid taking policy measures; it is an argument for a fairer

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application of the costs, and use of taxation as a more progressive route to fund policy responses.

So what can be done about these injustices?

To address climate injustice, we need to have a better understanding of the differential effects of climate change across different parts of the country and for different people and communities. A just approach means taking account of these differences and supporting appropriate targeting of resources towards those who may be most vulnerable and hardest hit, rather than simply following a straightforward cost/benefit approach. JRF’s Climate Just website helps to highlight where differential impacts from flooding and heat may occur across the country in order to support socially just adaptation responses (Climate Just website).

Part of our efforts need to be directed towards awareness raising in different sectors where the consequences of climate change will be felt, but where currently there is a lack of focus on this as an issue. For example, climate change has been described by the medical profession as the ‘biggest threat to public health’ this century. Yet, our research shows little is being done to address this among public health professionals across the country. While the issue may be recognised in local needs assessments this is rarely translated into the coherent local strategic responses that are needed (Button and Coote, 2016).

Yet, well-insulated and ventilated homes, active travel (in other words walking/cycling), flood and heat resilient green space, strong social cohesion, a sustainable health and social care system and a sustainable food system can all have both health and environmental benefits (ibid).

There are positive signs of strategic thinking. For example, in Middlesbrough, where poverty rates are high and the local authority is working with the voluntary sector through Middlesbrough

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Environment City on a range of initiatives to deliver fuel poverty, food growing and active travel schemes. The Big Lottery’s Communities Living Sustainably initiative offers other examples of how local action can help to support change. Islington Council’s work to address health and affordable warmth, with joint working across multiple partners inside and outside the local authority, is another positive example. But we need to see initiatives like this growing and being applied in other areas.

The care sector is another area where more attention is needed. In the 2003 heatwave, where several thousand people died in the UK, some of the most vulnerable people were older people in care homes. By the 2050s, similar heatwaves are expected to be a frequent occurrence. But overheating is not just a future issue. JRF research shows that care homes are already at risk of overheating now due to a mix of design, management and operational issues, including problems with heat management and control in care homes. We need to be more alive to the risks and begin to integrate this into regulatory practices and guidance so that care homes are adapted to avoid the negative health consequences of heat as our population ages (Gupta et al., 2016).

To minimise the negative impacts of climate change we clearly need to maximise our efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Recent policy has been moving in the wrong direction. We also need to start thinking more holistically about climate change mitigation and adaptation. There is already evidence that in some new build homes, there are risks of overheating due to a focus on providing air tight highly insulated homes without adequate consideration being given to ventilation, with associated health risks. Action to reduce emissions needs to be considered alongside the climate change impacts we will face, given the emissions already in the atmosphere. There are clear opportunities for ‘win-wins’ that address both climate change and poverty concerns. The most obvious example is taking action in the housing sector to combine carbon reduction with fuel poverty alleviation, through energy efficiency measures

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to people’s homes combined with other interventions that support benefits take-up for those on low incomes and help people to manage their energy consumption effectively. This will be costly, but housing is one of the big contributors to emissions, and energy bills form a substantial part of household energy budgets, so investing now could pay dividends later.

A more imaginative approach is also needed to visualise the future we want to see at the local level and to use the planning system to develop a low carbon and climate resilient economy and society. Local and national leadership is needed to help make sure we are creating safe places to live for the future.

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Chapter 4:

Where we are now: four key sectors

4.1 Food...... 38

4.2 Transport...... 44

4.3 Buildings...... 49

4.4 Energy...... 50 38 Chapter 4: Where we are now: four key sectors

4. Where we are now: four key sectors BY 2.0 BY by Johan Neven / CC Johan Neven by Photo

n any investigation into how 4.1 Food complex systems need to change, I it is good practice to root ourselves 4.1.1 Emissions in our current position. Gaining an understanding of where we are today is ost emissions associated with the first step in exploring what needs the UK diet relate to those to change, and how that change can M from livestock (mainly cows be brought about. Here we revisit the and sheep). Agriculture is responsible four key sectors of food, transport, for about 10% of the UK’s production buildings and energy, but rooted in emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) where we are now. (see figure 3.2 earlier (DEFRA, 2015a)).

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However, agriculture is responsible everyone to consume healthy and for a much higher proportion of sustainable diets. emissions of two of the most potent This is on top of existing increasing greenhouse gases: nitrous oxide (75%) pressures on agricultural production and methane (50%). The majority caused by a range of interconnected of nitrous oxide emissions are from issues, including high demand, food soils, particularly following fertiliser waste and soil health degeneration. application, manure and leaching, and Much of the research on food the majority of methane emissions are production focuses on the idea of from ruminant animals (such as cows ‘sustainable intensification’, arguing and sheep) as they digest grass (ibid). for increased production capacity on Of food consumed in the UK, 54% land already in use. This requires is produced here, 29% is imported improving and maximising agricultural from Europe, and 17% from the rest yields wherever possible (Godfray et of the world. There are some notable al., 2010). However, as agricultural exceptions to this general trend. Most yields in the UK are already very high, of the meat consumed in the UK is potential emissions savings in this produced here, whilst only 23% of fruits area are limited, and may in fact be and vegetables consumed are grown in cancelled out by an increased use of this country (DEFRA, 2015b). fertilisers and subsequent release of This has important implications, nitrous oxide emissions (Rӧӧs et al., as food brought in from overseas can 2016). In addition, declining soil health have higher associated greenhouse already threatens the production gas emissions. Embedded emissions in capacity of the UK and creates other imported food contribute to the UK’s environmental problems in the areas impact on climate change. surrounding British farms (DEFRA, 2015a). 4.1.2 The current food system Food production isn’t the only issue, however. The world currently Food production and provision produces enough food to feed everyone adequately, yet one billion people ncreased weather variability, water globally currently suffer from under- scarcity, vulnerability to pests, nutrition (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, I and biodiversity and habitat loss 2012) and another one billion people are just some of the issues farmers will are overweight or obese (Swinburn et have to face in the future due to climate al., 2011). This suggests access to food, change, even with the small increases trade and distribution also needs to be in global temperatures that are now improved. Yet, only a small fraction impossible to avoid (Friel et al., 2014). of studies discuss both the health These will affect our ability to produce and environmental implications of the levels of food needed to enable overconsumption (Cafaro et al., 2006).

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Even if agricultural yields were number of eateries has increased by 50% successfully maximised all around the in the last 10 years. Fast-service eateries world, it is argued there would still are the most prolific, but also tend to be insufficient food unless levels of serve the least healthy, highest calorific demand are tackled (Bajželj et al., 2014). meals which has been shown to have an effect on levels of obesity. The types Diet and health of products available for consumers to purchase ‘on the go’ can also make it he average diet in the UK today difficult for individuals to pick more is based on excessive levels of plant-based options. A recent survey T cheap calorie-rich, nutrient-poor looking at the types of sandwiches foods which are not adequate for health available for purchase, for example, or sustainability goals (Cumberlege et found that 97% of all sandwiches on al., 2015). Average diets are too high offer contained a meat, dairy, seafood or in saturated fats, added sugars and egg filling (Eating Better, 2015). salt – largely due to an increased A significant proportion of the UK consumption of highly processed foods. population are overweight or obese The UK is failing to meet nutritional and obesity levels are on the rise. In recommendations for fruits and 2013, approximately 25% of UK adults vegetables, oily fish and fibre (Bates et were obese compared with 15% in 1993 al., 2014). Approximately 30% of adults (UNFAO, 2013) while obesity in children in the UK meet the 5-a-day fruit and aged 2-15 years has also increased vegetable recommendations (ibid) – a (HSCIC, 2015). Obesity is a risk factor smaller percentage than in 2006. 16-24 for many diseases that are common year olds are the least likely to eat in the UK today, and for many chronic enough fruit and vegetables (HSCIC, diseases such as type 2 diabetes, high 2015). blood pressure and colon cancer (ibid). In the UK, the average daily Animal products make up the biggest intake of protein for adult men and contribution to obesity of any food women (19-65 year olds) is much group (Cafaro et al., 2006). higher (approximately 88g and 65g High consumption of processed respectively) than the recommended foods and red meat are both associated daily amounts for adult men and with poorer health outcomes. The women of 55g and 45g respectively World Health Organisation’s advisory (these figures are different for children body on cancer recently concluded that and the elderly) (Henderson et al., consuming large amounts of processed 2002). In the UK, the consumption meat is a proven potential cause of of animal protein far exceeds that of cancer (International Agency for plant-based protein. Research on Cancer (IARC), 2015). They More of the average household food conclude that for every 50g portion of budget is being spent on eating out. The processed meat eaten per day the risk

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of getting cancer of the lower bowel Government health advice has increases by 18% (Bouvard et al., 2015). recently been updated to reflect the Moreover, red meat (which includes growing evidence on the health impacts beef, lamb and pork) in general has of eating meat. The ‘Eat Well’ plate now also been categorised as ‘probably’ recommends eating pulses and lower carcinogenic, with a strong association amounts of meat, and represents an observed across many scientific studies. important step in changes to dietary The strongest association between advice (NHS Choices, 2016). red meat and cancer is for colorectal cancer, but a link has also been seen for Food waste prostate and pancreatic cancer (ibid). A sustainable food pyramid has ood supply chains are becoming been developed to sit alongside a more complex and hidden from healthy eating food pyramid, to F public view (Food Research demonstrate which foods are both Collaboration, 2014). The current food healthy and low emission. Foods such system produces a large amount of waste, as red meat, for example, feature at with a knock-on effect on land-use and the top of the pyramid, demonstrating other resources as well as unnecessary that these must only be consumed in greenhouse gas emissions. small amounts in order to maintain a In the EU just over 30% of all food we sustainable diet (Barilla Centre, 2015). produce is wasted, one third of this at ©Barilla

The Barilla Food Pyramid.

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the household level and the remaining 4.1.3 Public attitudes two-thirds throughout the rest of the supply chain (FAO, 2011). he food products individuals There are many campaign choose to purchase are organisations dedicated to raising T determined mainly by price, awareness of food waste, for example, quality and taste (DEFRA, 2015b). These Feeding the 5000, This is Rubbish, are thought to be the most important WRAP/Love Food Hate Waste and factors as they affect the consumer Fair Share. Feedback’s Stop Dumping personally and immediately (Bailey et Campaign aims to end unfair trading al., 2014). It is suggested that factors practices that lead to significant food such as sustainability, animal welfare waste in the supply chain (Feedback and health do not have a direct bearing website). The UK also has a multi- on people’s food choices, even if they stakeholder commitment to reduce food believe these issues to be important waste (the Courtauld Commitment). This (Cumberlege et al., 2015). involves the UK government’s food waste Individuals tend to underestimate charity (WRAP), businesses from within the climate impacts of their diets and the grocery industry and local authorities there is very low awareness about what (DEFRA, 2015b). However, clearly there is changes make the biggest differences. still much more that could be done. Macdiarmid (2013) demonstrated

Perceived contribution of sectors as major cause of climate change

Actual share of global emissions

80 30

70 25 60 emissions Percentage of global 20 50

40 15

30 10

major source of climate change 20 5 Percentage of respondents that think sector is 10

0 0 Power Industry Deforestation Exhaust Meat produc- Heating and Disposal and production emissions tion cooling in treatment of buildings waste

Fig. 4.1 Comparison of perceived and actual contribution to climate change (Bailey et al., 2014).

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that although approximately 50% of However, a large proportion of people knew about the links between people would be willing to change their diet and climate change, only 20% of dietary habits, with surveys showing respondents felt confident that they 63% of individuals may be willing knew how to change their diet to make to reduce red meat consumption and it more sustainable. When asked about 76% willing to reduce confectionery which diet-related behaviours they (Macdiarmid, 2013). Fewer people, 45% thought would produce the greatest of respondents, said they would be benefit, very few people thought that willing to consider a reduction in dairy changing the types of foods they were products (ibid). However, if people are eating had any impact, with most unaware of the association between people thinking that buying food that meat and dairy and climate change is produced locally and to organic they are less likely to change. Bailey et standards, reducing food waste and al. (2014) found that of those surveyed avoiding unnecessary packaging were who were unaware of the association more important (ibid). between meat and dairy and climate A recent survey conducted for change, over 50% said that they were Chatham House showed that, of all the unwilling to lower their consumption of sectors, the contribution of meat and meat and 62% said the same of dairy. dairy production to climate change is Despite levels of overconsumption, the most underestimated (Bailey et al., many people in the UK believe that 2014). Figure 4.1 shows the discrepancy they should be eating more protein between the actual and perceived (Macdiarmid, 2013). Media influences contribution of this industry to global and popular diets that encourage greenhouse gas emissions. protein consumption (as well as Lea et al. (2006) explored the benefits discouraging carbohydrate intake) and barriers to consumption of a plant- may be partly responsible. The based diet (a diet dominated by plant meat industry also encourages this foods and reduced consumption of meat misconception (Swinburn et al., 2011). and dairy) amongst Australian adults. They found that the main perceived 4.1.4 Food costs and inequality barrier amongst all demographic groups was a lack of information about plant- any people in the UK are based diet followed by an unwillingness simply limited in food choices to change eating habits. Other main M by what they can afford to barriers were unwillingness of the buy (Tait, 2015). The recession in the family to eat a plant-based diet and a UK, for example, had an influence on lack of choice when eating out. Men the purchasing habits of consumers and were more likely than women to believe since then it has generally been found humans were ‘meant’ to eat large that people are either cutting back on amounts of meat (ibid). certain foods or are trading down with

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regards to quality (Dibb and Fitzpatrick, deprivation and the number of fast-food 2014). restaurants, which may widen health About 11% of an average UK inequality if growth of these chains household budget is currently being continues in the future (The Food spent on food. This increases to about Foundation, 2015). 16% for low-income households (DEFRA, 2015b). The number of 4.2 Transport households experiencing real food insecurity is also becoming alarmingly 4.2.1 Emissions high (Tait, 2015). With incomes decreasing and the cost of living ransport is responsible for about going up, household budgets are being a quarter of the UK’s domestic squeezed and food budgets are most T greenhouse gas emissions, most frequently hit the hardest. Cheaper, less of which come from cars and other road nutritious and more calorie dense foods transport – see figure 4.2 (DfT, 2015a). can be substituted for better quality Although international aviation and more expensive foods, whereas other shipping is not included in the UK’s costs such as energy and housing bills total reported greenhouse gas figures, are not so flexible (ibid). An association emissions from flying overseas are a has also been seen between areas of significant source of emissions.

International aviation & Cars and taxis 40% shipping 26%

Rail 1%

Other 8%

Heavy goods Light vans 10% vehicles 15%

Fig. 4.2 Breakdown of UK greenhouse gas emissions from transport by mode in 2012 (DfT, 2015a). Total emissions of

159 million tonnes CO2eq, of which 118 million tonnes was domestic transport and 41 million was international aviation and shipping.

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Emissions from aviation have people (Brand and Boardman, 2008; doubled since 1990 due to increased Brand and Preston, 2010). passenger demand (DfT, 2015b). This growth in demand for air travel 4.2.2 The current transport situation (approximately 5% a year) is expected to outstrip any reductions in emissions ecades of car-centric urban due to efficiency or technological and transport planning have improvements (DfT, 2013a). D transformed the UK’s towns, There is also enormous inequality cities and transport systems so that in the contribution to greenhouse most people outside London have gas emissions from both car and air become dependent on driving as their travel. A minority of users travelling primary transport through choice or comparatively long distances are necessity. Much new development in responsible for the majority of the UK is characterised by low-density greenhouse gas emissions from car sprawl, out of town business and retail travel while 60% of emissions from development and the decline of the high flying are associated with only 20% of street (CBT, 2015). Billions of passenger kilometres

Cars, vans and taxis Other road vehicles

Fig. 4.3 Growth in road travel in Great Britain, 1952–2014 (billions of passenger kms) (DfT, 2016d).

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The car clearly plays a dominant role into car dependency (Lucas and Jones, in British society, with dramatic growth 2009). in car travel since the 1950s (see figure Nearly two-thirds of public 4.3) and cars responsible for 64% of transport trips are made by bus, trips and 78% of the distance travelled though the number of people making in England (ONS, 2015a). The majority bus trips has been in decline since the (two-thirds) of trips in England cover 1950s, mirroring the growth in car less than five miles (ibid), yet walking travel. Despite privatisation, funding and cycling still constitute a small for socially necessary services and for proportion of transport trips and concessionary passes (for example, distance travelled – a proportion that youth and elderly) are still paid for by has dropped significantly over time. public money, representing 40% of Fewer young people are learning to operators’ revenue (ibid). Yet, drive, however, there has been a large £78 million of public funding cuts increase in the number of older people have seriously undermined these holding a full driving licence (ibid). The publicly supported bus services, with growing car culture is a vicious cycle: over 2,400 bus services cut, altered or public transport services are cut back as withdrawn since 2010 (CBT, 2015). a result of reduced demand, making car Encouragingly, rail travel is now use more attractive and locking people at the highest level since the 1920s

Terminal passenger arrivals passenger arrivals Terminal and departures in millions

Fig. 4.4 Growth in UK air travel, 1950–2014 (terminal passenger arrivals and departures in millions) (DfT, 2016e).

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despite massive cuts to services, While the Airports Commission have overcrowding and the fact that rail fares suggested that expanding Heathrow have risen beyond the rate of inflation is compatible with meeting the (DfT, 2016a). Government’s climate target in 2050, Electric vehicles (EVs) are well evidence to Parliament showed there recognised as a key measure to reduce were doubts whether this could be carbon from the transport sector achieved in practice (House of Commons (Committee on Climate Change, 2015a) Environmental Audit Committee, 2015). and the Government’s plan is that by 2050 almost every car and light van 4.2.3 Public attitudes will be an ultra-low emission vehicle (HM Government, 2011). EVs are already he car has long been regarded exempt from Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) as a status symbol associated and the government offers grants for T with power, masculinity, sexual plug-in cars and vans, while in Scotland success, freedom, family and other the government offers interest-free values (Urry, 2004; Gössling, 2013). loans of up to £35,000 (Energy Saving Attitudes are changing, especially Trust Scotland website). Despite rapid among younger people, but car growth, with over 80,000 registered ownership is still associated with EVs on the roads in 2016, they still success (DfT, 2015d). High social and represent less than 2% of sales in the cultural capital is associated with UK (Lane, 2016). There are promising travel more generally (Barr et al., 2010). developments in electric buses, with Frequent flyers are known to take a number of all-electric buses in additional flights simply to maintain operation around the country including their traveller status (Gossling and London, Milton Keynes and Bristol. Cohen, 2014). There has been a rapid expansion of Attitudes to driving are complex EV charging points in the UK with and very segmented between different over 3,700 locations in early 2016 (Zap groups (Anable et al., 2006; Lyons et al., Map). Ecotricity’s Electric Highway also 2008; Thornton et al., 2011). Groups of provides comprehensive coverage of the the population with both the highest UK’s motorways (Ecotricity website). transport impact in terms of climate Air travel has increased dramatically change and the greatest potential since the 1950s (see Figure 4.4). While for change have been identified as the Government is allowing for a ‘educated suburban families’ (who have generous 60% increase in flights by high annual mileage and flights but 2050 compared to 2005 levels, it has yet are aware of climate change and their to come up with any plans on how this impacts) and ‘affluent empty nesters’ could be achieved given that current (who are older and tend to drive out of projections are much higher and airport habit) (Thornton, 2011). expansion is still being considered. Encouragingly, surveys show that

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many people are concerned about a strong link between income and the effect of transport on climate demand for air travel (Brand and change and say that they are willing Boardman, 2008). A major driver for to reduce the amount they travel by the growth in aviation is thought to be car (DfT, 2013b). The fact that this fails cheap flights following liberalisation to translate into action is thought to of the European market, which drove be due to the host of other significant down the costs of air travel (Grote reasons why people continue to drive, et al., 2014). However, while this including convenience, travel time, has made flying an option for more comfort, the need to carry passengers people, evidence suggests that this or things (encumbrance), trip chaining growth in aviation was largely due to (where one discrete journey closely wealthier people taking more frequent follows and is associated with another), flights (Graham, 2006). and cost (Transport for London, 2013). The vast majority of flights are not There is often an assumption that business flights, nor family holidays, people must be able to drive, park but leisure trips taken by a small and fly wherever they need to go. A proportion of frequent flyers (Devlin strong value is placed on holidays and Bernick, 2015). A staggering and the freedom of choice that flying 70% of flights are taken by 15% of offers (Hares et al., 2010). Because of the population, while 52% of the this, individuals have been found to population took no flights at all in be highly reluctant to change their 2014 (ibid). The following suggests behaviour, preferring an option to pay that flying really is a ‘first class higher taxes than reduce flying (ibid). problem’ (A Free Ride website):

4.2.4 Transport access and inequality • 74% of leisure travel is by members of ABC1 social classes. ne in four households in the UK doesn’t have access to a • Ownership of a second home O car; this rises to 68% for the abroad and household income of poorest 10% of households (ONS, 2011). over £115,000 are the strongest Poorer people are thus more dependent predictors of frequent flyer status. on public transport. Those with the most limited access opportunities • The areas of Britain with the most also suffer the worst effects of other frequent flyers are City of London & people’s travel – for example, deprived Westminster, Kensington & Chelsea areas suffer disproportionate rates of and Surrey. road deaths and injuries (Sustainable Development Commission, 2011). • The most popular destinations from Research has shown that there is these areas are known tax havens.

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Most frequent flyers are from the properties and public buildings account richer sections of society. It is suggested for 17% of the UK’s direct greenhouse that some privileged individuals are gas emissions, mainly due to space ‘binge flying’, an addictive behaviour heating (Committee on Climate Change where mobility is both frequent and website). Indirectly, buildings also long distance (Cohen et al., 2011). In a account for two-thirds of power sector global context, per capita emissions emissions, mainly due to electricity from air travel are higher in the UK demand from lighting and appliances than any other country, and twice those (ibid). of the USA (TGI, undated). Ironically, the most environmentally- 4.3.2 The current building stock aware section of the population also tend to have higher carbon footprints he UK currently has an ageing from car and air travel than the general and poorly insulated building population (ibid). T stock. The UK housing stock ranks very poorly against other 4.3 Buildings European countries in terms of energy efficiency. It comes last or near bottom 4.3.1 Emissions for thermal performance of windows (11th of 11), floors (10th), roofs (8th) lmost half of the UK’s energy and walls (7th), and 12th out of 16 for use is in buildings. This includes homes in poor state of repair (ACE, A heating homes, workplaces, 2015). Around 15% of the UK’s housing shops and public buildings; providing stock are private rented houses which hot water; and powering appliances are currently unregulated in terms of (DECC, 2015b). Although the officially energy efficiency but on average have reported greenhouse gas figures are poor energy efficiency performance. not expressed in terms of buildings, it The UK still relies mainly on natural is estimated that homes, commercial gas for heating and hot water, although the use of biomass and to a lesser extent solar thermal and heat pumps is increasing (DECC, 2015c). Energy demand for cooking, lighting and electrical appliances has been fairly stable in recent decades, with the use of more efficient appliances countered by using a greater number of appliances (DECC, 2015b). As well as switching to zero carbon heating systems, the

BY-ND / CC BY-ND Group BRE by energy efficiency of appliances also needs to improve further. Photo Passivhaus

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The methods and technologies to 4.4 Energy build super-efficient new buildings are well established, for example, 4.4.1 Emissions in the Passive House (Passivhaus) standard, which has been widely nergy supply is responsible for implemented in continental Europe. 32% of the UK’s greenhouse There are hundreds of examples of E gas emissions at source, largely super-efficient new buildings in the electricity generated from power UK (LEBD, undated; ZCH, 2015) and stations, which does not include the many thousands internationally (PHD, non-electrical energy used for space undated). However, as the Committee heating in buildings. on Climate Change has outlined, the challenge of making our buildings 4.4.2 The current energy system energy efficient and low carbon is very large. For example, we need at least a The energy mix further 3.5 million homes insulated over the next decade (2 million cavity walls ost of the UK’s electricity is and 1.5 million solid walls) (Committee generated from fossil fuels: on Climate Change, 2015a). M in 2015 30% came from gas, 23% from coal and a further 21% from 4.3.3 Buildings and inequality: nuclear (DECC, 2016b). In addition, fuel poverty the UK consumes significant amounts of natural gas, petroleum and coal n 2013 the number of UK directly for heating, transport and households in fuel poverty was industry. I estimated at 2.35 million (DECC, Renewable energy is rapidly 2015d). The UK housing stock ranks increasing its share in the UK. In 2015, near the bottom (14th of 16) compared 8% of UK energy and 25% of electricity with other European countries in was generated from renewables such terms of levels of fuel poverty (ACE, as wind, bioenergy, solar and hydro 2015). Older people and people with (DECC, 2016c). This compares to 4% disabilities are more likely to be in fuel energy from renewables in 2010 (ibid). poverty. One study found that 24% of The biggest contributor to this increase households including a disabled person is electricity supply from renewable suffered fuel poverty, compared to 16% sources, while the proportion of energy of households with no disabled person for heat and transport from renewable (DWP, 2015). Those who are housebound sources is still very low. In July 2015, face larger energy bills as they tend to renewables generated almost enough spend more time at home, and are more electricity for every house in the UK reliant upon powered devices. (Heinzelmann, 2015).

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 51 Chapter 4: Where we are now: four key sectors BY-ND 2.0 / CCBY-ND chpv.co.uk/SSE/RWE by Photo

Despite this progress, the UK is Energy ownership not on track to meet its European Union (EU) target to generate 15% of he UK energy system is its energy from renewable sources currently highly centralised and by 2020. EU progress reports have T dominated by a small number of highlighted the UK as one of the large companies. In 2014, 10 companies countries most likely to miss their owned 86% of the UK’s electricity target (EC, 2016). Government officials generation assets. Six of these, ‘The Big have also privately indicated that the Six’ (Centrica/British Gas, EDF Energy, UK will struggle to meet the 2020 goal E.ON, RWE npower, Scottish Power and (Tickell, 2015). With the UK voting to SSE) together with ESB, Drax, GDF Suez withdraw from the EU, the status of and AES, form the ‘Big Ten’. Collectively this target is even more uncertain. these companies were responsible for The UK Government is aiming to 95% of domestic supply and 80% of generate at least 30% of electricity commercial supply. Community energy from renewable sources by 2020 was only 0.3% of electricity generation (DECC, 2011). However, the practical capacity (DECC, 2014a). Even optimistic resource in the UK for wind, solar estimates suggest community energy and other renewables is huge – many will only meet 1.4% of electricity times larger than that which current demand by 2020. Despite some positive targets plan to exploit (Committee on steps, community energy initiatives in Climate Change, 2015a). the UK have generally developed in spite

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of, rather than because of, government general. The level of support for specific policy (Smith et al., 2015). renewable technologies is also high: The domination of the UK energy solar (84%), offshore wind (76%), wave system and renewable energy and tidal (77%), onshore wind (69%) developments by a few large private and biomass (63%) (DECC, 2016d). companies is in contrast to the situation It is the case, however, that there elsewhere. For example, in Germany is often public resistance to specific around half of renewable energy is renewable energy projects at a local owned by citizens (ILSR, 2013); in level. It is telling that a significantly Denmark around three-quarters of lower proportion of people (around 55%) wind turbines are under some form support large renewable energy projects of community ownership (Dunning, in their area than support renewable 2014); and in the United States around a energy in general (ibid). Opposition quarter of all electricity is generated by to renewable energy at the local level co-operatives or public power utilities often manifests itself in campaigns and (RAP, 2011). pressure on local authorities to reject An important recent trend has seen planning permission. the ‘Big Six’ energy suppliers lose market share to small ‘independent’ 4.4.4 Energy and inequality energy suppliers. By 2015, small energy providers had captured 13% of the hile the expansion of country’s household energy supply community energy schemes after a sharp rise in the previous two W has many benefits, there years (Schaps, 2015). If this trend of is a danger that it can replicate or customers leaving the ‘Big Six’ could exacerbate existing socio-economic be channelled towards suppliers with inequalities. Models for community a commitment to support low carbon ownership are often in the form of electricity supply this could have a huge options to purchase shares or other impact on the UK energy market. If this similar investments (RenewableUK, trend could also be channelled towards 2014). Many schemes are dependent on local supply managed by community members having sufficient financial energy groups this change could be and other resources to invest (time, even more transformative. knowledge and skills, for example) (Johnson and Hall, 2014). Whilst these 4.4.3 Public attitudes models distribute ownership into the community, it is often those who are here is overwhelming public better off with money to invest that support for renewable energy. benefit most (ibid). T An ongoing survey of attitudes Ownership of solar photovoltaic (PV) in the UK finds that over 80% of systems should be very well dispersed people support renewable energy in given the nature of the technology. This

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is true to a point. The vast majority of installations are small-scale (generally rooftop) where rates of ownership by private individuals, community groups and small businesses can be expected to be high. However, most panels are installed by homeowners with capital to spare – community groups only own a very small percentage of the installed capacity (Monbiot, 2012; Ofgem, 2015). Furthermore, recent rapid growth in the amount of solar PV in the UK has mainly been driven by large solar farm schemes (DECC, 2015f). Here ownership is more likely to be by larger companies linked to landowners.

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Chapter 5:

What needs to change?

5.1 Food ...... 55

5.2 Transport ...... 60

5.3 Buildings ...... 61

5.4 Energy ...... 64 55 Chapter 5: What needs to change?

5. What needs to change? BY 2.0 Photo by Alex Gr aves / CC

nce we understand our 5.1 Food current position, it becomes O clear that the challenges he UK needs a food system we face are multi-faceted and that supplies adequate levels interconnected, with numerous causes T of healthy food with low and multiple consequences. There are associated greenhouse gas emissions. lots of stakeholders with their own Food and farming needs to have a requirements, and many different much more significant role to play changes are needed to meet the in a zero emissions future than has challenge. Here we revisit the four key been currently recognised. As well as sectors of food, transport, buildings contributing to a reduction in fossil fuel and energy to identify what needs to use, emissions can be reduced from change. We also begin to explore the biological sources, such as livestock and various benefits such changes could soils. Good land management can limit deliver. A detailed analysis by Steven emissions and provide a certain level Shelley of the benefits of zero carbon in of carbon capture. A switch to lower terms of employment can be found at emitting and less land intensive foods is this link here. necessary in order to achieve this.

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It is clear that changes are needed ·· An increase in fruit, vegetable, within agriculture, and that further pulses and complex carbohydrate research is required relating to how we consumption in line with health manage our land. Agricultural goals recommendations (promoting should prioritise providing enough lower greenhouse gas emission, nutritious food for everyone to eat seasonal options). because changing what you eat has been shown to have the biggest effect on ·· An increase in plant-based emissions reductions. Duchin (2005), for proteins such as pulses and meat example, notes that even a small change substitutes. towards a healthier more sustainable diet would require farming practices A shift to more sustainable farming and policies to change completely, and practices is also required: in many cases move in the opposite direction to where they are heading • Maintain and improve biodiversity, today. keep soils healthy and reduce Changes to cooking, packaging pollution. and transport, for example, are less significant to emission reductions • Support those who work in agriculture (Blake, 2014). As the biggest emissions to grow a wider range of crops, relate to animals (particularly cows including pulses. and sheep), the biggest contributors of emissions in our diets are red meat (beef • Incorporate nutrient output as a key and sheep meat) and dairy products goal for agriculture. (particularly cheese) (Wellesley et al., 2015). • Free up some grassland to grow As explored in Zero Carbon Britain: biofuels for renewable energy, for Rethinking the Future (Hooker-Stroud et wildlife restoration and to improve al., 2013), this will involve a dietary shift: land management.

• The reversal of the growing trend for 5.1.1 The benefits of improving more meat-centric diets leading to a food and agriculture reduction of total consumption of all meat and dairy products. lant-based diets have been found to be very beneficial to health. • A reduction in levels of P An extensive literature review over-consumption (specifically by the American Dietetic Association targeting meat and processed foods). concluded that vegetarian diets are associated with lower cholesterol and • Increased consumption of healthy blood pressure levels, lower rates of foods: type 2 diabetes and hypertension, lower

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average body weight and had reduced to model the potential health benefits. risks from cancer and ischemic heart They found a 50% reduction in meat disease (Craig and Mangels, 2009). and dairy consumption would result Some of the elements of a vegetarian in approximately 36,910 deaths being diet that were highlighted to be delayed or averted per year in the UK. responsible for these benefits were Another study estimated that 18,000 lower average saturated fat intakes and premature deaths from coronary heart higher consumption levels of whole disease could be averted per year if grains, fruits and vegetables, soya meat and dairy consumption were products and nuts resulting in increased reduced by 30% (Friel et al., 2009). amounts of fibre and phytochemicals in Improving soil health, biodiversity the diet (ibid). and resource use could also form A study in the UK compared part of a mitigation strategy against vegetarian diets with non-vegetarian climate change. Soils are important diets and found vegetarian diets to be carbon stores, meaning that good land significantly healthier. Vegetarians were management can mitigate against at lower risk for all causes of death, climate change by increasing these but at significantly lower risk of heart stores (Food Research Collaboration, disease and cancer (Appleby et al., 2014). Biodiversity also affects soil 1999). The changes in the diet described function and as such can have a direct here would be the same for plant-based/ impact on the stability and productivity flexitarian diets that met sustainability of agricultural systems (Lemanceau et criteria too. It is argued that these al., 2014). Because of this, many people health benefits would still be seen argue that our agricultural systems even if some meat were still present need to switch from more intensive in the diet because the benefits relate practices to more diversified or mainly to an increase in plant food ‘agro-ecological’ systems of production. consumption (Lea and Worsley, 2001). As well as providing the food we need, Indeed some of the ‘vegetarians’ in the these systems would provide many study above ate meat on occasion (less other benefits to our land and soils, than once a week) (Appleby et al., 1999). such as improvements in soil fauna In more recent years, studies have and structure, and better retention of been conducted on the health benefits of nutrients. Perhaps more importantly, meat reduction in the context of climate they are far less likely to contribute to mitigation scenarios. Scarborough et local environmental problems, such as al. (2012), for example, used the carbon water pollution and biodiversity loss budget scenarios proposed by the (Food Research Collaboration, 2014; Committee on Climate Change (CCC) Kremen and Miles, 2012).

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Stories for Change

Veronica Burke

Co-creator, Bread Matters

Bread is our most wasted food in the UK. We must think it’s rubbish really! If you’ve put real skill into making it and you know the people who’ve produced it, I don’t think you want to throw it away.

Bread Matters promotes the social, economic, cultural and health benefits of ma ing bread using slow fermentation and homegrown grains. Our purpose is to inspire the individuals and groups, and to disseminate the knowledge and skills, that will enable communities to nourish healthy people from the fields a ound them, enrich their local economy and cultivate food sovereignty.

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Bread Matters

“One part of the work is shipping the stuff around. And you discovering the best adapted take it out again by having real wheats for our climate and bread within walking distance of conditions. We’ve found an everyone. innovative milling method that The other big theme is teaching we’re hoping will enable us to people, supporting them to start keep more layers of wheat in, community-scale bakeries. Which at the same time as producing means real jobs in respected work a lighter flour. We’re going – not machine-minding. More jobs to bring nutritionists in and per loaf, not less. agree a nutritional standard for It can be socially unacceptable the flour and the bread. We’ve to say it, but food banks are not started on organic farms and solving the problem. People who we want everybody who grows are hungry need fed, and if what’s it to participate in an agreed available is sitting in a carrier certification system, so that bag in George Square in Glasgow, we’re all growing to sustainable then yes, it’s absolutely right to standards and taking care of the give them that food. But it doesn’t soil. Because that’s our real asset, address their dignity or improve in terms of food, and that’s what their entitlement to a basic income we’re depleting all over the world. to support themselves. We’ve created a community We get loads of enquiries benefit society, so that ordinary from people who want to start a people own it. It’s not an community bakery, or add a bakery institution that’s also being funded to a community shop or Post Office. by one of the big food interests It’s partly a fiscal thing, we need to or some corporation, it’s an make our local economy work. And independent body. it’s about identity: we want to make And the milling being close to this place flourish and have decent the farm or the bakery, you take jobs, because without those we’ll away the massive footprint of need a food bank, won’t we?”

http://www.breadmatters.com

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5.2 Transport to reduce the demand for flying. To achieve a shift in how we travel and o reach zero carbon in the how much we travel requires the future, fossil fuel energy used following key changes: T for driving and flying needs to be eliminated. This is not a simple • Change attitudes to driving technical matter of switching to and flying. different fuels or energy sources but requires changes in attitudes, planning • Reduce car dependency through and infrastructure, economic incentives better urban and transport planning. and political and institutional changes. Meeting all of the UK’s energy needs • Replace driving with walking from renewable sources will need and cycling for short trips. significant reductions in demand from all sectors, including transport. • Replace longer car journeys While walking and cycling with public transport use. can replace shorter car trips (and significantly improve health), the • Make driving less attractive biggest carbon savings will come from than alternatives. replacing longer trips with mass public transport, such as train, bus, tram or • Reduce flying. metro (see figure 5.1). Given the limited scope for reduction in emissions for • Make all cars, light vans and larger aircraft through technology and buses electric, hydrogen or run efficiency, this has to include measures on biofuels. eq 2 per passenger km GHG emissions g CO

Fig. 5.1 GHG emissions by transport mode (DBEIS, 2016).

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To seriously address car dependency An increase in independent mobility and demand for air travel, the through improved access to public alternatives need to be as or more transport can have a range of positive convenient and cost-effective than impacts on many different groups, driving or flying. This is going to including: improved cognitive skills, require a range of policy measures social development and emotional including more integrated urban intelligence for children (Bhosale et al., and transport planning, high quality 2015); improved ability for households infrastructure and services, behaviour without a car (almost one in four change programmes and economic households, often the poorest) to access incentives and disincentives. work and leisure activities (Allen, 2016); and greater accessibility for young 5.2.1 The benefits of improving people, the over 65s and disabled people. the way we travel The economic benefits of decarbonising the transport sector educing demand for driving include reduced costs of car travel to and flying is not only more society, including road casualties, air R economic than simply meeting pollution and noise (Douglas et al., 2011). demand with new technologies, but has The health costs from air pollution many other significant benefits, such alone are estimated to be more than as cleaner air and improved health. £20 billion a year (Royal College of Improvements in alternative ways to Physicians, 2016). Investment in zero travel can also help address inequalities. carbon alternatives can also create jobs Environmental benefits in addition in the UK’s green vehicle sector (DfT, to tackling climate change include: 2016b). cleaner air, with fewer cities exceeding air quality health standards; increased 5.3 Buildings tranquillity in rural areas (CPRE website) and quieter streets in urban he buildings sector is vital in areas; and reduced loss of countryside the transition to a zero carbon from road building and widening. T future. To get to zero, the UK More active travel and improved requires around a 50% reduction in air quality can contribute to improved energy demand from buildings, along health and well-being for the general with a switch away from fossil fuel population – it is estimated that around powered heating systems to zero carbon 40,000 deaths each year in the UK are technologies (Hooker-Stroud et al., attributable to air pollution largely from 2013). traffic (Royal College of Physicians, The vast majority of today’s buildings 2016). A reduction of the number of cars will still be in use in 2030, and beyond. on the road will also result in reduced The UK has a poorly insulated and road casualties. draughty housing stock compared with

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other countries. Reducing the heat loss control appliances to optimise when from existing buildings is a must in they use energy (DECC, undated). achieving a zero carbon future and may It will also be important to increase be one of the most challenging aspects the amount of energy storage in our of this transition. buildings, for example, through hot Retrofitting existing buildings water storage. Electricity storage in can include: cavity wall or solid wall buildings, such as the Tesla Powerwall, insulation; floor and loft insulation; may also have benefits for the energy improved glazing and doors; and system and for individual households. draught-proofing. A programme to When combined with smart meters, retrofit all dwellings in the UK with such storage can make buildings much the above measures, as required, smarter and more flexible users of could reduce the average heat loss energy. of the housing stock by around 50% When building highly efficient new (DECC, 2010). Heat loss can be reduced buildings and retrofitting existing even further if more insulation is buildings, we need to consider the types used, thermal bridges are eliminated, of materials and components used. very high airtightness standards are Ideally we would choose materials that achieved, and Mechanical Ventilation have low embodied energy and carbon, with Heat Recovery (MVHR) is installed. materials that store carbon (such as Switching from current heating wood or hemp) and materials that have and hot water systems – mainly gas been and/or can be recycled. boilers – to zero carbon emission In summary, the key changes systems – like heat pumps and solar required are: hot water – is a key challenge of getting to zero emissions. The energy efficiency • Super-efficient new buildings built to of appliances, such as freezers, TVs Passivhaus standard, or equivalent. and washing machines, also needs to improve. • Reducing heating demand by at least In order for future energy demand 60% from 2010 levels by retrofitting to match up with supply from a zero the entire existing building stock, as emissions renewable energy system, required, with additional insulation, energy storage needs to be incorporated better windows and doors, and into buildings to make energy demand improved airtightness. more flexible. Smart meters give users real time information and allow them to • Switching to zero carbon heating and better manage their energy use (Ofgem, hot water systems (such as solar 2016). In the longer-term it may be thermal and heat pumps), and possible for this technology to inform ensuring these systems operate users about when would be a good time very efficiently. to use energy, or even to automatically

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• Moving to highly efficient lighting Making homes highly energy and appliances. efficient is one of the best ways to end fuel poverty, which was estimated in • Making energy demand in buildings 2013 to affect 4.5 million households more flexible so it can match up in the UK. It can also improve health better with energy supply from and reduce health costs. Cold homes renewables. This involves increasing can cause or worsen respiratory the amount of energy storage in problems in children, aggravate the buildings. Smart meters and better conditions of the disabled and those controls can also make energy with health concerns, and is linked demand more flexible and responsive, to premature death in the elderly. It both using automatic controls and is estimated that cold homes cost the human responses. NHS £1.3 billion every year by causing or exacerbating cold-related illnesses • Moving to low embodied energy and (Washan et al., 2014). low carbon construction materials; In economic terms, a mass these use less energy and cause less energy efficiency programme would carbon emissions in their production. create many thousands of good jobs and would bring great economic 5.3.1 The benefits of opportunities for UK. Research by improving housing Cambridge Econometrics shows that government investment in the he challenge of decarbonising energy efficiency of housing for fuel our buildings presents poor households brings enormous T numerous benefits and benefits to the economy, with a opportunities (ACE, 2013; ACE, 2015), three-fold return in GDP for every including helping combat fuel poverty, pound invested by government (ibid). creating jobs and improving energy Research by Frontier Economics shows security. that an energy efficiency programme could generate economic benefits of £8.7 billion to the UK economy and that the benefits are comparable with other national infrastructure projects (Frontier Economics, 2015). Finally, bringing all UK homes up to a higher standard of energy efficiency (EPC Band C) would reduce UK gas imports by 26%, strengthening UK energy security (Washan et al., 2014). ©URBED/Carbon Co-op

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5.4 Energy 5.4.1 The benefits of a clean energy system he UK has fantastic natural resources for renewable energy. ignificant growth in renewables T As numerous reports indicate, would provide significant provided that we reduce our energy S economic, social and demand and cut wasteful usage, the UK environmental benefits to communities can meet its energy needs with 100% (Capener, 2014), particularly when renewable energy, becoming entirely delivered in the form of community self-sufficient (Hooker-Stroud et al., energy projects. These may include 2013; Pöyry, 2011; Mackay, 2008; DECC, reduced energy bills, increased 2013a; Friends of the Earth, 2012; WWF, energy awareness, energy advice for 2011; Quiggin and Wakefield, 2015; those at risk of fuel poverty, the use RSPB, 2016). and development of local skills and However, this will not be easy. It will expertise, improvements to energy require: efficiency of local buildings using dividends from renewable energy, and • A huge scaling up of installed greater local energy self-reliance (Fenna renewable energy systems including et al., 2015). There is the potential onshore and offshore wind, solar and for much more substantial growth tidal. in community energy if ambition is increased (Capener, 2014). • A strengthening and expansion of the electricity transmission and distribution network to allow energy from widely dispersed renewable systems to be delivered to where it’s needed.

• A repurposing of some land to grow biomass needed for parts of a 100% renewable energy system.

• Willingness on the part of individuals, households, businesses and communities to support and participate in a new type of energy system.

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The benefits of community renewable energy projects.

Zero Carbon Britain: Making it Happen 66 Chapter 6: Barriers to change

Chapter 6:

Barriers to change

6.1 Worldviews and values ...... 67

6.2 Communications ...... 71

6.3 Psychology and behaviour ...... 80

6.4 Carbon lock-in ...... 85

6.5 Economics and finance ...... 95

6.6 Politics and governance ...... 120 67 Chapter 6: Barriers to change

6. Barriers to change BY 2.0 BY by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center / CC Center Flight Space NASA Goddard by Photo

nce we have acknowledged 6.1 Worldviews and values where we are today and O recognised what needs to nnick de Witt (2015) argues change to get Britain to zero carbon, the current lack of progress the next step is to identify the barriers A on climate change arises from to these changes. Clearly we face a clashes in worldviews. For example, complex array of hurdles. Whilst there even if people agree on the need to are specific barriers to change in our act, divergences in worldviews on how food and agricultural systems and in to act can inhibit action, such as the our transport, buildings and energy arguments between those who support sectors, there are also many barriers nuclear power or wind power. common to all sectors or which require Many now believe that climate more fundamental changes from change itself is not the root problem, society and government. This section but an escalating symptom of much pulls together evidence from across the deeper issues in our relationship with sectors and from different disciplines to nature and the environment and with help understand the multifaceted and each other, and in a focus on people pervasive nature of this vital challenge. as consumers rather than citizens.

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The values that our society currently ‘the environment’ subliminally leads to promotes, and the activities they a perception of humans and nature as encourage, do little to help reduce distinct entities. emissions or limit climate change. This belief, that we are separate from, or even somehow ‘above’ nature, 6.1.1 Disconnection from nature allows continued inaction even when there is clear evidence that our actions n an exploration of the historical are deeply damaging the habitats of roots of the environmental other humans and other species, and I crisis, historian Lynn White even threatening our own existence as Jr. argues that the main strands of a species. Judeo-Christian thinking allowed As Carl Folke points out in the overexploitation of nature by Reconnecting to the Biosphere (2012), maintaining the superiority of humans there are now no ecosystems without over all other forms of life on Earth, people and no people who do not and by depicting all of nature as created depend on an ecosystem functioning for the use of humans (White, 1967). (Folke and Gunderson, 2012). They are inextricably intertwined in a new play of interdependent social-ecological systems. Global spiritual leader, poet and peace activist and writer Thich We abuse land because we regard Nhat Hanh puts this succinctly: “The it as a commodity belonging to us. Earth is not the environment. The Earth is us. Everything depends on When we see land as a community whether we have this insight or not.” to which we belong, we may begin (Hanh, 2013) to use it with love and respect.

Aldo Leopold (1949)

There is growing recognition of the inadequacy of the

Thomas Berry suggests a core separated disciplinary aspect of our inability to deal with approach for the solution of environmental problems such as planetary scale problems. climate change appears to be the belief that we regard ourselves, as a species, James Lovelock (1989) as separate from nature and separate from each other (Berry, 2003). Even in ecological thinking, any reference to

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Western philosophy and the ‘ownership’ of nature

In western thought, a philosophical and community to the DNA of an animal, with theological separation between humans no contradiction in this being used to serve and nature has occurred gradually over non-ethical purposes. The world began the last 400 years, resulting in increasingly moving toward being a place where nature fractured views of the world. could be seen merely as a resource rather In the 17th and 18th centuries, than a part of a wider whole, making it philosophers and scientists, such as easier to see it as something that could be Newton and Descartes began pushing owned, mastered and even exploited. back the frontiers of knowledge, driven By the end of the Enlightenment, by a more evidence-based methodology reductionist methodology had overturned and analysis. Whilst this resulted in a the polymath approach, separating the great flou ishing of scientific i vestigation world into different disciplines, such as and innovation, knowledge and ethics philosophy, physics or the arts, each of were broken apart. Modern knowledge which then began to largely develop alone could be owned, from the behaviour of a in their silos.

6.1.2 Prevalence of extrinsic values These are more competitive values centred on external approval or rewards he values we hold have a (ibid). profound effect on behaviour. While we are all motivated by all of T A major study published by five the different values, we hold them to NGOs investigated the role of values different degrees and at different times. in campaigns and communications Many different factors determine which (Crompton, 2010). This starts from the values are stronger for an individual, finding that across cultures what people including the influence of their family, say they value in life is surprisingly their peers, their role models, faith and similar, which can be grouped into spiritual groups, and the media. Some four broad areas: self-transcendence, of the values oppose one another, for self-enhancement, conservation and example, intrinsic and extrinsic values, openness to change (Schwarz, 2012). so that encouraging one set of values Self-transcendent (or ‘intrinsic’) can help to decrease the influence of the values include universalism and other (Spence et al., 2014). benevolence, which are based on The prevalence of advertising and more inherently rewarding pursuits media stories that focus on money, and are generally concerned with the status, celebrity and other extrinsic well-being of others (Crompton, 2010). values would suggest that these values Self-enhancement (or ‘extrinsic’) predominate in UK society. However, values include achievement and power. it would appear that most people

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overestimate the importance that others Using economic incentives as a place on extrinsic values (Common motivation for action on climate Cause Foundation, 2016). Surveys have change risks creating a conflict shown that most people in the UK (74%) between two values — materialism care more about intrinsic values like (extrinsic) and environmentalism honesty, helpfulness, social justice and (intrinsic) (Brown and Kasser, 2005). equality than they do about extrinsic Consistent reliance on appeals values like image, wealth and status to wealth creation or status may (ibid). While it may be surmised that undermine motivation to continue people tend not to own up to extrinsic performing pro-environmental values, the survey was designed to behaviour for its own sake eliminate this potential source of bias. (Markowitz and Shariff, 2012). This seems likely to create a negative Focusing individuals’ attention on feedback loop where people are reluctant possible financial gain may backfire to act in line with their intrinsic values by reducing their engagement in because they believe that these are subsequent pro-environmental actions, likely to be out of kilter with the value as their emphasis shifts from doing priorities of most fellow citizens. The good to gaining a profit (Evans et al., greater this misperception of others’ 2013; Thøgersen, 2013; Crompton et al., values, the less likely a person is to 2015). get involved in civic action like voting and the less positively they feel about 6.1.3 Consumerism becoming involved in volunteering or contacting a political representative. he UK is a very materialistic This is possibly because people take culture; people are encouraged social cues from others, and if they Tto consume more and more view society as selfish and materialistic ‘stuff’, most of which is designed to they are less likely to act on their own end up as landfill after a very short compassionate values (ibid). time. Even if people replace this type In many cases, it is more expensive of consumption with more experiences, to do the ‘right’ thing (for example, such as leisure activities, this may not eating healthier food, taking public necessarily reduce emissions if those transport, buying green electricity). experiences also consume fossil fuels; However, where more sustainable for example, flying to exotic locations. behaviour is less costly, conventional Even significant life events like having wisdom is that appealing to economic a baby or getting married have become self-interest is the best way to motivate increasingly commercialised. What people. However, there is evidence that people in industrialised economies feel using economic appeals is not always they need is now well beyond what effective (Markowitz and Shariff, 2012; is actually required to live a good life Crompton et al., 2015). (NEF, 2010).

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We buy things we don’t need

with money we don’t have to Cropped impress people we don’t like.

Palahniuk, 1996

by Henry Lawford / CC Henry by Lawford BY Photo

s Oliver James showed in buy new things both for themselves his book ‘Affluenza’, wealth and their children. Boxes and boxes A and misery go hand in hand, of toys, broken presents and unused creating a vicious cycle of consumerism electronics were witness to this drive (James, 2007). Anxiety and depression to acquire new possessions, which makes us want to consume more, but in reality were not really wanted or the more we consume the more anxious treasured.” Interestingly, UK parents and depressed we become (ibid). We seemed aware of the futility of this but buy things to make us happier but they seemed compelled to continue and cited make us feel worse. Studies have shown advertising ‘as a source of constant the detrimental effects of materialistic pressure’, whereas parents in Spain and world views on well-being and mental Sweden were under much less pressure health; young adults whose primary (ibid). focus is financial success show higher levels of anxiety and depression (Kasser 6.2 Communications and Ryan, 1993). A comparison by UNICEF of children’s well-being in the he way in which the problems UK, Sweden and Spain found that low and solutions for climate levels of child well-being in the UK may T change are communicated has be related to an increase in excessive a profound impact on their acceptance, materialism (IPSOS Mori and Nairn, and on broader changes in behaviour 2011). and society. Much of the information we Although children recognise that receive about climate change science, family time is more important than impacts and solutions is through the consumer goods, the authors of the media – TV, radio, print media and study observed “a compulsion on the increasingly online or social media. If part of some parents to continually this information is inaccurate, biased,

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incomplete or non-existent this will media is demonstrated by a government adversely impact public opinion, decision to axe important proposals for behaviour and support for efforts to energy efficiency measures for home address climate change properly. extensions after a prolonged campaign Whilst a lack of prominence of an by The Daily Mail against the so-called issue in the media or in public discourse ‘conservatory tax’. This was despite obviously contributes to a lack of 11 of the UK’s biggest building trade concern and lack of political action, associations, representing the bulk misinformation and media bias can of the construction industry, urging introduce doubt where there should support for the measure (Harvey, 2013). be none. Lack of clear information The role of advertising in promoting and distorted perceptions also mean and perpetuating a culture of that even when people want to make materialism is also key. a ‘better’ choice environmentally or societally, they may struggle to find the 6.2.1 Advertising right solutions. The media’s power to set the sychological research has been public agenda is well established and used to powerful effect in politicians often act in anticipation of P marketing and advertising, where what they think the media influence on “applied psychologists are working public attitudes will be (Gavin, 2009). feverishly to accelerate and exacerbate The media is also a hugely important materialistic desires” (Osbaldiston and influence on government policy, being Schott, 2012). On the one hand there is a seen as a barometer of public opinion, huge well-funded industry to encourage though more often it helps shape that us to consume more, and on the other opinion. The important influence of the a relatively tiny body of work to try to © Allan Shepherd © Allan

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change behaviour in more helpful ways. positive associations with brands, However, even where psychological logos, jingles and slogans (Gannon and interventions are used to try to change Lawson, 2010). behaviour (for example, reduce energy Children are particularly vulnerable demand) these rarely address or since they have not developed the challenge unstated assumptions about cognitive abilities to know they are materialism and consumption (Capstick being sold to (ibid). Children are et al., 2014). particularly targeted by advertisers Advertising fuels an insatiable as they are seen as independent desire for more stuff, including cars, consumers, as having significant electronic goods, cosmetics, food and influence over family choices, and are clothing. There is a weight of evidence future adult consumers (Boyland and suggesting a strong link between Whalen, 2015). Increasing media literacy advertising and increased consumption is a standard response to address the (Brulle and Young, 2007; Alexander subliminal effects of advertising but et al., 2011). Advertising encourages education alone is not sufficient as us to spend and borrow more, and even adults and children who are more work longer hours for more pay, with media literate are not immune to media people trapped in a cycle of ‘living to influence (Alexander et al., 2011). work, working to earn, and earning to Levels of advertising have also been consume’ (the work-spend cycle) (NEF, identified as a significant barrier for 2010; Alexander et al., 2011). By creating change. Of all food adverts, 60% relate dissatisfaction with who we are and to convenience foods and confectionery what we have, advertising encourages whilst only 3% promote fruit, vegetables us to spend more to consume more or pasta. Tens of billions of dollars (Gannon and Lawson, 2010). Vance are spent each year on advertising to Packard’s seminal book The Hidden keep our food consumption levels high Persuaders shows how advertisers tap (Cafaro et al., 2006) and the advertising into hidden needs, such as insecurity, of obesogenic foods to children is still reassurance of worth, ego gratification common practice. A report on the and immortality (Packard, 1957). impact of food advertising on childhood Advertising invades both public and obesity found that TV advertising private space – on billboards, public played an important but modest part transport, online, through product and was only one of many influences on placement and guerrilla advertising. children’s food choices (OFCOM, 2004). In the US it is estimated that the However, a review of the international average person is exposed to over 5,000 evidence on food marketing to children advertisement and brand exposures per concluded that even short-term day (Media Dynamics, 2014). People are exposure results in children increasing often not even aware of the marketing, their food consumption (Boyland and as much of it is subliminal, creating Whalen, 2015).

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In some cases, the regulations are cultural impacts of advertising shows poorly targeted. While restrictions that it frequently promotes values on advertising for products high in that are counter to human well-being, sugar, salt or fat during children’s environmental sustainability and a programmes were implemented in fair society (Alexander et al., 2011). 2009, researchers found that the For example, the values promoted by proportion of junk food ads seen by North American magazine adverts children actually increased slightly, as between 1900 and 1980, resulted in the children viewed them during family promotion of “materialism; submission viewing (IH&S, 2012). Campaigns and seduction; selfishness and greed; to ban junk food advertising before simplistic symbols; conformity; the 9pm watershed have widespread pornography; chronic anxieties; public support (Food Active, 2015). envy; competitiveness; disrespect of Sophisticated marketing also elders; disrespect of tradition; and the plays a large part in creating and creation of dissatisfaction.” (Pollay and perpetuating a wide range of intense Gallagher, 1990) and often positive feelings towards Even adverts that promote intrinsic the car (Sheller, 2004). From ‘dispense values, such as the quality of family with a horse’, the message from the life, risk reinforcing the perception world’s first car advertisement in that such values can be satisfied by 1898, car advertising has consistently material things (Alexander et al., 2011). ‘sold men dreams’ (Appnova, 2015). Advertising predominantly appeals to Marketing also plays a powerful extrinsic values that emphasise status, role in the promotion of flying, money, power, body image and by with airlines also using masculinity repeatedly promoting these values is and sexual desire, sometimes likely to strengthen them at a societal controversially, to sell flights level (ibid). (Bloodworth, 2013). Travel journalists The advertising industry is largely promote exotic long haul destinations unregulated. The entirely industry- to fill space or because of ‘freebies’ led Committees of Advertising provided by these destinations Practice (CAP) write and maintain (Gossling and Cohen, 2014). Children the UK Advertising Codes, which are even targeted in frequent flyer are administered by the Advertising programmes (ibid). Standards Authority (ASA). These do Exposure to commercial advertising little to tackle the intrusive nature has been shown to lower levels of of advertising, and particularly the concern about ‘bigger-than-self’ impacts on children. More primary problems such as climate change research is needed on the cultural (Crompton, 2013). A report that impacts of advertising in view of its carefully reviews the evidence for the increasingly pervasive nature.

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6.2.2 Climate silence levels of public awareness and concern. With some notable exceptions, the limate communicators have reporting of climate change by the UK expressed concern about the media has significantly waned in the C silence that exists on climate last few years (Corner, 2014). In the US change – with individuals, the media much of the mainstream news media and politicians appearing unwilling failed to report on the massive 2014 to discuss the topic (Marshall, 2014; People’s Climate March in New York, Corner, 2014). This matters because an attended by hundreds of thousands absence of discussion on climate change of people (Johnson, 2014), prompting leads to a perception that the issue is comparisons with Burma’s control of not one of high public concern. the media (Delina et al., 2014). While there are high levels of public While many social issues go concern over climate change, people through a cycle of interest followed have a ‘finite pool of worry’ about what by increasing boredom, climate to attend to; personal circumstances change is considered a hard subject and national events can push climate to sell to the media (Anderson, 2009). concerns to one side (Pidgeon, 2012). Newsroom priorities of politics and Inaccurate perceptions of others’ economics squeeze out scientific and opinions (known as ‘pluralistic environmental stories: the fact that an ignorance’) have also been found to issue is important doesn’t necessarily contribute to self-silencing among make it news (Smith, 2005). Analysis those concerned about climate change of what makes a story newsworthy (Geiger and Swim, 2016). Despite the suggests there are 15 news values that fact that a large majority of the public drive journalists’ attention including are concerned about climate change, bad news, conflict, power elites, many people underestimate the degree magnitude, although celebrity news to which others are concerned. This is dominates in both the popular and a common phenomenon found in other quality press (Harcup and O’Neill, 2016). policy areas: for example, in the 1970s Many of these values would be most white Americans supported racial relevant to climate change yet the desegregation but believed that most increasing globalisation of news, with others supported segregation (ibid). media dependent on international This leads to a spiral of silence where agencies and PR, also leads to an people believe they are in the minority emphasis on human interest and and stay silent, which makes others celebrity-focused entertainment unwilling to express their views. style reporting (Anderson, 2009). The lack of reporting by the media It is difficult for NGOs with limited of key findings, events or issues resources to lead the agenda. Narratives contributes to the blanket of climate and visuals are often lacking for silence, which in turn undermines reporting of mitigation strategies

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(O’Neill et al., 2015) and even the use of emotions, and ‘fear appeals’ in the eye-catching stunts to garner attention form of catastrophic imagery have can backfire and cast protesters in a been widely used by climate campaign negative light (Gavin, 2010). groups and the media. While images of Journalists are also concerned to polar bears on melting ice can attract protect their professional independence people’s attention, fear appeals have and wary of being seen to promote a been found to be generally ineffective values-based agenda or tell the public for motivating personal engagement how to behave (Smith, 2005). This with climate change (O’Neill and is despite the fact that journalists Nicholson-Clarke, 2009). They can leave sometimes take a normative stance people feeling helpless or overwhelmed in relation to other issues, such as if no alternatives are provided and terrorism (ibid). there is a chance they can backfire with While online and social media people adopting defensive reactions, communications are routinely used by such as avoidance or denial (Risbey NGOs to provide information, address 2008). the news media, strengthen support and mobilise action, the quality of 6.2.3 Media bias and misinformation online scientific communication on climate change has been found to be here is significant evidence of poor and the debate little better than in media bias and misinformation traditional media (Schafer, 2012). T in the reporting of climate While coverage of climate change change. While objectivity is an is generally low, issues such as the important characteristic of news contribution of the meat and dairy reporting, when journalists lack the industry to climate change receive time or expertise to judge competing particularly little mainstream media claims they may give equal importance attention. There are also few campaigns to unequal facts, leading to information by NGOs on the issue of dietary changes bias (Dunaway et al., 2015). This notion and climate change; where there has of ‘balance-as-bias’ is where views been communication it has been “scarce of marginal climate change deniers and relatively muted” (Bailey et al., or sceptics are given almost equal 2014). Low public awareness and media prominence to the broad scientific attention to these issues also makes consensus (Boykoff and Boykoff, other actors within the food system, 2004). This approach has meant that such as the government, less willing to UK tabloid coverage of climate change impose changes as they do not think has significantly diverged from the they will have support for their actions scientific consensus (Boykoff and (ibid). Mansfield, 2008). Undoubtedly the consequences of Researchers have looked at the way climate change can induce fearful the media frames climate change,

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which in turn shapes public opinion Media headlines, such as, “Planet is (O’Neill et al., 2015). In the UK, the not overheating, says professor,” and, broadsheets, especially The Guardian, “Scientists are exaggerating carbon have been found to give the issue threat to marine life,” (Krebs, 2016) lead the greatest coverage, framing it in a significant numbers of people to believe variety of ways; The Telegraph frames that climate change is not caused by were found to be varied but deeply human activities or to think that there conflicted; whileThe Daily Mail was is uncertainty about the scientific narrowly focused on the uncertainty consensus. of the science, impacts and solutions Although the numbers of people in (ibid). Specific policy measures, the UK who deny that climate change is such as the impact of renewable real is very small, there are still those energy subsidies, are often reported who are uncertain about the causes negatively. For example, one study or unconvinced that humans are the found that: “Cost as a theme tended to main cause. Although the vast majority be associated with negative coverage: (79%) of the British public agree that in The Sun, no articles in which cost climate change is happening, nearly a featured as a main theme were positive; quarter (23%) believe it is not caused by while 60% were negative and none humans, while nearly two-fifths (39%) positive in both The Daily Mail and The believe that concerns over climate Telegraph.” (PIRC, 2011) change have been exaggerated (YouGov, In 2011, an independent review 2013a). While the British public is of BBC coverage of scientific issues, becoming more aware of the scientific including climate change, found that consensus on climate change only a climate change deniers were still small proportion (16%) believe scientific continuing to find a place on the consensus is strong (Energy Climate airwaves, hindering objective reporting and Intelligence Unit, 2015). of the issue (Jones, 2011). In 2014, there Organisations with vested interests were demonstrations by direct action in sustaining the current high carbon groups outside Broadcasting House system influence public opinion via the protesting against a debate on the media as well as directly influencing BBC’s Today Programme between Lord government policy and legislation Lawson, a renowned climate sceptic, (Cave and Rowell, 2014). The fossil and Sir Brian Hoskins, the eminent fuel industry have well-funded and climatologist, which resulted in organised campaigns to promulgate scientific inaccuracies (Jewell, 2015). climate denial (Jacques et al., 2008; Bias, exaggeration and inconsistency Farrell, 2016). Evidence of a “deliberate in coverage of issues like climate and organised effort to misdirect change leads the public to distrust the public discussion and distort the the media and the information public’s understanding of climate” by provided (Lorenzoni et al., 2007). fossil fuel corporations in the US has

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been well documented in peer-reviewed can reinforce pre-existing attitudes, journals (Brulle, 2014). In the US alone, particularly as people tend to select the fossil fuel industry has spent media sources in line with their own hundreds of millions of dollars on views (Feldman et al., 2014). Thus, front groups to discredit mainstream people who are already climate sceptics climate science (Union of Concerned will tend to seek media that confirm Scientists, 2007; Moser and Lee-Ashley, that view. 2014). ExxonMobil are currently under However, there is also evidence that investigation for the allegation that where there is persistent and clear they have deliberately misled the public coverage of an issue, especially from despite the fact that their scientists trusted sources like television, it can have known about the risks and directly change attitudes (Sanders and accepted the scientific consensus on Gavin, 2004). In the UK, television is climate change since 1982 (Banerjee et trusted more than other media and an al., 2015). important source of news, particularly In 2013, there was widely reported for older people who are more likely to misinformation about a global warming vote (ibid). slowdown, which was seized on by An analysis of BBC and ITV news US climate deniers to dismiss climate coverage of the 2013-14 UN IPCC change (Boykoff, 2014). This was reports found, despite extensive accompanied by an increase in the coverage, sceptical messages and proportion of US citizens who believed viewpoints were widespread, and for climate change was not happening, many viewers who were unsure or suggesting that the media misreporting lacked strong views this was highly had influenced public attitudes (ibid). likely to have generated confusion This continued media bias on and uncertainty (ibid). Researchers climate change is damaging because suggested the fact that such extensive misinformation sticks and is very hard coverage failed to mobilise public to correct. Myths and misinformation concern was due to the way the are propagated through social commentary on climate change was networks, especially when they confirm presented (ibid). Clearly, a continued pre-existing attitudes. The more they media discourse that undermines or gain acceptance, the harder they are to questions the scientific consensus on correct in the public mind (Southwell climate change will undermine public and Thorson, 2015). Correcting media faith in the science and support for misinformation and reaching all the action. relevant people is hugely difficult and It has even been suggested that costly, and if not done carefully may problems of media bias on climate even be counterproductive (Southwell change in the UK are a result of and Thorson, 2015). There are many systematic failings (Gavin, 2009). In studies suggesting that media coverage Germany a system of proportional

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representation allows more space for A further problem is that economic green politics, which in turn supports pressures and shrinking budgets have a market for media that reflect green meant news media are more reliant on concerns (ibid). Thus, German media ready packaged stories (Corbett, 2015). are much less likely to report on the Over half of news content is instigated uncertainty of climate science and by non-journalists with the business/ tend to give less space to climate corporate world four times more likely deniers (ibid). than NGOs or charities to get its PR materials into press and broadcast news Corporate and political items (Lewis et al., 2008). influence on the media There is also the problem of unsubstantiated green claims in here is also considerable marketing, commonly known as evidence that corporate or ‘greenwash’ or implying certain T political affiliations can lead products make you a better person, to media bias (Craufurd, Smith and described as ‘valuewash’ (Hurth et Tambini, 2012). This is powerfully al., 2015). Environmental claims in illustrated by the resignation of the advertising are covered only by a Chief Political Commentator of The voluntary code of practice (CAP, 2014) Telegraph in protest over troubling and there is no mandatory requirement omissions of negative stories that for companies to provide information would upset its advertisers (Oborne, about environmental credentials of 2015). There are also examples of their products, or proper enforcement of how advertisers influence coverage self-declared claims. of issues, such as an article in The Spectator money section on the case 6.2.4 Media ownership for investing in crude oil, placed next to a full-page advert for a company art of the problem of media offering spread bets on the price of oil bias is the fact that Britain’s (Ramsay, 2015). P media ownership is highly Rather than independent watchdogs concentrated, especially within local, who act as a check on the power of regional and national press (Media the establishment, it is suggested the Reform Coalition, 2014): media are more like ‘guard dogs’ who operate in the interests of the existing Print Media: Three companies (News power structure (Donahue et al., 1995). UK, DMGT and Trinity Mirror) control The media are essentially businesses 70% of national newspaper circulation; that depend on advertising revenues five companies control 70% of regional and “defer to the mainstream values of daily newspaper circulation; over a dominant fossil fuel culture and the a third of local areas have a single status quo” (Corbett, 2015). monopoly daily local newspaper.

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Broadcasting (Radio and TV): Radio news Restricting advertising or reducing is a duopoly with BBC and Sky reaching media bias and concentration will 68% and 43% of the radio news audience not be easy due to the huge amount respectively, and the latter providing of economic and political power each news bulletins for virtually all of industry wields. The commercial and national and regional commercial radio. online media depends on advertising While BBC accounts for a majority of revenues and would likely oppose new TV news consumption; ITV is the major taxes or regulation. While a number of alternative. measures to address the problems have been proposed, these will need a wider Online news: Of the top 20 online news public campaign to gain the necessary sources in the UK, most are owned by ‘old political support. media’ companies (for example, The Daily Mail) or digital companies (for example, 6.3 Psychology Yahoo), though the latter get most of and behaviour their news from traditional brands. espite the evidence that climate Although media plurality is viewed change is one of the greatest as vital to the health of the press and D threats to the planet, there are a functioning democracy (OFCOM, still a significant number of people who 2012; Media Reform Coalition, 2014), are ignoring, denying or failing to act just five billionaires (Rupert Murdoch, with appropriate urgency. A large body Jonathan Harmsworth, Richard Desmond of psychological research has helped and the Barclay Brothers) own 80% to understand the reasons for the gap of UK newspapers (Vanbergen, 2015). often observed between attitudes and Ownership undoubtedly influences the behaviour (also known as the ‘value- editorial position on issues, and such action gap’). concentration can give media owners The lack of action on climate change a disproportionate influence on public is partly due to the many and well opinion. documented psychological barriers (for The web is not necessarily a level example, Swim et al., 2011; Gifford, playing field either: those with more 2011; Clayton et al., 2015), even where resources can optimise search engine there are high levels of awareness results for higher profile and much of and concern for climate change the news content on the web reflects (Lorenzoni et al., 2007). Psychology published output from conventional Professor Robert Gifford identified no media (Gavin, 2010). Although the web less than 29 ‘dragons of inaction’ – offers activists additional space to raise psychological obstacles ranging from issues and ideas, the contribution of web cognitive biases, ideologies, social commentary to informed debate is often comparisons and perceptions of risk, “unedifying or distasteful” (ibid). which prevent us from acting on or

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even thinking about climate change some of the wider economic and (Gifford, 2011). political barriers to climate change, Insights from psychology and other this leads to widespread scepticism disciplines have been used to design about the efficacy of individual actions behaviour change programmes. Social taken to address it (ibid). For example, marketing techniques have also been past climate change campaigns have employed to influence behaviour, and invited scepticism by focusing on in recent years a Behavioural Insights small actions (for example, turning Team (BIT) (aka ‘the nudge unit’) was off appliances) or by emphasising the set up by the government, to integrate role of the individual while neglecting behavioural sciences into policymaking the role of government and industry generally (BIT website). (NESTA, 2008). A few of the psychological barriers Some psychologists believe that to action on climate change are feelings of helplessness are ‘the pivotal discussed below. issue’ in terms of preventing more environmentally responsible behaviour 6.3.1 Scepticism and helplessness (Kaplan, 2000). Clear evidence from a large number of studies shows hile many people accept that providing people with more climate change is happening information about the problem and W and that humans are what to do about it may increase responsible, they may still fail to take knowledge but is not sufficient to responsibility or act accordingly, a motivate action or change (Lorenzoni phenomenon described as ‘stealth et al., 2007; Spence and Pidgeon, denial’ (Rowson, 2013). This is 2009). Ironically, provision of more linked to feelings of powerlessness information on an environmental or scepticism about the efficacy of problem may actually increase the actions taken by individuals or about sense of helplessness in some cases the political response (Capstick (Kaplan, 2000). and Pidgeon, 2014). In the face of a We also hold distorted perceptions challenge as enormous as climate in the way in which we view society, change people have profound doubts which contributes to inaction. In about the ability to do anything about Britain and across Europe there is it (ibid). a widespread view among citizens It is suggested this feeling of themselves that people in general are helplessness is a ‘psychological’ barrier ‘too selfish’ to act on climate change, in response to social, cultural and prompting scepticism of the efficacy of political factors, such as the political collective action (Fischer et al., 2011). dominance of the fossil fuel industry However, people may be less selfish (Norgaard, 2010). Without tackling than we think, as discussed in 6.1.2.

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6.3.2 Lack of information and course of action and how we ought to knowledge about solutions act (ibid). This reinforcement of beliefs within the in-group can be seen within hile information alone is social, political and organisational not sufficient in most cases cultures. Conversely, we often behave W to motivate action, there in ways to differentiate ourselves from are certainly areas where a lack of our ‘out-group’. We tend to behave in information or knowledge is a barrier. accordance with our perceptions of For example, a lack of information about how others behave (descriptive norms) what a plant-based diet is and how to as well as behaving in ways that we prepare alternative foods was perceived consider to be socially acceptable as the biggest barrier amongst younger (injunctive norms). people, while older individuals were People are heavily influenced most likely to be unwilling to eat new or by observed social behaviour even unusual foods (Lea et al., 2006). while they are poor at recognising There are also knowledge and or acknowledging it (Griskevicius et information gaps in relation to energy al., 2008). Thus, when asked to rank efficient buildings, with a lack of reasons for saving energy at home, occupant understanding in operating people ranked other people conserving low carbon technologies or unfamiliarity energy as bottom although it was with new methods and technologies, actually twice as important than any such as Passivhaus buildings or other motivator in practice (ibid). ventilation systems, amongst builders Social norms are an important and installers. influence on key decision-makers and corporate scientists. For example, 6.3.3 Conformity to social norms senior decision-makers have been found to be highly susceptible to peer umans are social animals and pressure that prevents them from our beliefs are a function of acting on climate change despite H group identity; it’s often not personal concerns (Rickards et al., what we learn so much as how and 2014). Studies have also shown that from whom that matters (Clayton et al., scientists working in car companies 2015). We tend to look for information internalised climate scepticism, partly consistent with what we already believe as a result of social pressure and the and dismiss information that requires influence of selected external media us to change our minds and behaviour sources (Rothenberg and Levy, 2012). (Festinger, 1954). The power of social norms is We compare ourselves and our illustrated by the difficulties in actions to others, particularly people we restricting car use, which is seen admire amongst our own social groups as normal and the default way to (‘in-group’), to decide what is the proper travel for most people (Pooley et al.,

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2011). Thus, when measures to restrict local area (Spence et al., 2012). car use are proposed, there is often a Climate change may fail to strongly negative emotional response motivate urgent action because it is from the public, “as social norms have not recognised emotionally as a moral been violated and order disrupted” wrong that demands to be righted (Gossling and Cohen, 2014). To reduce (Markowitz and Shariff, 2012). Climate car dependency requires overcoming change generally lacks the features that a combination of physical, personal generate rapid, emotional reactions and societal difficulties, which is a that influence moral judgement (ibid). challenge even for those with strong For example, it is not intentional (no environmental values (Pooley et al., one wants climate change to occur or is 2011). trying to make it happen), it provokes feelings of guilt that cause individuals 6.3.4 Lack of urgency to downplay their own responsibility or to blame others, and it is relatively ne of the reasons for an apparent abstract (ibid). lack of urgency on climate O change is the psychological 6.3.5 Bad habits distance, where climate change is considered distant in terms of time, ost of our daily behaviours geography (to most Western countries), are carried out over and over social impacts (more likely to affect M again in the same time and others) and uncertainty (of effects in the place, helping associate the behaviour future) (Spence et al., 2012). There is a with the context. What are seen as tendency to discount future risks, which socially acceptable ways of behaving means individuals are generally much – such as driving to work, frequent more concerned about losses now and flying, taking daily power showers tend to ignore distant or future risks and eating meat – eventually become (Gifford, 2011). ingrained habitual behaviours that are The lower the psychological distance even harder to change (Lorenzoni et al., of climate change the generally higher 2007; Verplanken et al., 2008). the levels of concern (Spence et al., For example, across a wide range of 2012). While some have suggested demographic groups, car owners tend that for most people in the UK climate to travel by car out of habit without change is perceived as something consideration of the alternatives happening a long way away that (Thornton et al., 2011). In the UK, the doesn’t pose a prominent personal dependency on driving and flying is threat (Lorenzoni et al., 2007), other developed and perpetuated through surveys suggest that more people agree social structures and systems, often than disagree that climate change is from a very early age. Many parents happening now and will affect their use their car as a way of getting

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babies to sleep (Sheller, 2004) and taxi found most achieved reductions of their children around due to concern less than 10% (Staddon et al., 2016). A about children’s safety on the roads major review of around 100 EU energy (Hembrow, 2011; Bhosale et al., 2015). behaviour change programmes found These behaviours increase car use and these to be generally ineffective at habituate children to journeying by car. bringing long-term reductions in energy consumption (Gynther et al., 2012). 6.3.6 Undue reliance on individual Traditionally, behaviour change behaviour change interventions have tended to concentrate on fairly innocuous and inconsequential revious modelling has suggested behaviours, like turning off computer that lifestyle changes could screens, rather than the harder, more P reduce UK greenhouse gas necessary actions, such as reducing emissions by 30% (Spence and Pidgeon, personal aviation by those on high 2010). Yet, on the whole, interventions incomes (Capstick et al., 2014). It is relating to climate change appear to suggested they don’t go far enough in have had a more limited impact. addressing the fundamental shifts in For example, out of 38 studies policy and lifestyles needed (Crompton, designed to reduce household energy 2008). Simply concentrating on use, mostly through social psychological encouraging or ‘nudging’ individuals to interventions, many resulted in energy make ‘better choices’ may be helpful in reductions of about 10% (Abrahamse et some cases, but is not enough on its own. al., 2005). A comprehensive review of The use of the behaviour change nearly 80 studies of energy efficiency approach has been criticised for found that the savings generally ranged presenting an overly individualistic from 5-20%, though this did not and rational perspective of behaviour account for a possible rebound effect and failing to recognise the socially (where the cost savings are spent on grounded nature of human behaviour other energy consuming behaviours) (Shove, 2010) or recognising that many that would undercut the energy savings barriers exist at societal level (Heiskanen (European Environment Agency, 2013). et al., 2010). Instead, it is argued, An analysis of 100 behavioural everyday practices like driving a car or change programmes in Australia found taking long hot showers are socially and that most consisted of a home energy culturally determined and interlinked audit, some basic retrofits, information with institutions, physical structures and a list of actions for individuals to (such as the way our cities are designed) adopt, but failed to take account of the and daily life (Shove, 2010). The term systems, standards and norms shaping ‘practices’ rather than behaviours is used consumption (Moloney et al., 2010). A to emphasise the collective social context more recent review of interventions shaping and framing daily actions to reduce energy in the workplace (Moloney et al., 2010).

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status quo (Capstick et al., 2014). It is thought this emphasis on voluntary measures reflects the general reluctance It is not enough to just expect by governments to regulate individuals people to ‘just try harder’ through and industry (Lorenzoni et al., 2007). taking ‘small steps’ without 6.4 Carbon lock-in addressing the systemic nature of espite the many benefits both environmental problems and of low carbon technologies daily practices. D and practices, industrialised economies have become dependent on Moloney et al., 2010 fossil fuel systems over many decades through a process described as ‘carbon lock-in’ (Unruh, 2000). This is where high carbon systems are stabilised It is unrealistic to expect individual and perpetuated by technical and behaviour change to be the catalyst institutional co-evolution, despite without changes in the wider system, the known impacts and existence and yet changes in national legislation/ of cost-effective alternatives (ibid). policy are difficult and complex. The A systemic bias against low carbon focus of much diet-related research, technologies and practices results for example, is at the level of the because of inertia at corporate, individual or household, in part because government and system-wide it is perceived to be easier to change levels, which in turn are a result of behaviour at this level, and in part the historical development of the because of the dominant ideological fossil fuel system (Perry, 2012). This narrative being focused on the self-perpetuating inertia of the high individual in our society. carbon energy, housing, transport, The support of uncontroversial agriculture and other systems creates policy interventions (for example, persistent systemic forces that are provision of more information) without hugely resistant to change (Unruh, reference or challenge to the political 2000). power structure, shifts the blame from For example, the current highly those in power to individuals (Shove, centralised method of providing 2010; Moloney et al., 2010; Butler 2010). electricity is not the only or best It is even argued that ‘the agenda way for electricity to be provided, of behaviour change itself’, which is particularly when all the environmental grounded in a particular worldview of impacts are considered (Perry, 2012). individualism, prevents more radical Yet, it becomes very difficult to change change involving challenges to the because an entire technological,

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institutional, governance and social small-scale renewable energy suppliers system has built up around it (ibid). to break into a system designed for Energy systems comprise infrastructure large-scale centralised fossil fuel (generation and distribution capacity), energy production. Despite the growth legal frameworks, institutions, financial in community energy schemes in support, investment models, consumer recent years, these face a wide array of preferences, and practices and habits barriers, and the sector still contributes that have developed and are reinforced a very small proportion of overall over time (Geels, 2011; Bolton and energy supply to the grid. Foxon, 2013). The electricity grid can also hold Institutions that develop energy back renewable energy projects if it policies co-evolve with energy markets does not have the capacity at particular and are likely to be more sympathetic locations to accept the power that to incumbents and reluctant to the proposed renewable energy threaten their viability (Chmutina systems would generate. Concerns and Goodier, 2014). The UK energy have been voiced that National Grid system is characterised by a lock-in (which maintains the long distance to centralisation with significant transmission lines) and the 14 system inertia due to large sunk costs, distribution network operators (DNOs) long-term investments and institutions that distribute electricity around (Unruh, 2000; Chmutina and Goodier, regions are not investing sufficiently 2014). It is extremely difficult for in upgrading the grid to allow for more distributed, renewable energy (Farrell, 2015). This has the effect of preventing renewable energy schemes that are otherwise viable. For example, one small hydro scheme was quoted £5.7 million to connect to the grid (Blake, 2015). There are numerous structural barriers to renewable energy that arise from needing to overcome the incumbent stranglehold of an energy system designed for fossil fuels and centralised SA / Cropped generation. Similarly, the daily routine of car commuting is more of a ‘locked-in’ practice than ‘behaviour choice’ due to a lack of choice in other forms of

by Jim Champion / CC by transport or lack of time or money to spend on alternatives (Moloney et al., Photo

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2010). The UK’s transport system has gas emissions. There is a lot of been designed over decades in a way resistance to change, and much concern that has made it heavily dependent on over the industry’s ability to adapt fossil fuels, and the practice of driving and provide the changes that will be a car is part of a complex system necessary. One of the main industry involving machines, cities, cultures, barriers in the UK is the number of ways of governance and lifestyles (Urry, farmers that rely on livestock for their 2008). To replace driving on a collective income. Whilst some could move to scale with cycling, say, therefore crop production, not all land is suitable requires policy interventions at a for this, so other solutions are needed. system level – for example, restrictions Access to food retailers and markets, on car use or investment in cycle public transport and safety are all infrastructure – rather than simply community level determinants that campaigns that focus on encouraging may shape dietary choices. These in people to use bikes (Watson, 2013). turn are influenced by policies at a The cost and convenience of flying national level that relate to education, compared to alternatives can make transport systems, health provision and people ‘locked into’ flying to holiday food access and availability. National destinations and reluctant to consider level determinants are also affected alternative modes (Hares et al., 2010). by international factors, such as Institutionalised practices within globalisation, trade liberalisation and the tourism industry make flying levels of development (Popkin, 2005). more convenient and slow travel less All of these factors have influenced the appealing, and mean that most people nutrition transition, resulting in high automatically assume they will fly to levels of meat, dairy and processed food certain destinations (Dickinson et al., consumption, and have led to a high 2011). For example, the difficulty of prevalence of obesity. Understanding booking European train travel in the UK, the role of the wider food system in especially on trains that cross borders, these changes has been highlighted as the difficulties of booking bikes on an important area in bringing about public transport and lack of integration dietary shifts in the UK population of different modes, means that instead (Swinburn et al., 2011). of being free to choose how to travel, individuals are instead funnelled into 6.4.1 Difficulties in scaling up high carbon air travel (ibid). innovative practice The food and agricultural system is also ‘locked into’ industrialised ecognising the need to overcome production methods with intensive the problems of carbon lock-in livestock rearing and use of nitrogen- R has resulted in a lot of focus on based fertilisers on grasslands potential ‘levers’ for change to catalyse contributing significantly togreenhouse the transformation. The development

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and rapid growth in ‘transition wider economic and structural factors management’ theory suggests that, beyond the control of local players. under certain conditions, innovation Many community or volunteer-led at a local level can break through initiatives have trouble simply surviving and spread to different locations and due to internal issues, such as skills, create transitions in the wider social resources and management which and economic system (Rip and Kemp, make them vulnerable to funding cuts 1998). Other theories, such as social or loss of key people (Hargreaves et al., practice theory, suggest moving to a 2013). Many local projects reliant on low carbon society involves developing volunteers suffer problems of fatigue new systems of low carbon social and burnout. practice and different social institutions, It is also important to note that not habits and fashions (Urry, 2013). Both all grassroots groups and innovations theories suggest a key role for local want to scale up in terms of size (ibid), communities, enterprises and local particularly if this means supporting government to overcome the problems and conforming to the prevailing of carbon lock-in. system which many set out to challenge Scaling up is not a question of simply (Smith et al., 2015). For example, getting bigger but involves innovations there is tension between the aims of and ideas becoming circulated and government policy that sees community adopted elsewhere. This leads to the energy as a useful adjunct to the creation of standards and networks, incumbent large-scale, centralised the adoption of practices within system, and the aims of many professions, or the development of new grassroots community energy groups finance mechanisms (Buckeley, 2016). who support more radical decentralised The onus for change is, therefore, not alternatives (ibid). only on the innovators but also on the There is also an unfortunate incumbents, so that part of the work of tendency for government to view scaling up involves creating windows of community groups as a means of cheap opportunity (ibid). delivery of government policy aims While there are many examples (Mayne and Hamilton, 2013). Lastly, of highly innovative local projects, communities are heterogeneous bodies and evidence of carbon reductions and any attempt to influence them at a project level, evidence of their needs to be sensitive to the many contribution at a broader local or different outlooks and motivations regional level remains unclear. This is underlying them. partly due to the fact that these projects However, for those groups who are still relatively isolated in comparison are interested in diffusing their ideas to the mainstream, and many face to the mainstream to gain wider problems in scaling up. Greenhouse gas influence, there are many challenges. It emissions are also clearly influenced by is suggested that all grassroots groups

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encounter social or political barriers more than one connection or carrying at some point, and they have to seize luggage or passengers. This needs to opportunities in a shifting policy change so that making a door-to-door landscape (Smith et al., 2015). Some journey by public transport, bike or may say they have succeeded in spite of foot, or some combination of these, is policy rather than because of it (ibid). just as convenient (DfT, 2013c). There The difficulties in scaling up are a number of barriers to door-to- innovative practice were explored in door journeys: inadequate information, an analysis of the Canelo project in poor interchange facilities, poor Arizona, a pioneering project in the US connections and restricted ticketing straw bale housing movement (Seyfang, (Palmer et al., 2011). To facilitate 2010). Straw bales are a highly energy door-to-door journeys requires: efficient as well as carbon-neutral building material. Although the project • Accurate and accessible information aims to influence the wider housing about the different transport options. system using education and workshops to spread ideas and experience, it faces • Convenient and affordable tickets significant challenges getting its ideas for the entire journey. and practices adopted more widely (ibid). These challenges include the • Regular and straightforward fact that the collective, inclusive model connections at all stages and of building based on manual labour is between different modes. not practical for high volume house building (ibid). • Safe, comfortable transport facilities (DfT, 2013c). 6.4.2 Inconvenience and unattractiveness of alternatives In addition, assuming that trips can be taken by bike or on foot, just because n many cases, there are practical they are short, ignores the difficulties or technical barriers that make caused by the physical environment, I zero carbon alternatives within the complex household interactions and food, transport, buildings and energy attitudes (Pooley et al., 2011). For sectors less convenient and attractive. cycling, numerous surveys and studies These barriers perpetuate the carbon have shown that the main barrier in the lock-in by making it more difficult for UK is the perceived safety risk due to alternative or zero carbon technologies, the high levels and speed of traffic on infrastructure or services to get a the roads (DfT, 2013b; TfL, 2014a). This foothold. is particularly the case for children, For example, it is still generally more with many parents unwilling to let convenient to travel by car than public their children cycle on the road for fear transport, particularly when it involves of traffic (Guliani et al., 2015).

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Women, who tend to be more as lack of information, hidden costs, risk-averse, are also discouraged from the ‘hassle factor’ and social norms, cycling due to safety concerns, with less that impede and prevent action. For than a third of cycling journeys made example, many people are unwilling by women compared to men. Women to undergo the disruption and stress cyclists have been described as the of building energy works (Weiss ‘indicator species’ for how bike-friendly et al., 2012). As Wilson et al. (2014) a city is (Baker, 2009). Campaigners highlight, the decision to undertake have developed progammes to address an energy efficiency retrofit should be the lack of women cycling (for example, understood as a process or journey. It Bike Belles featured here as one of our is within the conditions of everyday Stories for Change). This is despite the domestic life that decisions emerge, fact that the estimated health benefits and these decisions may be tied into of cycling are substantially larger than other aspects of home renovation. the risks (from accidents) relative to car There is also insufficient space in many driving (de Hartog et al., 2010). modern homes, where floor space is at a In the case of retrofitting buildings, premium, to install energy storage such there are a range of other barriers, such as hot water tanks.

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Stories for Change

Sheridan Piggott

Founder of York Bike Belles

If you can demonstrate to people that what they are doing is not just good for the planet but will improve their quality of life and they’ll have a great time doing it, that is transformational.

York Bike Belles encourages women to start riding, or ride a bike more often, through an inspiring combination of motivational communications and confidenc -building activities in fun, relaxed environments. Bike Belles addresses the fact that while on average 20% of men cycle, only 10% of women do.

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York Bike Belles

“When I moved to York about Women want activities that feel 4 years ago, York City Council not just important to them, but very forward-mindedly decided to their communities – their they wanted to target cycling for families and friends. It’s about women and families, and I came collaboration and co-operation and up with the concept of Bike Belles. in our meetings everyone has an One of the cultural barriers to equal say. Starting from the female cycling in this country is that it’s means that those qualities are viewed primarily as a sport – a central to the project. male dominated, competitive sport. We engaged about seven and a Don’t know how that happened, half thousand women in the York because cycling for centuries has area and at least twenty thousand been a form of everyday transport people have engaged with the that women and all members project online. We do activities like of the community have thrived bike maintenance, bike rides, bike on. It’s one of the best, most loans, that address some of those sustainable and healthiest ways to key barriers women face. We have get around. a group of women champions who What we had to do with Bike help promote it in their circles and Belles is to go back and look at deliver activities themselves. what the barriers are, address We target women, but we don’t them in an appealing way and exclude anybody else. We often recreate that everyday cycling get men coming along on rides. culture. We’ve recently engaged with some Women don’t feel they’ve got mental health groups in York and the right skills in terms of cycling their clients have come along. It’s in traffic, with children, and doing grown from being just for women maintenance. When they overcome to being an everyday, friendly those barriers it leads to all sorts cycling community for everyone – of other benefits – we’ve seen one of the things that’s lacking in massive increases in confidence, our cycling communities across the independence, improvements in country.” physical and mental health.

https://www.facebook.com/yorkbikebelles

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6.4.3 The planning system However, the reasons for rejection are not always simple or consistent and he role of planning is the planning system is there to balance particularly important for a zero different interests (ibid). Despite high T carbon future. Local planning public support for renewables generally, authorities have a legal duty to ensure there is often opposition to specific that their planning policy contributes projects at local level. to the mitigation of and adaptation to The government has in recent years climate change (Planning and Climate clawed back many of the planning Change Coalition, 2012). Climate change powers from local communities. In 2015, is also a core planning principle of the the National Infrastructure Commission main planning guidance, the National was established to take decisions on Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) Nationally Significant Infrastructure (ibid). Projects (NSIPs), usually large-scale For example, housing location and developments relating to energy, density of housing are key factors transport, water or waste (Smith, 2016). determining how people travel (Taylor Development Consent Orders for these and Sloman, 2008). Developments of projects are granted by the government low-density housing or those built near as an alternative to needing planning to major roads and motorways, and permission from a local authority. further from employment centres, are The government also announced likely to increase car-dependency (ibid). new planning processes to fast track Despite the benefits of good applications for shale gas, giving local planning, the planning system has authorities 16 weeks to make a decision in recent years been “continually before the Communities Secretary steps undermined and devalued”, (Henderson, in to take the decision on their behalf 2015) and the social purpose of planning (DECC, 2015g). has been slowly abandoned (Ellis and By contrast, in 2015 the government Henderson, 2014). changed the rules to make it easier for The planning system can, of course, local communities to block larger wind also be a barrier to a zero carbon turbines (50MW and above). Guidance transition. Data shows around a third states that authorities should only grant of planning applications for renewable planning permission if: energy schemes withdrawn or rejected, two-thirds approved. However, there • The development site is in an area is a higher rejection rate for onshore identified as suitable for wind wind applications with half withdrawn energy development in a local or or rejected (DECC, 2016e). Common neighbourhood plan. reasons for rejection are that wind turbines would adversely affect the • Following consultation, it can be landscape’s visual appeal (Smith, 2015a). demonstrated that the planning

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impacts identified by affected and development, transport, housing local communities have been fully and regulation and safety (Innes and addressed and therefore the proposal Tetlow, 2015). has their backing (Smith, 2015a). 6.4.4 Lack of support for local Under the Planning and Energy government action Act 2008, local authorities had the capability to specify, as a condition of s well as providing support planning permission, that minimum for low carbon communities, energy contributions be made from A councils at all levels (parish, on-site renewables and/or that higher town, city, county, unitary) are key standards of energy efficiency or innovators and drivers of the low energy performance should apply to carbon system in their own right. Local new build developments. Some 200 government is responsible for local local authorities have exercised those policy and delivery of planning, housing, powers and have been exemplars in local transport and waste, areas which driving forward energy performance all have profound implications for standards faster than the Building carbon. The Government’s localism Regulations. agenda and policy for devolution, while However, in 2014 the rules were criticised for divesting responsibility, amended, removing the power from means there are opportunities for more local governments to set energy radical solutions. efficiency standards for new buildings, While councils have reported although powers to specify the thousands of initiatives on transport, sourcing of energy from on-site community, housing, and the low renewable technologies were left in carbon economy, challenges reported place (REA, 2014). In addition, the include resourcing and funding as well current Government removed the as organisational change and staff right of local authorities to set higher turnover (LGA, 2016a). For example, energy performance standards for new a survey of local government found homes using the Code for Sustainable that insufficient funding was the Homes (DCLG, 2015), although higher main barrier to making existing roads energy performance standards may safe for cyclists (LGA, 2015a). Local still be set for non-domestic buildings governments are already over-stretched (for example, using the BREEAM due to government budget cuts. Funding sustainable buildings code). is not the only issue – innovation also As well as constant changes to the needs human resources and most local planning system, local governments councils are facing such severe budget are also dealing with cuts to funding, cuts that they barely have the capacity which have resulted in spending cuts to support core statutory services, let particularly in the areas of planning alone take on additional projects.

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Cities also face barriers to action. Businesses are already under pressure, A report prepared for 2015’s COP21 UN facing many challenges to operate climate summit in Paris identified profitably in the current economic over 26,000 additional climate actions system, so additional change can be that cities have not yet taken due to seen as another burden. a range of barriers (C40, 2015). These Individuals may perceive a barrier include coordination with government, that they cannot afford to invest governance and capacity within the city, in zero carbon technologies and challenges in collecting and presenting behaviours – especially in the absence information about the benefits of of stable government incentives or full climate change action, difficulties cost pricing of business as usual. For in engaging urban stakeholders, example, there is a perceived barrier difficulties in collaborating with the that newer zero carbon technologies private sector, and access to funding are more expensive, in comparison to for climate action (C40, 2016a). The the sheer economies of scale of the majority of these challenges cannot incumbent fossil fuel systems, plus be overcome unilaterally by cities, but the fact that many of the true costs of require support from partners, such as that system are either subsidised or national governments or the private externalized. There are also perceived sector (C40, 2016). disadvantages of being the first to adopt new technologies, financial 6.5 Economics and finance disincentives to change, and an un-level playing field for cleaner technologies and non-corporate entities. Another barrier is that many capital expenditure profiles for investment in clean technologies are ‘front end Climate has now firmly moved loaded’. This means most of the from an environmental issue to a cost comes at the beginning of the project, but then the ongoing costs are financial and economic one. significantly lower. For example, once you have built your windfarm there Transforming Finance, 2016 are no ongoing coal, oil or gas costs. However, under the existing system, this ‘front end loaded’ investment poses huge difficulties in mobilising the initial finance in order to deliver any financial barriers to the longer-term returns. zero carbon transition are There is also an underlying fear that M rooted within the current it is impossible to create an economic neo-liberal economic paradigm. paradigm that can work without

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perpetual fossil fuel driven growth. This makes governments unwilling to instigate the economic measures (changes in regulations, kick-start subsidies and tax breaks) to deliver a zero carbon future at a fast enough rate. This reluctance to fully rise to the challenge may be driven by

a mixture of concerns, including / Cropped BY macroeconomic impacts – especially if the UK acts first, unpopular public perception of higher energy bills, but the key ideological barrier resides in resistance to ‘interference’ in markets. Despite some pioneering, innovative Images by Money / CC financial initiatives to support the Photo zero carbon initiatives, we don’t yet have an economic framework capable alternatives often appear much cheaper of supporting and nurturing this than they really are. By not including transition. The over-arching barrier these ‘externalised’ costs an unfair remains a dogged neo-liberal faith in playing field is created between fossils the primacy of market forces. fuels and alternative clean energy sources. 6.5.1 Lack of a level playing field Cost to the individual can therefore be a significant barrier to the adoption ften low or zero carbon of new technologies, behaviours and alternatives have a higher support for government policy. O upfront cost, particularly in the early stages when new technologies are Renewable energy more expensive than established ones due to development costs or economies n the UK, the costs of renewable of scale. However, when true costs are energy subsidies have been passed evaluated, including the ‘externalised’ I onto consumers in the form of costs of polluting activities, then a zero higher bills. It is estimated that in 2014 carbon future does indeed carry lower this added £45 to the average household costs than the unsustainable alternative bill, and will add about £105 a year by – a case that has been powerfully made 2020. However, estimates of the impact by reports such as the Stern Review and on bills have been criticised for not others (Stern, 2011; EPA, 2015). However, including the reduction in the wholesale as these costs are rarely included in price of electricity caused by increased the price individuals pay, polluting supply from renewables. Furthermore,

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the whole approach of adding the cost early adopters confront higher first of subsidies to energy bills is criticised costs (NEF, 2014). The need to reduce by many as ‘regressive’, since poorer early adopter costs and help grow people contribute a higher proportion of markets, along with the need to address their income (Preston et al., 2013). fuel poverty in some households, makes The higher upfront cost of zero a good case for subsidies to pay all carbon heating systems, compared or part of the cost of more ambitious with current standard systems like retrofit measures, as well as other major gas boilers, is an important financial changes required for sustainability. barrier to roll out. Lower running costs, Access to capital is clearly important alongside subsidy schemes such as the since a ‘whole-house’ retrofit may cost Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI), can tens of thousands of pounds and the make these systems a cost-effective payback period from energy bill savings investment over several years. However, may be long. access to capital to cover the upfront A higher upfront cost for the most cost can remain a financial barrier. efficient appliances, which could be justified once energy efficiency, Buildings longevity and repair costs are considered, may nonetheless impede key barrier to building all decisions based on whole-life costs, and new buildings to Passivhaus can put efficient appliances out of the A standard, or equivalent, is the reach of the less well off. increased upfront cost. This additional cost is not excessive (estimated at Transport 3-8% above a conventional building for the fairly mature European market) n the ten years to 2015, train and and can easily be recouped over the bus fares have risen by over 50%, life of the building through reduced I while the cost of motoring has energy bills (Passipedia, 2016). In the increased by around 20%, but in real UK, current estimates of additional terms (relative to the rate of inflation) upfront costs vary and may be higher public transport fares are relatively than the above (recent estimates range higher and motoring costs relatively from 0-25%). However, costs are falling lower than ten years ago (DfT, 2016a). as construction industry familiarity The main reasons people do not use increases and the cost of materials and the train for long trips are convenience components reduces (de Selincourt, and cost, while cheaper fares would 2014). encourage more people to use the train The embryonic nature of some for shorter trips (DfT, 2015e). Cost is markets, such as that for solid wall also an important barrier to travelling insulation, means there is a lack of by bus for many people (Transport ‘economy of scale’. This means that Focus, 2013).

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Studies have found that a key and the price gap between healthy and barrier to electric vehicles (EVs) is unhealthy foods is growing (Jones et al., the higher upfront costs; even though 2014). lower running costs make EVs nearly comparable with conventional cars, Other examples consumers require short payback periods (Egbue and Long, 2012; Element Energy, here are many other 2013). examples where zero carbon Since the 2005 budget, Vehicle- T alternatives, and particularly Excise Duty (VED) has been graduated new technologies, are put at a financial according to carbon dioxide emissions disadvantage compared to the status as an incentive to drivers to purchase quo. In many cases, there is a clear vehicles with lower emissions. This imbalance in funding and support played a part in the significant for existing unsustainable practices, increase in the market share of more compared with the transition to fuel-efficient cars over this time (Society sustainable ones. of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, For example, in relation to cycling, 2012). The successful VED policy was the Dutch spent £24 per person per abandoned in the 2015 budget when year on cycling compared to less than a standard flat rate was introduced £2 per person in England (All Party covering 95% of cars, providing no Parliamentary Group on Cycling, 2013). incentive to purchase more efficient It was recommended that funding in the models. UK needed to be at least £10 per person The aviation industry receives tax increasing to £20 (APPGC, 2013). In 2016 exemptions in fuel duty and VAT (for the Government announced funding plane tickets) estimated to be around for walking and cycling in England of £10 billion in 2014 (Lees, 2014), which only £316 million over 5 years between is not compensated for by the revenue now and 2021, much of which is not from Passenger Air Duty of £3 billion new funding (DfT, 2016c). This equates per year. Aviation fuel pays no tax due to to roughly £1.20 per person per year, opposition from the International Civil but not inclusive of local spending. In Aviation Organisation (ICAO). contrast, the Government proposes investment of £15.2 billion in over 100 Food major road schemes (DfT, 2014). The funding in Scotland seems a little better, he top three factors in people’s estimated at around £6-7 per person for food choices are price, quality cycling in 2015 (SPOKES, 2015), but still T and taste (DEFRA, 2015b). less than the £10-20 required. Healthier foods are generally found to In many cases, there are perverse or be more expensive than processed food poorly aligned incentives for people to (Monsivais, 2015; Moubarac, et al., 2013) behave in un-environmentally friendly

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ways, and in some cases there is no incentive to buy larger cars and drive incentive to change at all. For example: more (Gossling and Cohen, 2014).

• In many cases, the party paying for In all of these cases there is a lack energy efficiency improvements does of a level playing field, with financial not get the full benefit from reduced incentives heavily weighted in favour energy bills. For example, the tenant of the incumbent fossil fuel system or rather than landlord pays the energy status quo. bill or the property is sold soon after the efficiency improvements are made 6.5.2 Fossil fuel subsidies and whilst the sale price or rental income may be increased by energy report by the International efficiency improvements, this may not Monetary Fund (IMF) revealed fully cover the expenditure. A the level of subsidies provided to the fossil fuel industry globally is • At present there is a lack of incentive around 6% of total global gross domestic to consider energy storage and energy product (GDP) (IMF, 2015). The G20 demand management. Electricity countries provide $444 billion a year storage is poorly aligned with existing in subsidies to fossil fuel companies, regimes in the electricity system. almost four times the amount of global There may be ‘positive externalities’ subsidies to renewable energy (Bast et for the investor whereby their energy al., 2015). These subsidies are financing storage gives system-level benefits the exploitation of uneconomic high for which they are not rewarded carbon assets that cannot be burnt financially (Grunewald et al., 2012). if internationally agreed targets in Paris are to be met, and are diverting • There are also perverse incentives investment from low and zero carbon to drive in the form of company alternatives (ibid). The UK is one of car taxation and business travel the few G20 countries (and the only remuneration schemes. Many G7 country) that is increasing its fossil organisations, deliberately or fuel subsidies while cutting back on unthinkingly, provide an incentive support for renewable energy (ibid). to employees to drive for business Governments are willing to subsidise use by providing a flat rate business and support the fossil fuel industry travel mileage, which in many cases as their interests in cheap energy and generously compensates employees security often align. who drive, and which sometimes As table 6.1 shows, these subsidies are costs the business more than paying enormous – conservatively estimated for public transport costs. While at £26 billion a year in the UK. The there is some essential business use, majority of this subsidy is termed a company car generally acts as an ‘indirect’ as it comes in the form of

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Energy source Subsidies Reference

£26 billion in 2015 or more than £412 per person Fossil fuels IMF (2015) (this includes both direct and indirect subsidies)

North Sea oil $4.5 billion 2010-2014 Bast et al. (2015) and gas

£3.5 billion in 2014/15 or £55 per person Renewables DECC (2015f) £9.1 billion in 2020/21 (expected)

Fig. 6.1 UK subsidies for fossil fuels and renewables not paying the costs of climate change support a range of technology choices and local air pollution. However, there currently uses a variety of very different are also significant ‘direct’ subsidies terms, depending on how it is being to fossil fuel companies in the form of framed. ‘Incentives’ sound good, pre-tax subsidies and uncollected tax whilst ‘subsidies’ can sound bad. Also revenues (IMF, 2015). some technology choices offer direct North Sea oil and gas have financial benefits to those living locally, corporation tax reductions in the UK, whilst others do not. This leads to bias and UK public funding is used for and inequality in public perception/ exploration of fossil fuels. In the five acceptance. years to 2014, the UK subsidies for oil and gas development in the North Sea was $4.5 billion, most of which went to international companies (Bast et al., 2015). Domestic fossil fuels also get subsidies for ‘security of supply’, which Theresa May gives a £10,000-plus renewables don’t. bribe if you live near a frack site. If The UK government has a direct interest in supporting national fossil- you live near a wind farm, nothing fuel production, since fossil fuel …The asymmetry is amazing. related tax receipts are over £25 billion a year (HMRC, 2016). While the tax Barry Gardiner, Shadow Energy and Climate Change Secretary (Mason, 2016) receipts are a direct source of revenue for the Treasury, the environmental damage caused by the industry incurs hidden costs, such as the health costs of air pollution, which society bears as a whole and which entail direct Nuclear power also receives government expenditure. government support in the form of The way money moves from clean-up costs, insurance and political the public to the private sector to influence. New nuclear power projects

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will also receive guaranteed prices for The combined effect of these barriers the energy they generate in future. is to create inertia and further carbon The government has recently lock-in (ibid). The most common driver announced a deal for a new nuclear for reform of subsidies worldwide is a power plant, Hinkley C, which involves crisis, typically when the fiscal costs the government committing £92.50 are so high that governments have no per megawatt hour over 35 years for its choice (Bast et al., 2015). Only in rare electricity output – more than twice cases are environmental issues a motive the current wholesale price. It has been for reform (ibid). shown that cancelling Hinkley C and Encouragingly, falls in oil prices have switching to renewables would save facilitated the phase-out of consumer Britain at least £30-40 billion in energy subsidies in around 30 countries in 2014 bills (Intergenerational Foundation, (Merrill et al., 2015). In the UK, where 2016). Onshore windfarms would cost subsidies are largely production-related, £31.2 billion less than Hinkley, and solar the opposite has occurred, with taxes photovoltaic power £39.9 billion less on the North Sea oil and gas industry over 35 years to build and run, based on effectively abolished in the 2016 budget. both the value of subsidies paid by the taxpayer for the electricity and the cost 6.5.3 Lack of access to finance of building the infrastructure (ibid). Phasing out national subsidies he costs of transition to a presents an opportunity to shift public zero carbon future are high. finance into clean energy sources. T Estimates, for example, of However, governments are often the capital required for future power reluctant to undertake reform due to a investment in the UK vary widely, due number of barriers (Whitley and Van der in part to the different scenarios and Berg, 2015): the degree of decarbonisation, but range from £3.1 to £11.1 billion per • Lack of transparent information on year by 2020 (Blyth et al., 2015). A UK subsidies. Globally, there are about government estimate puts the required 800 types of fossil fuel subsidy, investment at £100 billion for the period mainly in national budgets. 2014-2020 (DECC, 2014b). Even with business as usual there • The contribution of fossil fuel are concerns about the ‘investment gap’ revenues to government budgets. in the UK power sector, since several billion pounds of investment per year is • Misperceptions and misinformation needed over the next decade. Financing about the contribution of fossil fuel needs are acute, with a number of power subsidies to economic development. stations reaching the end of their useful life and greater expansion of renewable • Vested interests blocking reform. energy needed. A major university study

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looking at the expansion of a more performance. Such schemes are welcome decentralised civic or community owned in securing investment in renewable renewable energy production system energy projects, however, they tend to identified a finance gap forcommunity favour large, traditional and centralised energy schemes as a key barrier energy supply projects (Blyth et al., (Johnson and Hall, 2014). 2015). So whilst they may finance, for Traditional models of financing example, large offshore wind projects, via the large utilities are not proving alternatives may be needed to ensure sufficient to provide the necessary finance is available for smaller-scale investment (Blyth et al., 2015). In 2012, and community energy projects. the UK Government set-up the Green As well as difficulties in securing Investment Bank with a mandate to direct finance, a major barrier for invest in renewable energy and carbon decentralised electricity supply projects emission reducing projects. It was is the difficulty of securing contracts on hoped that the UK Green Investment good commercial terms for selling the Bank could follow the strong example energy they have generated (Platt et al., provided by other infrastructure 2014). This is most commonly achieved investment banks, such as Germany’s through a power purchase agreement KfW or the European Investment (PPA) with an existing supplier, typically Bank. However, the privatisation of one of the Big Six energy companies. the Green Investment Bank has cast However, independent renewable doubt on whether it will continue to be generators have struggled to secure dedicated to providing the capital that commercially viable agreements from renewable energy projects need. The UK the Big Six due to their weak negotiating Government has insisted that a ‘special position (ibid). shareholder’ will ensure that the bank continues with its green mission but 6.5.4 Assumption that growth is good others are unconvinced that this is a sufficient safeguard (Vaughan, 2016). Concerns about ‘keeping the lights on’ and a lack of traditional finance have also led the UK Government to set-up new financing schemes – Growth for the sake of growth is the Government Guarantee Scheme the ideology of the cancer cell. and Private Finance 2. Under the Government Guarantee Scheme, the Edward Abbey, 1968 Treasury guarantees that lenders to ‘nationally significant’ infrastructure projects will be repaid in full and on time, irrespective of project

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here is a pervasive assumption Yet, GDP is a hopelessly indiscriminate in society that growth is measure of economic progress so that T synonymous with improved the costs of pollution, car accidents well-being and is sustainable and and prostitution increase GDP, while desirable. Yet, somewhere in-between important but uncosted items are 1950 and 1970 the increase in social ignored. welfare stagnated or even reversed in most rich countries, despite a steady increase in GDP growth (van der Bergh, 2011). More fundamentally, the more the Yet the gross national product world grows, the more resources are does not allow for the health of needed and the more pollution is created generally. Many studies have clearly our children, the quality of their shown that the planet has reached its education or the joy of their play. carrying and absorbing capacity as a It does not include the beauty of result. The impossibility of continued economic growth on a finite planet our poetry or the strength of our was explored by the Club of Rome over marriages, the intelligence of our 40 years ago (Meadows, 1972). More recent studies have demonstrated that public debate or the integrity of humanity has already transgressed our public officials. It measures three planetary boundaries for climate neither our wit nor our courage, change, biodiversity loss and changes to the global nitrogen cycle (Rockstrom neither our wisdom nor our et al., 2009). The world’s population is learning, neither our compassion using nature’s services and resources at nor our devotion to our country, a much faster rate than nature’s ability to replace and absorb them. it measures everything in short, Globally, increasing growth has been except that which makes life demonstrated to be the most important driver of environmental impact, with worthwhile. correlations between world economic Robert F. Kennedy, 1968 growth and atmospheric carbon dioxide, global material use and impacts on ecosystems (Antal, 2014). Growth is conventionally measured by GDP, which describes the sum total of all the goods and services that the GDP provides a very distorted view economy produces and measures the of societal well-being. Using GDP to income earned from that production. gauge economic progress “is like using

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a speedometer to determine whether to economic inefficiency. Competition we are going the right direction, and is the key driving force of neo-liberal whether we have fuel in the tank.” economics (Monbiot, 2016). Free (Evans, 2012). Although GDP was market economics, based on the never designed to measure national idea of individual liberty, means well-being it has become a proxy that individuals, acting via market for social welfare and has immense forces, should be allowed to choose importance in policy discussions and how to allocate resources. As such, public debate. Yet, instead of leading markets are seen as powerful ways to to increased well-being, pursuit of optimise a system, because they rely GDP growth has led to the problem on human behaviour in a competitive of ‘uneconomic growth’ (Daly, 2013). environment of ‘free choice’. Despite the clear unsustainability Neo-liberal deregulation of endless economic growth, any undermines the ability to deal with discussion that growth is not climate change by weakening the desirable or that there needs to be ability of society to meet social less consumption and production of needs and regulate environmental goods is still considered something destruction. The belief in the overriding of a taboo (Sekulova et al., 2013). To power of the market to meet society’s effectively tackle climate change needs results in the commodification (and other global environmental of everything, including nature, problems) requires questioning the as well as privatisation of public widely held belief that growth is services and natural assets. However, good and GDP is an accurate and without sufficient regulation in appropriate measurement of societal competitive markets, firms are driven progress. to make profits at the expense of the environment, resulting in the 6.5.5 Neo-liberalism, privatisation continuing ecological crisis. The and free trade reliance on individuals alone to solve the problem is a symptom of the eo-liberalism is a school problem: an ideology grounded in the of economic thought that supposed wants and needs of individual N is now the prevailing consumers. economic orthodoxy in the UK and In Expert View below, Andrew many other industrialised societies. Simms discusses the problems and It combines belief in deregulated misguided assumptions about human (‘free’) markets with concerns about nature underpinning neo-liberalism, personal freedoms. At its core is the and why it is time for a paradigm notion that government involvement shift. He argues one of the greatest with the free market should be barriers to that shift might just be our stopped because it inevitably leads reluctance to believe in its possibility.

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Expert View Neo-liberalism? We’re just not like that and we can make it happen

Andrew Simms

Co-director of the New Weather Institute

“Where there is no vision, the people perish.” Proverbs (29:18)

“It is easier to imagine the end of the world than a change to the current economic system.” Attributed to various people

We have the technology to ‘make it happen’, that much is demonstrated by the work of the Zero Carbon Britain project. But, despite numerous, innovative financial initiatives to support green energy, we don’t yet have the economics. The obstacle is a tenacious, ideological hybrid of a classical faith in the primacy of markets called neo-liberalism.

It was born in April 1947 in the Swiss mountain town of Mont- Pèlerin when the likes of Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek, scions of the Chicago School of Economics, Ludvig von Mises of the Austrian school, and philosopher Karl Popper gathered to perfect a market system that would underpin their vision of a free society. They sought to halt the spread of ideas that emphasised common purpose and governments acting directly in the public interest. Instead they pushed an economic counter-revolution that married the old, neoclassical belief in deregulated markets with newer liberal concerns about personal freedom, fully conflating the two.

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Even early on, however, Karl Popper, author of The Open Society and Its Enemies, broke ranks, pointing out that “proponents of complete freedom are in actuality, whatever their intentions, enemies of freedom”. Popper saw the logical consequence of ignoring how power, unregulated markets and unrestrained individual behaviour would interact. He reasoned that this notion of freedom paradoxically would be, “not only self-destructive but bound to produce its opposite, for if all restraints were removed there would be nothing whatever to stop the strong enslaving the weak”.

Yet, today, even critics of neo-liberalism can become hypnotised by its success. Instead of challenging its fundamentally flawed logic and view of human nature, they argue over and seek to re-engineer parts of its machinery. As if there is a ghost in the machine, that can be exorcised, or captured and put to better use.

In seeking out and building a new economics, however, I think it is better to start straightforwardly from asking what it is we want to achieve? In the face of potentially catastrophic climate change, corrosive economic inequality and pervasive impoverishment of the human condition, I’d argue quite simply that this will include operating with planetary boundaries, doing so in a way that shares more equally the benefits of our economies and consciously favouring things that are likely to promote social justice and raise human well-being.

But after neo-liberalism’s recent, near systemic collapse, tenaciously the old order restored itself, using its own economic failure to justify more of what caused the problems in the first place. A market failure was cleverly transformed in the public imagination into a problem to do with public spending. We were told to put our hopes of a better life on hold and suffer austerity for the sins of a reckless financial system. And, in a strange act of passive compliance and of the victim’s often odd assumption of guilt, many accepted and internalised this version of events.

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Rampant, self-seeking individualism designed into the heart of neo- liberialism had nearly destroyed the system itself. So everyone had to be disciplined, except, of course, the actual guilty parties. Support and investment in the public domain was sacrificed in the name of protecting a flawed financial architecture. Without exposing and discrediting the neo-liberal assumptions that naturalise such policy choices we won’t be able to ‘make it happen’.

But who are we? Mainstream economics tends to make sweeping, highly reductive assertions that are conveniently self-fulfilling. ‘You are narrowly self-interested, perfectly informed and rational – you are “economic man”,’ runs the argument, and your world is, ‘competitive, infinite and barrier-free.’ You have evolved through Jeremy Bentham’s concept of the importance of ‘utility’ – the greatest good for the greatest number, French mathematician Leon Walras’ general equilibrium theory of the economy, and seek to maximise your utility through ‘expressed preferences’.

But here’s the trick – the only way the mainstream has been confident enough to measure that, is through what you spend – regardless of why you spend – and how all that adds up into our national income – or, GDP. Famously, that means we are meant to be living the dream whether we’re spending on wild flower seeds for the garden, extra door locks through fear of crime or asthma inhalers due to poor air quality. That is literally the bad smell of mainstream, aka apocalyptic economics.

In the eyes of GDP that cannot distinguish economic quality from the quantity – more is always better. I am simplifying – but that means the success of the dominant economic model of the Anthropocene is measured by the voracity with which we over-consume – and in doing so overburden our biocapacity, undermining our life supporting ecosystems. Hence and gnomically, our success is, in fact, measured by our failure.

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There’s a niche in the economics literature that explores the question: does studying economics make you a bad person? (Harford, 2010). Professor Robert H. Frank was one of its early exponents, based at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. He was struck by the insistence in economics on the essential selfishness of human nature – like the economist Gordon Tullock’s assertion that ‘the average human being is about 95 per cent selfish, in the narrow sense of the term’ (Frank et al., 1993).

Frank and his colleagues chose to investigate whether the ‘self- interest’ model of the economy was a reflection of how people in essence were, or whether it was an artificially constructed model that attracted an unrepresentative, more selfish sample of society to its cause, and was actually making people selfish. His troubling conclusion was that the appeal, study and internalisation of neo- liberal economic models did indeed select an unrepresentative, more selfish slice of society.

A study at the dawn of the Reagan–Thatcher economic revolution noted that economics undergraduates were more likely to behave selfishly and ‘free-ride’ off the more public-spirited behaviour of others (Marwell and Ames, 1981). And, more recently, Yoram Bauman, an environmental economist at the University of Washington, looked at the impact of economics teaching on students majoring in other subjects. Those who began as part of the more generous majority, not full-time students of economics, actually became more selfish as a result of exposure to studying the ‘dismal science’ (Bauman, 2011).

That’s an old term but according to Dr Marc Arvan, an assistant professor of philosophy at the University of Tampa in the US, it could be an understatement. He conducted an experiment looking into the relationship between ‘moral judgments and three “dark” personality traits: Machiavellianism (in other words tendencies to deceit), narcissism (over-inflated sense of self-worth), and psychopathy (lack of guilt and remorse)’ (Arvan, 2013).

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To do so he looked at people’s beliefs concerning several issues including ‘economic libertarianism’ – the notion that the role of the state in relation to the market should be minimal, only intervening to prevent or punish the breaking of the law. This is the ideal habitat in which ‘economic man’ is supposed to prosper. But Arvan found that this view ‘correlated significantly . . . with all three dark personality traits.’ In other words, the projection of an economic system built on foundations of self-interest, individualism and self-regulation, which is supposed to be good for everyone, in fact describes the habitat for a dark triad of personality dysfunctions including psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism.

The materialism relied on by neo-liberal markets displays similarly self-reinforcing and negative dynamics. It’s been shown in countless studies, summarised by American academic Prof Tim Kasser, that holding more materialistic values is an indicator for having relatively lower levels of well-being. Classic studies show that merely being exposed to images of fancy consumer goods triggers materialistic concerns, which makes us feel worse, and behave more antisocially (Bauer et al., 2012).

Children, for example, exposed to advertising were seen to be less likely to interact socially. Other studies show how by simply referring to people as consumers rather than, say, citizens, triggers more competitive and selfish behaviour (ibid). When you can be exposed to anything from 500–3000 daily ‘cues’ to think in this way from exposure to media and advertising, it can have a huge cumulative effect – not just on our own well-being but on others through how we behave toward them (ibid).

Psychology Professor, Dacher Keltner, points to research that show how image-conscious people who drive the highest social status cars, also exhibit the most antisocial behaviour on the roads (Preston, 2013). To combat what they called the visual pollution of excessive advertising, in 2007 Brazil’s biggest city, São Paulo, led by the city’s conservative mayor, Gilberto Kassab (Adbusters, 2007)

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introduced The Clean City Law. The result was a near-total ban effecting billboards, digital signs and advertising on buses. Several US states strongly control public advertising, too, and in Paris, recent rules reduce advertising on the city’s streets by 30% and cap the size of hoardings (Godfrey, 2011). No adverts are allowed within 50 metres of school gates.

Yet, the fact that we might not fully be in the driving seat of our own lives can be felt as an affront. It can feel like a weakness, an insult to our sense of ourselves. But not only is the evidence overwhelming that our choices are hugely influenced by cues in the environment around us and the behaviour of others – it seems that much of the time ‘rational economic man’ is often not making conscious rational choices at all in the way supposed by mainstream economics.

There is a debate about how much, but research in neuroscience (Bear and Bloom, 2016) indicates that many of our choices are made during pre-conscious brain activity – a mixture of highly subjective, conditioned and instinctive processes. If anything, the brain can be that kind of friend who, whatever you do and for whatever reason, pats you on the back after the event and says ‘good call’, you took charge and did the right thing.

The doctrine of neo-liberalism, it seems, pushes you towards becoming the kind of human being that it relies on. The study of this branch of economics appears to behave like an intellectual version of Invasion of the Body Snatchers, turning the host mind to its own pre-set purpose. It is a kind of reality-by-assertion. In fact, there has been a deluge of findings recently from evolutionary biology, anthropology, psychology, ecology and neuroscience that contradict the reduction of humanity to competitive vessels of short-term, self-interested individualism.

From our primal beginnings, biology reveals that the emergence of life on Earth itself owes as much to processes of symbiosis and association as to competition (Margulis and Sagan, 1986). This

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appears to be the case with early-evolving bacteria, engaged in a kind of giant social networking exercise in which micro-biological forms evolved the tricks that still lie at the heart of life.

Nature – often – is riddled with strategies that contradict the market myth that life is a brutal individual struggle of the survival of the fittest. There are evolutionary victories for symbiosis, for example, in the bacteria that fix nitrogen in plant roots and which consequently make life continuingly possible. And, for collaboration, as was the case with primeval slime mould which got life going. There is also the co-evolution that gave us the pollinating honey bee responsible for those one in three mouthfuls of the food we eat. And then there is ‘reason’ itself, another advantage for problem-solving animals like elephants, dogs, cats, rats, sperm whales and, apparently, sometimes, humans. In a world witnessing the unhealthy concentration of economic power and cultural homogenisation, optimal diversity, too, is a key condition; nature’s insurance policy against disaster.

Yet, we regulate the economy in favour of one-sided, competitive individualism and, ironically in the process, through the failure to control emerging monopoly and oligopoly, allow the spread of monocultures and clone towns that are increasingly vulnerable to a wide range of external shocks. Interestingly, companies with more progressive governance structures, co-operatives like John Lewis and mutuals like the Nationwide, proved more resilient and successful after the financial crisis.

In fact, what seems to make humanity fairly special is our prodigious and skilful capacity for empathy and co-operation. In this broader view we are in fact ‘super-co-operators’ who are living in an ‘age of empathy’. Professor of biology and maths at Harvard University, Martin Nowak, notes that contrary to the pseudo-Darwinian caricature of animals caught in a death struggle, mechanisms of co- operation including direct and indirect reciprocity are fundamental. In fact, from David Hume to Darwin himself, and Kropotkin writing

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in Mutual Aid, the power of co-operation as opposed to competition is the forgotten story of ourselves.

Science now shares a lot with the truths stumbled on by the world’s great religions that value unselfish action. Nowak writes that, ‘they have come to the conclusion that love, hope and forgiveness are essential components of what is needed to solve the biggest problems’ (Nowak and Highfield, 2011). And that he is ‘struck – perhaps awestruck – by the extent to which humans co-operate . . . no animal species can draw on the mechanisms (of co-operation) to the same extent as seen in human society’.

Empathy is the antithesis of market-sociopathy and the biologist and primatologist, Frans de Waal, sees this as the great, under- recognised human quality (de Waal, 2010). The fact that we are ‘hard-wired’ for altruism, the expression of our ability for empathy, has kept society as a whole from falling apart. ‘Feeling’ for each other, in such a way that it shapes mutually supportive, rather than competitive behaviour, is designed-in. To flourish, we need an economics that plays to these extraordinary strengths, rather than contradicting and suppressing them.

De Waal sees amusing contradictions in the highly selective co- option by mainstream economics of evolutionary theory. Just as a rejection of real Darwinism, or refusal to endorse it, washes over the religious, conservative branch of the Republican movement, the very same political persuasion promotes a Social Darwinism that depicts ‘life as a struggle in which those who make it shouldn’t be dragged down by those who don’t’. Hence, neoconservatives draw invisibly on early misinterpretations of Darwin’s theories and their application to the world of business. It was the nineteenth century philosopher Herbert Spencer, for example, who coined the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’. He thought equality was a bad idea, and that it was counterproductive ‘for the “fit” to feel any obligation toward the “unfit”’.

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Yet, quite the opposite is true in practice. Not only is inequality associated with economic disasters – it tends to peak before collapse – it also raises costs to society as a whole across the board as we see in the work of Kate Pickett and Richard Wilkinson (Pickett and Wilkinson, 2009). Equality, on the other hand, is very productive indeed. Calling on our inborn capacity for empathy, writes De Waal, ‘can only be to any society’s advantage’. I think it is time for a paradigm shift in which the colossally erroneous notion of ‘economic man’ at the heart of neo-liberalism, is removed from the centre of our theoretical solar system, much as the Earth once had to be replaced by the Sun to correct a similarly mistaken belief.

It turns out that one of the greatest barriers to that shift might just be our reluctance to believe in its possibility – a reluctance that itself appears to be based on misunderstandings about how the world actually is, and wrongly second guessing what other people are truly like. To begin with, New Scientist magazine described how “Many theories … begin with the idea that inequality is somehow a beneficial cultural trait that imparts efficiencies, motivates innovation and increases the likelihood of survival. But … rather than imparting advantages to the group, unequal access to resources is inherently destabilising and greatly raises the chance of group extinction.” (Rogers, 2012).

The behavioural economist, Dan Ariely, conducted a survey in the US based on a classic thought experiment by the political philosopher John Rawls. First people were asked to estimate how wealth was actually distributed in the country. Respondents were broken down according to voter persuasion, Republicans and Democrats, men and women, and high-, medium- and low-paid. All groups, with very little variation among them, substantially overestimated how equal their society actually was. They were then told to imagine that they are going to be randomly inserted into an income group in the society – it could be richest, poorest or somewhere in the middle – and asked what they think would be the ideal distribution of wealth in that society. Of course, this isn’t just hypothetical,

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random insertion to an income group is precisely what happens to us when we are born. In answer to this question a fascinating thing happens – all the groups with only minor variation opted for a very substantially more equal distribution of wealth (Norton and Ariely, 2011).

Perceptions and misperceptions are fundamental to believing in the possibility of change. As described elsewhere in this report, research by the Common Cause foundation revealed how, regardless of age, geography, wealth and voting behaviour – 74% of people attach more importance to compassionate values - embracing justice, tolerance and responsibility – than to wealth, image and ambition – so called selfish values. But 77% of us think others hold dominantly selfish values. The contradiction might partly explain the lack of political enthusiasm for more shared, common, collective solutions to our problems.

What it says, however, for the task of economic transition, is that a shift in attitude and faith in each other matters far more than any post-facto, obsessively detailed platform of minutely priced policies. For all the sophistication of financial markets, the economists and analysts who serve them are fond of invoking the ‘confidence fairy’ in ultimate explanation of how they work. Even the digital money at the very heart of markets relies for its existence on nothing more solid and dependable than the emotion of trust. What this suggests is that to dispense with the demonstrably failed economic model of neo-liberalism – and the exorbitant, unbalanced privilege it gifts to the magicians and owners of finance – we must first stop believing in it. Do that and the space emerges for a more co-operative, fair, enriching, resilient and sustainable economic vision to flourish.

This is adapted and extracted from the Coleridge Lecture given by Andrew Simms at the Bristol Festival of Ideas in May 2016. Republished with permission.

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Privatisation out of our economy or into the hands of private shareholders. Investment is ne of the principles of often not available where it is necessary neo-liberalism is that of the for a sustainable transition. O small state. State owned assets Privatisation is one of the main and enterprises are seen as inefficient reasons for the UK’s high rail fares. and interfering with a free market. The cost to the public purse in running There has thus been a systematic railways has risen two to three times contraction of publicly owned and since privatisation as a result of debt national utilities and industries. Energy, write-offs, payments to contractors and water, railways, telecommunications dividend payouts, equivalent to around have all been privatised in the last 40 £1.2 billion a year (Taylor and Sloman, years. 2012). Much of the profit flows out of The governance of large corporations the UK, with many of Britain’s rail (and all privately owned companies) franchises owned and operated by state is driven by the legal responsibility owned companies in other countries to act in the interest of shareholders including Germany, France and the – maximising the return on their Netherlands (Bowden, G., 2015). investment in the short-term, rather The 1985 Transport Act, which than acting responsibly towards the deregulated bus services, was environment in the longer-term. For introduced to improve bus services but example, whilst polluting remains more instead had the opposite effect (Taylor profitable it is not in energy companies’ and Sloman, 2016). This marked a interest to support renewable energy significant decline in bus passenger (Chmutina and Goodier, 2014). It is journeys outside London, as private also questionable whether private bus operators, many of them with investment by profit seeking monopolies in local bus markets, raised companies, the only model at present fares and cut non-profitable services in the UK, is the best means to raise (ibid). In the ten years to 2013, the the necessary investment in the grid or dividends paid out to shareholders by deliver energy efficiency schemes, for bus companies across Britain totalled example. The current business model is £2.8 billion, around £277 million a a disincentive for demand reduction as year (ibid). Despite the massive public profits are based on increasing units of subsidy to bus companies, there is energy sold (Barton et al., 2015). little public accountability for how The privatisation of major industries it is used (Philippson, 2014), with no not only means that governments requirement for bus companies to give are far less in control of making the local authorities details of passenger services provided available to all who numbers on subsidised services. might need to use them, but also means In considering how we should that in many cases valuable funds flow maximise our renewable energy

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resources, a comparison can be made with the different models by which the UK and Norway exploited the windfall of discovering North Sea oil and gas. Norway kept the fossil fuel extraction within a state owned company and invested the profits in a sovereign wealth fund. The UK privatised the state oil company, sold leases to private companies and taxed their profits. It is estimated that by doing so the UK state missed out on hundreds of billions of pounds in potential revenue (Manley and Myers, 2015; Scottish Government, 2014). The transition to renewable energy offers a strategic chance to build a more inclusive system, to learn from mistakes of the past and have broader ownership of critical infrastructure.

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CASE STUDY: Impact of trade liberalisation on food

A study of Central America found that from 3% per year to 12% per year. food availability increased with trade This demonstrates that trade liberalisation. This increase was not seen liberalisation can quickly create shifts for all foods, however. The availability in patterns of consumption (Schram of poultry meat, dairy, imported fruits et al., 2015). The benefits from this (such as apples and grapes), chips new investment were mainly seen by and other processed foods, corn and transnational corporations, in this case maize all increased. The increased Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. Two domestic consumption of animal products (meat companies, which had previously had and dairy), as well as levels of imported a market share of 21%, went out of fruits and vegetables are both key issues business. In 2013, almost 69% of sales in sustainability and the increase in on the global drinks market were sold processed foods is a key issue for health. by two companies. Foreign companies The authors of the study conclude for these reasons have been identified that trade liberalisation has “direct as key actors in the creation of new food implications for health concerns”, but the environments. The authors conclude study also shows that trade liberalisation that the findings “provide substantial could also be a barrier to implementing support” for links between trade environmentally beneficial changes liberalisation and the nutrition transition (Thow and Hawkes, 2009). (ibid). Another study followed the changes This influence can limit the capacity in the sugar-sweetened carbonated of governments to introduce new drinks industry in Vietnam. They found regulations concerning food. In Vietnam, that after the removal of restrictions on for example, the government was foreign direct investment (another key warned that its proposed tax on sugary component of trade liberalisation) sales drinks could be found to be in violation of sugary drinks increased dramatically – of their free trade agreements (ibid).

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Free trade emissions in the UK but will have increased them in China (Carbon ree trade or trade liberalisation is Trust, 2011). Where a country has a a direct result of the neo-liberal competitive advantage due to lower F principle of free markets. Free environmental standards this can markets are themselves something have a damaging effect. of a myth since markets cannot exist without the external intervention of the • Technique – improvements in how state. It is a case of re-regulation rather goods and services are produced, so than deregulation (Plastow, 2010). Free that the emission intensity of output trade in turn facilitates globalisation, is reduced. This can reduce emissions. the increased mobility of goods and services (and other things) that allows According to a comprehensive us to eat fresh strawberries from assessment of the literature, most Africa in December. There has been trade and investment agreements tend an enormous expansion of world trade to increase carbon emissions, largely since 1950 due to advances in transport through scale effects (WTO-UNEP, and communications and growth of 2009). free trade policies (WTO-UNEP, 2009). Neo-liberalism has been described as Transatlantic Trade and ‘ideological software’ for competitive Investment Partnership (TTIP) globalisation; imposing far reaching programmes of state restructuring and t has been suggested that the rescaling (Plastow, 2010). proposed EU-US free trade Free trade can affect carbon I agreement, the Transatlantic Trade emissions in three main ways and Investment Partnership (TTIP), (WTO-UNEP, 2009): is likely to increase carbon emissions overall as a result of composition effects • Scale – increased economic activity (Ecorys, 2014). The TTIP is also likely to which leads to greater material and jeopardize the ability of the EU and US resource use. to put in place the proper regulations to meet climate targets (Porterfield and • Composition – the way trade Gallagher, 2015). changes the structure of a country’s This could include broad restrictions production in response to changes in on regulatory authority under investor- relative prices. The impacts of this state dispute settlement (ISDS) on emissions within an individual provisions, limits on carbon intensity country depends on that country’s standards, modifications of the US fossil comparative advantage. For example, fuel export regime, and restrictions on the shifting of steel production from renewable energy programmes (ibid). UK to China reduced associated For example, the US reportedly used

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the TTIP negotiations to successfully originally invented to protect Western pressure the European Union to weaken companies’ investment in developing the carbon intensity standards of the countries where the national legal EU’s Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) to system was not supposed to be strong facilitate the export of high carbon enough, but over time more ISDS intensity oil (Porterfield and Gallagher, provisions were included in agreements 2015). between OECD states (Provost and The EU is also trying to create Kennard, 2015). an “automatic” and “expeditious” Investors have used ISDS to sue process for importing US crude oil and for compensation over a huge range gas which would facilitate increased of government measures, including imports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) environmental and social regulations, to the EU and encourage increased which they say infringe on their rights fracking in the US, both of which could (ibid). They can sue to recover money increase emissions (ibid). they have already invested, but also for While the vote to leave the EU has alleged lost profits and “expected future made a trade deal between the EU and profits” (ibid). “When parliaments have USA less likely, it does not preclude voted to restrict sales of cigarettes, the UK signing up to TTIP at a later protect water supplies from mining date (Hilary, 2016). It has also been companies, freeze energy bills or suggested that once the UK leaves the prevent pharmaceutical firms from EU it will pursue its own trade deal with ripping off the state, corporations have the US. This is likely to look like ‘TTIP sued, often successfully.” (Monbiot, on steroids’ (Glivanos, 2016). 2016) For example, in 2009 Vattenfall, the Corporate influence Swedish energy giant, used ISDS to successfully sue the Federal Republic ne of the concerns about of Germany over strict environmental free trade is the increasingly conditions imposed by the local O powerful influence of authorities on a proposed coal fired corporations over sovereign nation power plant (Provost and Kennard, 2015). states. One way this occurs is through In another case, a Canadian corporation investor-state dispute settlement CMC used ISDS provisions in NAFTA to (ISDS) provisions that are included in challenge California’s ban of a suspected most free trade agreements. These carcinogen and won the right to pollute give investors the right to challenge or be compensated for not doing so by government decisions affecting their the California taxpayer (Castree, 2008). investments (Provost and Kennard, Increasingly, the massive financial 2015). The inclusion of ISDS provisions risks associated with investor- in TTIP is one of the key concerns for state arbitration will effectively opponents of the agreement. ISDS was grant foreign investors a veto over

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government decisions. As one lawyer reward’ countries for their policy who defends sovereign states in ISDS choices through relocating jobs and cases said “I think the investor-state investments. For example, Coca Cola arbitration system was created with and Frito-Lay (a PepsiCo company) good intentions, but in practice it has have been found to have prevented junk gone completely rogue.” (Provost and food taxes from being implemented, in Kennard, 2015) Louisiana and Maryland respectively, The more trade liberalisation that through the promise of new business occurs the more influence transnational in the area instead of the ‘inevitable’ corporations have on markets and plant closures that would follow the consumption patterns. For example, implementation of such a tax (Jacobson transnational corporations have and Brownell, 2000). increasingly been consolidating food Some researchers have argued that production, distribution and retailing; pursuing free trade agreements in in particular, the rise of supermarkets agriculture not only undermines efforts reflects this phenomenon. Large to reduce greenhouse gas emissions supermarkets now dominate how food from agriculture but is a distraction is purchased in the UK, moving away from dealing with the more important from more traditional markets that sell problems of agriculture sustainability less processed foods and more fresh and food insecurity (Moon, 2011). seasonal ones (Baker et al., 2014). Transnational corporations have 6.6 Politics and governance also promoted trade deregulation through various types of political he key obstacles preventing activities. There is evidence to show decisive climate action are their influence over food policy through T political, with political risks mechanisms such as lobbying, financial involved in implementing unpopular incentives and framing – amongst policies and confronting powerful many others. Evidence suggests that vested interests (Bailey and Preston, their aim is to keep the debate focused 2014). The large number of people that on the consumption or physical activity would be affected by a transition to zero levels of individual consumers, placing carbon makes changing the fossil fuel the blame for the levels of obesity seen system a complex and conflict-ridden today on individuals rather than on the problem (Barry et al., 2015). “Energy food industry (Mialon et al., 2016). system changes in short are political Transnational corporations also use power struggles” (ibid). Because of threats to withdraw from a country modern industrial society’s dependence if governments try to regulate their on fossil fuels, governments take a very activities (Mialon et al., 2016). As cautious approach to policies that could transnationals can act globally they affect energy supply and prices (Snell have the capacity to ‘punish and and Schmidt, 2012) and thus impact key

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sectors, communities and households. a lot to be desired, with the wealth Political action on climate change is, and power of corporations and vested therefore, weak. interests having an unfairly large Strong legislation on climate change impact on government decision-making and good governance is critically through a variety of means. important to ‘making it happen’. The UK prides itself on being a democratic 6.6.1 Vested interests and nation. However, democracy requires regulatory capture transparency, accountability, good education and information provision, ne analysis suggests that just as well as fair representation for all, 90 private and state-owned independent of wealth and power. In O companies have contributed terms of the creation of a sustainable nearly two-thirds of cumulative future, our system of governance leaves worldwide emissions of industrial ©Influen e Map

Corporate influence over the policy process.

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carbon dioxide between 1751 and 2010 • Information capture where all (Heede, 2014). Half of these emissions the information available to have been since 1986 (ibid). These major policymakers comes from industry entities have fossil fuel reserves that sources (Shapiro, 2012). will, if exploited, lead to dangerous levels of climate change. If the world is The relative size of the fossil to achieve the goal of staying below fuel industry has been found to be 2 degrees of warming, no more than significantly and negatively associated 20% of proven fossil fuel reserves can with ambitious climate change policies be consumed prior to 2050 (McGlade in different countries – in other and Ekins, 2015). Yet, companies words, the bigger the industry in a continue to explore new sources. given country, the less aggressive To protect and further their the climate-related policies tend to interests, fossil fuel companies and be (Steves and Teytelboym, 2013). other vested interests influence public Examples of regulatory capture support for action on climate change impacting on climate change include via the media, as well as directly the following: lobbying governments on policy and legislation. The phenomenon of • In the US the fossil fuel industry ‘regulatory capture’, where powerful spent $721 million (approximately industries with huge financial stakes in £480 million) on political an outcome can have undue influence campaigns to secure industry- on the regulatory process, is well friendly politicians and $163 million recognised. It is also described as ‘a (approximately £109 million) on form of political corruption’ or ‘crony TV ads to support fracking, tar capitalism’. sands and natural gas (Moser and Regulatory capture is a complicated Lee-Ashley, 2014). phenomenon because there are a number of ways it occurs, including: • In Europe, ExxonMobil reportedly spent at least £56 million in 2014 on • Legislation that favours lobbying the European Commission business interests. and on donations to EU universities and organisations, though this figure • Self-interested and ideologically may be underestimated (Mandel, motivated behaviour by civil 2016). The company lobbied on servants or politicians. greenhouse gas-related legislation, natural gas policy, air quality and • Budget cuts to oversight agencies. energy efficiency legislation, as well as against the decarbonisation • The imposition of procedural and electrification of EU transport obstacles to regulation. (Mandel, 2016).

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• Big fossil fuel companies like BP and • Since 2009, successive governments Shell, as well as trade associations have responded to lobbying efforts for the oil and gas industry, were by the motoring industry to delay part of a concerted push to curb EU or freeze increases in fuel duty, and policy support for renewable energy in this tax has fallen in real terms favour of gas (Neslen, 2015). In 2014, over the last ten years (Hopkinson, despite opposition from sustainable 2012). These delays are estimated energy companies and environmental to represent lost revenue to the groups, the European Commission Exchequer equivalent to £9.4 billion outlawed ‘non-market’ subsidies for over five years (Office for Budget clean energy from 2017 and also ended Responsibility, 2011). nationally binding renewable targets after 2020 (Neslen, 2014; Neslen, 2015). • Large house builders hold considerable ‘land banks’ – they • In the early 2000s, the UK aviation currently own enough land to build industry lobbied hard for emissions around 600,000 homes (Ruddick, trading as a way of legitimising the 2015). This land is bought at a certain expansion of air traffic in the UK and price and often held for some time. avoiding future taxes (Buhr, 2012). Owners of such land resist higher While the European Commission energy efficiency standards, since proposed in 2005 that all airlines these will make it more expensive to arriving in or departing from the build properties on their land and, EU should be included in the EU therefore, reduce their profit margin. Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), objections from non-EU airlines • Overcoming vested interests is not a mired it in controversy and it was simple process: modern economies not introduced until 2012 (ibid). have been built on fossil fuel and This has still not been extended to other high carbon systems; the international flights. financial resources of the various industries are enormous and their • Car manufacturers and related political influence is often deeply organisations have organised entrenched. successful campaigns to water down carbon dioxide emission targets on 6.6.2 Lack of transparency on cars and there is much evidence of lobbying and revolving doors the motoring lobby’s influence on transport policies, such as fuel duty ny organisation has the right rises, speed limits and cameras, to represent its interests alcohol limits and congestion charges A to government, and there (Douglas et al., 2011; Carrington, 2013; are examples of more enlightened Gossling and Cohen, 2014). corporations, such as Aviva, Ikea and

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Unilever, lobbying for improvements in Administration Act 2014, which set-up a environmental policy and legislation formal registration process for lobbyists. (Monaghan, 2014). However, there are The Act requires only a very small serious concerns about the current sub section of lobbyists (agencies) to levels of influence by certain powerful register. The majority of lobbyists – industry groups and the secrecy those working for corporations, trade associated with that influence (Cave unions, charities or trade bodies – are and Rowell, 2014). This influence not required to register. Of agency undermines efforts to reduce the lobbyists, only those that meet impacts of climate change in several Ministers or Permanent Secretaries ways: face-to-face must register, as telephone and email lobbying and lobbying of civil • It can actively shape policies that servants are excluded from the Act. increase emissions and delay or Moreover, the Register reveals weaken policies and legislation to nothing about who they are lobbying, mitigate climate change. what they are lobbying on and how much they are spending. The • It helps perpetuate a high carbon Chair of the Commons Political and system through continued support Constitutional Reform Committee, for subsidies and other forms of MP Graham Allen, criticised the Act preferential treatment that make it as a ‘dog’s breakfast’ that is not fit harder for low carbon alternatives for purpose (Farey-Jones, 2013). An to compete or gain a foothold in the analogous Lobbying (Scotland) Act market. was passed in March 2016. While it is an improvement on the UK Act as it • It fosters public scepticism about includes in-house lobbyists, it has also climate change science and the been criticised by the originator of the solutions (and hence lessens support Bill as not fit for purpose as it excludes for action) via influence on the media lobbying by phone and email (BBC, discourse. 2016). The lack of transparency on It is estimated there are around 4,000 lobbying also undermines democratic people working in the £2 billion UK accountability and weakens checks lobbying industry, mostly for corporate on corporate and institutional interests (Alliance for Lobbying corruption. The UK’s 2014 Act clearly Transparency, undated). There have fails to meet the OECD’s ‘10 Principles been calls for many years to increase for Transparency and Integrity in transparency of lobbying activities and, Lobbying’ (OECD, 2013). For example, in 2014, the Government enacted the it fails to provide a comprehensive Transparency of Lobbying, Non-party definition of lobbyists or foster a culture Campaigning and Trade Union of integrity.

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In contrast with the weak provisions where politicians and civil servants on corporate lobbying, Part 2 of the move backwards and forward to UK’s 2014 Lobbying Act, known as the industry, and the appointment ‘gagging law’, deliberately restricts of industry experts to agencies, charity campaigners, despite the fact commissions and regulatory bodies are that some charities have campaigning an endemic part of modern government as part of their listed core charitable and a serious problem in the UK (Cave, objectives (Griggs, 2015). In a separate 2016). move, the UK Government is further While there have been high profile trying to restrict lobbying by charities, cases involving revolving doors which preventing charities who receive have discredited Parliament, it is government grants from using funds to suggested that this is particularly lobby government (Cabinet Office, 2016). problematic in relation to lobbying and This initiative originates from a there is a need to tighten the regulation free market think tank, the Institute of former Ministers and MPs lobbying of Economic Affairs, with links to the after they have left office (Transparency Global Warming Policy Foundation and International UK, 2011). tobacco firms that have a vested interest In the four years to 2011 it was in preventing lobbying by public health estimated that at least 50 employees and other charities (Cave, 2016; Tobacco from EDF Energy, npower, Shell Tactics website). Over 130 leading and others have been embedded in charities have condemned the move government to work on energy issues, (Bond website, 2016). The Government 36 of whom were inside the (former) announced in December 2016 that it was Department of Energy and Climate replacing its original proposals with Change (DECC) (Cave and Rowell, 2014). standards based on good practice and At any given time there were estimated common sense after receiving robust to be a dozen people seconded from the and repeated representations from the fossil fuel and related industries working charity sector (Etherington, 2016). in DECC (DECC, 2015h). Similarly, it was The heavy handed approach to revealed 15 former civil servants are now charity lobbying compared to the lobbying government for the oil and gas minimal control over corporate lobbyists industry (Mandel, 2016). prompted MP Paul Flynn to ask: “Why The Government has Business do the Government consistently dabble Appointment rules that apply to Crown in the shallows, worrying the minnows, Servants (civil servants, armed forces, while the big, fat salmon swim by the diplomatic service and intelligence unhindered?” (Flynn, 2016). This failure agencies) and to Ministers when they to regulate corporate lobbying properly leave office (Cabinet Office, 2010). For is perhaps itself an indication of the example, Ministers are expected to seek power of lobbyists. advice if taking up appointments up to The concept of ‘revolving doors’, two years after leaving office.

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Currently, an independent advisory It is debatable whether there are public body, the Advisory Committee sufficient politicians with climate on Business Appointments (ACOBA), change as a key issue on their agenda in considers applications under the rules 2016. In 2008, there was overwhelming about new jobs for former Ministers, cross-party support, and only five MPs senior civil servants and other Crown did not support the Climate Change servants (ACOBA website). However, Act. However, since 2010, political there is no legal requirement for momentum for action on climate Ministers and civil servants to consult change has greatly diminished and the ACOBA and no controls on former political parties are increasingly divided Ministers and civil servants who have on climate change (see below, ‘Political joined industry for the purpose of manifestos on climate change, renewables lobbying their former departments and energy efficiency’). (Cave, 2016). In many ways, the Government is going backwards on climate change 6.6.3 Lack of political will and (Barry, 2013; Campaign against Climate cross-party support Change, undated). Public spending cuts since 2010 have undermined ack of political will on support green investment, with many climate- for climate action is seen by related policies or funding withdrawn L many as a fundamental obstacle while fossil fuel investments and tax to action on climate change (Wiseman breaks have increased (see sections et al., 2013). Without political will there 6.5.2 and 6.6.4). It is argued that the is no support for meaningful policy or discontinuity and uncertainty of legislation (particularly the long-term policies is the main reason for the stable policy commitments needed for limited development of renewable investment), no appetite to take on energy in the UK (Chmutina and vested interests, and certainly no desire Goodier, 2014). to take politically unpopular decisions. Over the last 25 years of energy Climate change is an immediate but policy on renewables, there have been long term challenge with wide reaching changes to long-term commitments consequences requiring difficult policy that have undermined investor choices, benefits of which may not be confidence. Policies to support visible for many years. Following the community renewable energy, for global recession in 2008 and changes instance, have been described as in government since 2010, climate “uncoordinated, poorly designed, change has appeared to drop off the UK hurriedly implemented and truncated” political agenda. This reinforces public (Smith et al., 2015). Investors lack perceptions that climate change and trust that the political process will energy decarbonisation are no longer deliver consistent policy (Chmutina and key concerns (Bailey and Preston, 2014). Goodier, 2014).

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Political manifestos on climate change, renewables and energy efficiency

(Evans, 2015a) LIBERAL DEMOCRATS: “Climate change, one of the greatest challenges of our age, is CONSERVATIVES: “We will cut emissions by its nature global.” as cost-effectively as possible, and will Pledged to pass a Zero Carbon Britain Act to not support additional distorting and bring net emissions to zero by 2050. Would expensive power sector targets.” set “indicative target” to get 60% of UK Support the UK Climate Change Act. Pledge electricity from renewables in 2030. Aim to to “halt the spread of onshore windfarms”, improve at least four million homes over and support low-cost measures on energy five years. efficiency. PLAID CYMRU: “[We must recognise] the DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST PARTY (DUP): impacts of climate change upon poverty.” No mention of climate change. Pledged to introduce a Climate Change Act for Wales. Energy policy will focus GREEN PARTY: “Climate change is the on increasing energy generation from greatest challenge of our time and only the renewable sources. Pledged to work to Greens are determined to tackle it.” reduce the amount of energy used in Wales. Believes UK should reduce emissions to 10% of 1990 levels by 2030. Want to strengthen SNP: “We will use our influen e at the Climate Change Act. Believe renewables Westminster to ensure the UK matches, can meet all our energy needs. Aim to cut and supports, Scotland’s ambitious energy demand by a third in 2020, half in commitments to carbon reduction.” 2030, two-thirds in 2050. Pledged to maximise support for offshore wind and for onshore wind to continue to LABOUR: “Tackling climate change is receive support. Pledged to push the Energy an economic necessity and the most Company Obligation to be funded through important thing we must do for our general taxation. children, our grandchildren and future generations.” Pledged to agree new carbon UKIP: “[The UK’s] failing energy policies... budgets under the Climate Change Act. will do nothing to reduce global emissions.” Would set “a legal target to remove carbon “Our major global competitors...are from our electricity supply by 2030”. switching to low-cost fossil fuels, we are Renewables will be part of energy mix, forced to close perfectly good coal-fi ed overseen by an Energy Security Board. Aim power stations to meet unattainable to insulate five million homes by 2020. targets for renewable[s].” Pledged to repeal the Climate Change Act. Pledged to withdraw subsidies for new wind turbines and solar photovoltaic arrays.

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While 2015’s COP21 UN climate summit in Paris resulted in a government commitment to enshrining net zero carbon emissions in law We all know what to do, we just (Hansard, 2016), many of the policies don’t know how to get re-elected needed simply to meet existing carbon targets over the next 15 years are after we’ve done it. lacking (Committee on Climate Change, Jean-Claude Juncker, ex-PM of Luxembourg 2015 [Lord Deben letter] and 2016). (BBC, 2014) This situation is not helped by the abolition of the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) in 2016, widely viewed as a major setback for climate policy, or by the vote to Even when politicians are aware leave the EU, which has profound that climate change is important and implications for UK legislation and urgent they may still be unwilling to policy on climate change (Institute commit to action. The propensity of for European Environmental Policy, senior decision-makers in politics and 2016). While until recently in the UK business (particularly those with a clear climate change has not been a partisan understanding of the issues) to act on issue, there are strong links between climate change is influenced by a wide leading Brexit campaigners and climate range of factors, including: deniers stemming from an ideological opposition to regulation (Desmog • Selective filtering of climate change website). evidence and analysis.

• An education grounded in neo classical economics with bias towards short-term, financial outcomes and faith in technical solutions to complex ecological challenges. Knowing what’s right doesn’t mean much unless • Antagonism to egalitarian and ecological values. you do what’s right. • Identity and behaviour shaped Theodore Roosevelt by dominant masculinist ideals (emotion-free, value-free rationality) – applicable to women as well as men.

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• Their own high cost/high carbon “transcending neoliberal forms of lifestyle and insulation from climate governance” (ibid). problems. Cognitive biases also cause decision- makers to ignore trends that conflict • Dominance of pragmatic, market- with their perceptions of the desirability based strategies. of the status quo (Howlett, 2014). Environmental risks pose challenges (Rickards et al., 2013 and 2014). to the existing social, political and economic order. It is thought that one Although these factors don’t apply to of the reasons that conservative white all politicians, strong similarities exist men in the US have significantly lower amongst many people in positions of worries about environmental problems seniority who have to ‘play the game’ to than other adults is because it threatens stay in it, thus perpetuating the system their identity and position, therefore, (ibid). they resist attempts to change the Others have highlighted the problems status quo (McCright and Dunlap, 2013). with the pervasive view within policy There is also a tendency for ‘group- circles that technology alone can solve think’, which occurs when a group of the problems of climate change and a individuals holding common sets of failure to see the transition to a zero beliefs reinforce the group ‘paradigm’. carbon future as a political and ethical Policy decisions are socially constructed issue rather than just a technical one and senior decision-makers appear (Barry, 2016). particularly reluctant to act on their For example, there is generally personal concerns about climate change a political failure to acknowledge because of the discrepancy between transport growth and its effect on those concerns and the perception of emissions, as politicians tend to their peers’ views (Rickards et al., 2013, place undue faith in technological 2014). solutions and are reluctant to address Senior decision-makers also place the highly skewed contribution to a strong emphasis on avoiding career transport emissions from a minority risks (ibid) and tend to avoid blame of relatively wealthy people (Gossling for unpopular actions rather than seek and Cohen, 2014). Political taboos, such credit for popular ones (Weaver, 1986; as unnecessary journeys glamorised Hood, 2010; Howlett, 2014; Bache et by advertising or the behaviour of al., 2015). This is a result of negativity high-income frequent flyers, are not bias, a general psychological bias addressed because of the political risk where we tend to pay more attention of interfering with perceived mobility to negative than positive information, and freedom (Gossling and Cohen, and value losses more highly than gains 2014). This needs fundamental social (Howlett, 2014). Novel or substantive and cultural change that involves policy interventions needing political

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courage are rare because the political action in Iraq. Despite a strong nucleus costs of potential failure outweigh the of organisations and activists in the benefits of potential success, which climate movement, there is a need to causes politicians to avoid action, deny reach beyond the choir to mobilise the problem exists (ibid) or engage in other sectors outside the environmental blame-limiting strategies (Bache et al., movement. Young people are key, with 2015). 42% professing no interest at all in Relatively short-term electoral politics (ONS, 2014), yet they are the cycles, such as rolling council elections, ones that will be left to deal with the build in short-termism and create consequences of today’s inaction. further incentives for politicians to avoid unpopular decisions (ibid). One 6.6.4 Inadequate legislation and policy of the strategies for blame-avoidance is passing decision-making to other Deregulation and repealed legislation bodies, creating a system of ‘fuzzy governance’ where it is not clear who espite the importance of is responsible for what (ibid). It is legislation in providing the suggested this system is created or Dframework for urgent action tolerated by politicians as a self-defence on climate change, in the last few mechanism (ibid). Creating long-term, years the Government has shifted meaningful policy is further hampered strongly away from regulations by the process of ‘institutional churn’ towards voluntary approaches and where policies and bodies are subject self-regulation to achieve policy aims, to almost constant reform and a regarding legislation as a last resort scattergun on/off approach to funding (BIS, 2015). This includes a ‘One In, Two (ibid). Out’ rule whereby “Any measure which At a time when there is a need for regulates or deregulates business and massive social change and collective is expected to result in a direct net cost action, the deepening individualisation to business must be offset by measures of social life and the contraction of that deregulate business and provide the public sphere is an obstacle to savings to business of at least double mobilising people. There is also a that amount.” (ibid) growing disillusionment with politics This is despite the evidence that the and the possibilities of political action. overwhelming majority of voluntary Politicians remain the profession least approaches have limited impact and trusted by the British public, below perform poorly (McCarthy and Morling, estate agents, journalists and bankers 2015). The Government’s so called (Ipsos MORI, 2016). Many people also ‘bonfire of red tape’ has resulted in a suffered disillusionment with protest number of useful and effective pieces movements following the failure of the of legislation being scrapped, including 2003 ‘million’ march against military the Code for Sustainable Homes which

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set sustainability standards for new scrapped (Oldfield, 2015). While the homes and required all new homes Government’s announcement did to be zero carbon by 2016, as well not specifically mention proposals as accompanying energy efficiency for non-domestic buildings, it targets in the Building Regulations is widely assumed that plans to (HM Treasury, 2015). make these carbon neutral by 2019 The little known 2015 Deregulation will also be shelved. This policy Act takes this one step further. would have driven a much-needed The aim of the Act is to reduce the improvement in the energy use and legislative and regulatory burdens carbon emissions of new UK homes affecting businesses, organisations and a step change in construction and individuals, as well as repealing industry skills. It is also uncertain legislation that no longer has practical whether the Welsh Government use. It is meta-regulation that allows will proceed with ambitious carbon for all other legislation and regulations emission requirements in its to be assessed on the criteria of how Building Regulations. The EU Energy they affect ‘growth’, and changed Performance of Buildings Directive in relation to this, placing business would have required the UK to interests above environmental and deliver ‘nearly zero energy buildings’ other criteria. from 2021 (and from January 2019 It is already having an impact in the public sector). Whether or not on climate-related regulations. For the UK will hold similar legislation example, it amends the Planning outside of the EU is unclear. and Energy Act 2008 (England) so that local planning authorities can 2. The Code for Sustainable Homes was no longer require that developments withdrawn and the right of local in their area meet higher energy authorities to require developers to efficiency standards than are required meet Code standards that are more by building regulations (Legislation ambitious than minimum Building Update Service, 2015). Some groups Regulations was removed. have called for a repeal of the law (Kaucher, 2015). 3. The Green Deal scheme, which In 2015, the Government announced provided loans for energy efficiency the end of three key policies for improvements with repayment tied buildings: to the property’s energy bills, had government support and finance 1. The Zero Carbon Homes policy – a withdrawn. long-awaited ambitious plan to make all new homes in England As yet there are no proposals to ‘zero carbon’ from 2016 – was replace these policies.

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Inadequate policies through these regulations. However, in the latest (2016) revision of the o reach zero carbon will Building Regulations, the Government require ambitious and effective failed to tighten energy use and carbon T policies in all sectors. However, emission requirements (RIBA, 2015). At despite a large number of policies present, minimising embodied energy and programmes to reduce carbon and carbon is not part of Building emissions from buildings and transport Regulations. They are addressed, to a and to support renewable energy limited extent, in buildings codes such generation, there are inadequacies and as BREEAM and the now discontinued shortcomings in many of these. Code for Sustainable Homes. For example, policies and programmes to improve energy From 2018 (under the 2011 Energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions Act) landlords will need to bring in buildings include Building privately rented properties up to Energy Regulations, energy supplier incentive Performance Certificate (EPC) level E – schemes, information and advice if it can be done cost effectively (RLA, schemes, and a programme to introduce 2015). This level of energy efficiency smart meters. However, many of these is well short of what is required, and are unambitious and insufficient. Even there already seems to be a dangerous before the Energy Company Obligation loophole where the worst properties (see below) was scaled back and the might be deemed too expensive to Green Deal was scrapped, policies were retrofit. This risks leaving vulnerable not sufficient to deliver the rapid cuts householders in poor condition homes in emissions needed (James, 2012). that are highly expensive, or even The current UK Government target to impossible, to properly heat. insulate one million homes over the five-year Parliamentary term is 78% Incentives: The main subsidy scheme lower than the number of homes treated for domestic energy efficiency is the during the previous parliament, and Energy Company Obligation (ECO). This funding for insulation has been cut back requires large energy suppliers to fund to 2007 levels (Murray, 2015a). energy efficiency improvements that Shortcomings associated with the generate carbon and fuel bill savings in current policies include the following: qualifying households, with a current focus on vulnerable and fuel-poor Regulations: The Building Regulations households. At times during the scheme (Part L) implement minimum it was mandatory that some of the energy efficiency/carbon emission measures were the more expensive and standards for new buildings and major less established ones, such as solid wall refurbishments. Standards have been insulation. However, due to the risk progressively tightened over time of targets not being met, the scheme

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has reverted to ‘low hanging fruit’ like However, the policies are limited by the loft and cavity wall insulation and it is ambition of government targets and uncertain whether future versions of constraints on funding. Shortcomings ECO will do enough to support more with the current policies include: expensive measures. The ECO is due to come to an end in March 2017 and Significant reduction in Feed-in current proposals for its replacement Tariffs (FITs): The FITs scheme would see funding reduced significantly has successfully encouraged the (DECC, 2016f). installation of renewables, particularly photovoltaics (PV). However, in early Information and advice: The Carbon 2016 the tariffs paid to generators Trust and Energy Saving Trust were were significantly reduced (EST, 2016), set-up by government to provide creating huge instability in the industry. advice on energy efficiency and carbon The subsidies were reduced because of emission reduction in buildings but falling prices of renewable technologies both have seen their government but also due to concerns over the cost funding withdrawn. of support schemes (the Government considered that its controversial Levy Switching appliances: The EU Energy Control Framework, discussed below, Labelling and Ecodesign Directives was in danger of being breached). introduced mandatory energy Renewable energy companies are seeing efficiency labelling and set minimum the impacts, with one company citing a efficiency standards for appliances 75% reduction in wind power planning (EC, 2016). However, uptake of the work since the cuts were announced most efficient appliances remains (Whitlock, 2016). low in the UK (Committee on Climate Change, undated). With the UK voting Levy Control Framework (LCF): The to withdraw from the EU, replacement cap that the UK Government places on legislation may be required to drive the financial support for low carbon energy continued improvement of appliance supply. The risk of the LCF going over efficiency. budget has been cited as a reason for the 2016 reductions in renewable energy Similarly, there are a number subsidies. It is now being questioned of policies designed to support whether the LCF is fit for purpose. For renewable energy generation that example, the LCF is designed to limit have been successful in incentivising the impact of subsidies on energy bills. the installation of renewable energy However, one of the reasons for higher systems. These include the Renewables subsidies is lower wholesale electricity Obligation, Feed-in Tariffs (FITs), prices, which are passed on in the Contracts for Difference, Levy Control form of lower bills. It is, therefore, Framework and carbon pricing. arguable that the LCF cap is excessively

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constraining, putting at risk the UK’s carbon targets and the wider benefits of the renewable energy transition (Evans, 2016).

Lack of effective carbon pricing: The carbon price of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) has been unstable and often very low, which led to the UK Government introducing a ‘carbon floor price’ or minimum carbon price. However, this does not apply across all energy consumption sectors and is not considered to be high enough to deliver the rapid emission reductions required (Sandbag, 2013).

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Stories for Change

Arno Schmickler

Programme Director, Energiesprong UK

I’m an architect by background. Coming to Britain, it’s almost impossible what people put up with in terms of the quality of the building stock. It’s appalling to see what’s still being delivered today in terms of energy efficiency in the UK.

Energiesprong refurbishes houses to Net Zero Energy, meaning that annually a house does not consume more energy for heating, hot water, lights and appliances than it produces. The refurbishments are financed f om the energy cost savings and executed within 10 days, so residents don’t have to move out. Energiesprong UK has 17 founding partners. These are frontrunners in the field of sustainability and innovation from the social housing sector; as well as construction companies that share the vision of working together towards more comfortable, better looking, affordable and sustainable housing.

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Energiesprong UK

“Energiesprong were looking for other At the moment in the UK, new build countries to take the concept of net is all about quantity rather than quality. zero energy buildings to, because they Building regs have been lowered so felt the Dutch market is too small for we’ll need to retrofit the new build big enough innovation to drive down properties 5 years from now, they’re so costs. They felt Britain was the country bad. We need to challenge that. to go to, because we’ve got very poor A big risk at the moment is the building stock to start with, poor pressures the UK Government have energy performance and quite a market put on the social housing sector driven approach to interventions. with the rent cuts, the right to buy The social housing sector is a extension and forced council house rewarding starting point, because sale. There’s uncertainty into the social landlords tend to care about the future as well, because government residents. It’s important to work with might turn round overnight and change the residents as well, because they are something else. Where there’s so much the ambassadors. uncertainty, people retreat to what If you’re thinking about enveloping a they know and try to cut out every risk. building, you’ve got a huge opportunity That’s the biggest barrier in terms of to uplift the kerbside appeal and deliver implementation. a more desirable property. That’s We’ve created the stage for people to what we’ve seen in the Netherlands. come and act on, but at the moment in It started in the social housing sector the UK everybody is still sitting in the and then owner-occupiers came audience. We’re trying to pull people knocking on the door saying “Where onto the stage and say, “Let’s do this can I buy one of those?” You start with together”. individuals and then transform the There are two steps towards meeting business that person represents. our targets. One is the 2030 target It’s important to also link from of decarbonisation of residential residential buildings to office buildings. Then 2050 is the overall buildings to industrial buildings, so carbon emissions. If we want to meet we think about how we decarbonise the 2050 targets we’ve got one chance neighbourhoods. It might be that if to retrofit property to net zero energy we’ve got a new development, we could standards. Improving a little bit here, supply renewable electricity through there and everywhere – where you that to existing stock. That’s the wider might get double glazing or boiler vision. replacement – that will never get us there. We need to go in big.”

http://www.energiesprong.eu

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Weak targets and loopholes blocked a series of Energy Bill amendments designed for that purpose he Climate Change Act (CCA) is (ibid). world leading in its legislation T of greenhouse gas emission reductions (see box on CCA in Section 3.2). The aim to increase the headline It is clear that in order to stay on track target in the Act from an 80% reduction to the 2050 target in the Act, actual by 2050 to 100% or ‘zero carbon’ would be a big step forward. This needs to be emissions must be reduced. done soon to ensure that the shorter- The accounting rules should not be term carbon budgets reflect the need used to mask the real progress to the for urgent action and prevent lock-in to inappropriate infrastructure choices, UK’s legal commitment. such as fracking or airport expansion. Committee on Climate Change Even with the current 80% targets (Committee on Climate Change, 2015a) there are concerns about loopholes in the CCA that prevent carbon budgets from including emissions from key industries. The contribution of the ‘traded’ sectors (primarily electricity generation and The Committee on Climate Change energy intensive industry) currently sits also recognises this loophole and in the outside the remit of the CCA. Instead it fifth carbon budget has recommended is determined by the EU ETS, described cost-effective paths for the power as “a kind of offshore carbon haven” sector which ignore the allocation of due to the overly low carbon price and emission allowances in the EU ETS excess allowances (Morris, 2016). So and require the power sector to reach while on paper the carbon budgets a carbon intensity of below 100g of cover the economy as a whole, they carbon dioxide per kWh in 2030 (ibid). really only apply to the non-traded To achieve this would mean about 75% sector (including transport, heating in of power generation by 2030 would be buildings, agriculture, waste and some renewables, nuclear or plants fitted industry), which accounts for just 60% of with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) emissions (ClientEarth, 2016). (ibid). The commercialisation of the CCS This loophole is described as an programme was cancelled in November ‘accounting trick’ and ‘fatal flaw’ 2015. Given the current doubts over which runs counter to the intention of whether CCS can deliver by 2030, and the Climate Change Act. To cut carbon given the need for greater ambition on emissions in real terms this loophole climate change, there will need to be must be closed (ibid). Yet, rather than even more reliance on renewables if the close the loophole, the Government power sector is to meet this 2030 target.

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There is also concern about the area, including emissions arising lack of accountability at local level for from buildings, industry and surface meeting the CCA targets. The Committee transport. The Audit Commission on Climate Change’s budget reports set recommended that far stronger levers, out reduction scenarios for different specifically a change from voluntary sectors but the high level national agreements to statutory requirements, targets in the CCA are not linked to local would be required to encourage more targets. Before its abolition in 2016, comprehensive action at the local level the Department of Energy and Climate (Bache et al., 2015). Change (DECC) was formally responsible However, this requirement to report for delivery of the carbon plan. Now this on indicators was abolished with the is transferred to the Department for Localism Act in 2011 and there is now Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy no requirement for local authorities (BEIS). to negotiate or even set targets to However, the contribution of reduce their own area-wide carbon different sectors (for example, food, emissions (Bache et al., 2015). As one transport, energy) and accountability local authority officer interviewed for for this responsibility is described as the study noted in relation to transport: ‘opaque’ (Bache et al., 2015). In the case “We could all do a lot more if the DfT of transport, responsibility for achieving [Department for Transport] was a little carbon reductions have been delegated clearer and stronger. We’re all too short- downwards to local authorities, but the term and narrow at the moment and wide range of organisations responsible there is no transformative thinking.” makes accountability very ‘fuzzy’ and (ibid) there is a clear sense of policy drift on priorities from carbon to economic Inadequacy of existing laws growth and job creation (ibid). The absence of accountability mechanisms ven if all the current at a local or national level makes it very environmental laws at unlikely that even the 80% reduction Einternational, national and local targets in the CCA will be met (ibid). level were enforced, this would still Between 2008 and 2010, local not stop climate change or biodiversity authorities were required to report loss (Thornton, 2015). It is suggested their performance against indicators that a new generation of environmental reflecting national priorities. Most laws that comprehensively protect the authorities signed up to indicators on planet and biodiversity is needed. The climate change and set out targets biggest barrier this faces is securing to reduce emissions in their area. parliamentary time in the next few For example, indicator N186 required years, particularly following the vote data and targets on per capita carbon to leave the EU, the implementation dioxide emissions in the local authority of which will take up a great deal of

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parliament’s time and energy. However, Yet, this important remedy is being it is important not to lose sight of the quietly undermined. In 2015, changes failings of the current legislation and were proposed to Judicial Review that proposals to strengthen it. will make it extremely difficult for charities to seek this legal remedy 6.6.5 Lack of citizen access (Ministry of Justice, 2016). The proposed to legal remedies changes require applicants that require costs to be capped to provide financial ompared to other countries it is information when applying for Judicial generally expensive and difficult Review. The financial information Cfor NGOs and citizens in the UK includes a declaration of funding sources to bring legal cases against polluting when applying and details of any third firms or other private parties, with the party funding. Experts have commented UK legal costs system considered “by that this would undoubtedly deter far the most punitive of any country charities and NGOs from undertaking in the EU” (Thornton, 2015). In the UK, judicial proceedings (Law Society, 2015). citizens are subject to enormous costs The charity leaders’ network ACEVO has if they lose a case, though – following said: “the overwhelming effect of the a legal challenge – adverse costs in reforms would be to introduce a massive England and Wales in environmental chilling effect on charities’ ability or cases against the government are now willingness to seek Judicial Review capped for individuals (ibid). However, and severely damage the confidence there are no caps on environmental of individuals and organisations in cases against companies and other becoming members or donating funds in private parties, so claimants bringing the first place.” (ACEVO, 2015) environmental cases still face unlimited The UK situation contrasts with the liability (ibid). US where a number of environmental Judicial Review is a procedure in laws, such as the Clean Air and Clean English law that allows individuals and Water Acts, have a ‘private attorney organisations to apply to the courts to general’ provision, which provides for review the legality of a public body’s citizens to go to court to enforce the law actions where it is believed an authority because this is seen as a public good has acted unlawfully (Friends of the (Thornton, 2015). While few people in Earth, 2008). Environmental Judicial the UK would wish to adopt the litigious Review has grown into one of the most culture of the US, it is argued that it significant areas of litigation (Tromans is now easier for Chinese citizens to et al., 2013) and is an important check challenge polluters in the courts than it and balance on government powers, is for people in Britain, with the Chinese often forcing the government to take Government recently enacting a law action on environmental matters and allowing citizens to bring environmental comply with its own legislation. cases against polluters (ibid).

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Chapter 7:

Making it happen

7.1 Worldviews and values ...... 142

7.2 Communications ...... 164

7.3 Psychology and behaviour ...... 173

7.4 Overcoming carbon lock-in ...... 181

7.5 Economics and finance ...... 203

7.6 Politics and governance ...... 232

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7. Making it happen Photo by Scott Wylie, CC BY 2.0

ased on our assessment of the barriers to change, we now offer There is exciting research and B a synthesis overview of the wide range of powerful research and practice writing in the social sciences and that is currently going on to explore humanities suggesting that we how these barriers can be overcome and make change happen. We are confident have more agency and potential the zero carbon transition can be for collective action than we brought about through well-planned, think...This research shows that concerted pressure for positive change across all sectors. small changes can make a big There is no single approach that difference, and that individuals guarantees success, but a combination working together can generate of interventions in different ways can leverage change. Tackling climate rapid social change. change and getting Britain to zero carbon means addressing psychological O’Brien and Synga, 2013 barriers to action, countering consumerism, tackling the inertia of the fossil fuel and other high carbon

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systems, addressing the power of vested synergies between the traditional, interests, changing an unsustainable modern, post-modern and newly economic system based on growth, emerging integrative worldviews offers and overcoming a lack of political an important opportunity to accelerate will to challenge all of the above. change. This could serve to maximise Understanding the complexities of their synergies while mitigating their systemic change is important. We need conflicts, and help them unite around a to know where interventions could be common vision. effective, and equally where they may be more limited. eople with worldviews that The overarching headline is that we are based on concern for other need to do this together. Whether that P humans, species and future is in campaign coalitions, community generations are more likely to support co-operatives, or through a forging a action to protect the well-being of those collective identity. It will take many humans and species (cChange website). of us pulling in the same direction to Therefore, fostering worldviews based enable change to happen, and each and on values of co-operation, social justice every one of our actions can contribute and ecological concern rather than to building a zero carbon future. values such as power and status could play a large part of the transformation 7.1 Worldviews and values necessary to deliver a zero carbon future. aying conscious attention to Changing cultural values isn’t easy, worldviews and the values we but lessons from history show that P promote can help embolden and evolution in our thinking is possible. empower individuals and communities Campaigns on slavery, universal to take the practical action urgently suffrage, apartheid, gay rights and needed in homes, communities and others show that radical shifts in places of work, and to push for the attitudes are possible even within a wider systemic changes needed in generation. Faith, spiritual or ethical tackling climate change. beliefs have often had a role to play in By fostering intrinsic values such catalysing these societal and cultural as empathy, co-operation, social changes, and this is now also being justice and ecological concern, and by seen in the context of climate change. encouraging reconnection with nature, Alongside this, there is an important we can start to shift towards being a role for the arts and cultural bodies to society that cares about climate change help communicate difficult messages and other ‘bigger-than-self’ problems, and catalyse the transformation. and works together to solve them. For many people, part of the role of Annick de Witt (2015) argues that faith, spiritual practice and ethics is to developing strategies that build help explore answers to deep questions.

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How should we live our lives? How will be seen as self-destruction (ibid). should we treat our fellow humans? While people do sometimes engage in What is our responsibility to the natural self-destructive behaviour, in general world? How should we care for the there is much evidence that the greater future? Such questions have profound a person’s feeling of connection with implications on the way people react the environment, the more likely they to issues such as addressing climate are to act in ways that protect it (ibid). change or reforming markets, social However, it is important to recognise justice, leadership or lifestyles. They that definitions of environment are provide a way of understanding the mediated through other aspects of world and can provide support and culture. For example, people can be comfort in times of great change and very protective of landscape which uncertainty. may already be ecologically damaged, they may be very protective of their 7.1.1 Reconnect with nature local environment but disregarding of the global environment, or they may he importance of feeling use the protection of a specific part connected to nature has long of the environment – even their own T been seen as a way of fostering garden – as a personal moral offset pro-environmental behaviour (Mayer for wider environmentally destructive and McPherson, 2004). This means behaviours. feeling a sense of community, kinship There is also evidence that and belonging to the natural world, and increasing direct exposure to a person viewing their well-being as nature through activities, such as interlinked with the protection of the hiking, outdoor play, rambling and natural world (ibid). nature walks, increases the sense of This relationship between connectedness with nature, which in connectedness to nature and concern turn leads to higher levels of health for nature is explained by the and well-being (Mayer and McPherson, psychological argument that if the 2004; University of Rochester, 2010; self is expanded to include nature Kamitsis and Francis, 2013; Jordan, then any action that destroys nature 2015).

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Expert View The power of history to shift worldviews

Paul Allen

Zero Carbon Britain Coordinator

Over the past decade, as project coordinator, I have made a great many presentations on the technical findings of the Centre for Alternative Technology’s Zero Carbon Britain research to a diverse range of audiences. The zero carbon transition we describe requires a great many changes to how we live, challenging what we currently think of as normality. One way I have found to help people reconcile this, and engage them in what needs to happen next, is to offer context by framing this transition within a much wider historical timeline.

As we go about our everyday lives, our current relationship with energy, used to deliver many of the things that shape our lives and make us happy, is only the most recent chapter in a very long story. The global climate agreement forged at the UN Summit in Paris recognises that we must now make some hard choices around the relationship between human beings, energy and happiness; so taking the long view may offer us some useful perspectives.

The ‘Extraordinary Story of Human Beings, Energy and Happiness’ helps us to better understand today’s energy-extreme lifestyles; seeing them not as a natural evolution of human development, or even well intentioned progress gone slightly wrong, but rather a deliberately designed break in our connection with each other and with nature. Understanding this story can change how we think about our world and ourselves, and open us up to new possibilities. It began a very long time ago... ______

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Expert View Values matter

Tom Crompton PhD

Director and co-founder of the Common Cause Foundation

Huge political will and momentum will be necessary in order to drive through the structural changes that climate change demands. This, in turn, will require a new level of vocal public demand, far exceeding anything we have hitherto seen. And this demand will be motivated by people’s commitment to particular values.

There’s a grave risk that the current emphasis on ‘simple things you can do to help save the planet’ will divert attention from the necessary structural interventions, and harden the perception that responses to climate change are really all about influencing consumer choice (Thøgersen & Crompton, 2009; Crompton, 2013).

Rather, cultural values – what matters to us collectively – will be key in creating sustained and irresistible public demand for structural change. We know that a person’s values are among the most important predictors of his/her feelings of social and environmental concern, and his/her motivation to act in line with such concern. It is crucial, therefore, to ask how our values are structured and influenced.

Drawing on decades of research in social psychology, it is possible to make the following general points:

• A group of values – ‘intrinsic’ values, which include values such as ‘responsibility’, ‘helpfulness’, ‘social justice’ and ‘equality’ – are

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associated with stronger expressions of social and environmental concern, and deeper commitment to civic participation.

• Another set of values – ‘extrinsic’ values, which include values such as ‘wealth’, ‘social recognition’ and ‘preservation of a person’s public image’ – stand in opposition to intrinsic values. Subtly drawing a person’s attention to these values serves to reduce their social or environmental concern. Repeatedly drawing attention to these values (for example, through frequent exposure to advertising or celebrity culture) erodes social and environmental concern, and commitment to civic participation, in a more durable way (Crompton & Kasser, 2009).

• Intrinsic values can be engaged in relation to a wide range of different issues – perhaps far removed from climate change. Such apparently unrelated issues are nonetheless found to strengthen concern about climate change. So, for example, in one experiment we found that drawing people’s attention to the intrinsic value ‘broadmindedness’ led to a strengthening of concern about climate change – even without any mention of social or environmental issues (Chilton et al., 2011).

• Fortunately, and despite repeated reminders about the importance of extrinsic values, most people hold intrinsic values to be particularly important. In the UK, for example, 74% of a demographically representative sample of a thousand adults surveyed by Common Cause Foundation held intrinsic values to be more important than extrinsic values (Common Cause Foundation, 2016).

• Unfortunately, most people underestimate the importance that others attach to intrinsic values and overestimate the importance that they attach to extrinsic values. In the survey mentioned above, this was true of 78% of respondents (ibid).

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• People who hold this biased perception of their fellow citizens are less likely to vote and are less likely to state an intention to become involved in other forms of civic action – for example, volunteering, attending a public meeting, or getting in touch with an elected representative (ibid).

There are at least three crucially important insights to be drawn from such an understanding of values.

Firstly, building public demand for structural responses to climate change will require sustained action, at the level of values, across many domains. Climate change will not be addressed by working within the environmental sphere, regardless of the contribution that environmentalists might make. Rather, it will require concerted action to promote intrinsic values (and weaken extrinsic values) across many domains – for example, in the National Health Service, social security or comprehensive education.

I am not arguing that climate change must be highlighted in these other domains (though that would be great). Rather, I am arguing that intrinsic values are properly seen as inherent to work in these areas. Strengthening public commitment to intrinsic values in these domains will ‘spillover’ and strengthen public commitment for action on climate change. Fortunately, this invites the engagement of a wide range of organisations that have no formal remit to work on climate change.

Secondly, ways must be found to both expose and reduce the prevalence of extrinsic values in the social surround. The media and advertising agencies have a crucial part to play here, and the idea of ‘corporate social responsibility’ should be broadened to include an understanding of the values that a company promulgates publicly. It may well be the case that a business which has taken important steps to reduce its direct environmental impact (or ‘footprint’) is nonetheless wreaking environmental havoc through the values

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that it promotes through, for example, its marketing strategies (its ‘mindprint’).

Environmental organisations themselves are certainly not above reproach here. Many of today’s strategies for building public environmental concern – for example, by insisting that a financial value is put on biodiversity – seem short-sighted. Viewed from an understanding of values, it can be seen that such approaches are likely to be counterproductive (Crompton et al., 2015).

Thirdly, it is important to provide social proof of the existing commitment that most people show to intrinsic values – because of the evidence that most of us don’t properly appreciate the importance that fellow citizens attach to these values. Providing such social proof – including through projects aimed specifically at correcting this misunderstanding – will help to embolden others to publicly espouse intrinsic values, creating further social proof of their importance and contributing to a positive feedback process. There is a role for governments, media organisations, and public institutions, such as museums, in helping to create this social proof.

Zero Carbon: Making It Happen represents an important milestone. It asks, unflinchingly, ‘why are we not doing enough to motivate ambitious responses to climate change?’ and, ‘how can we achieve much more?’ These are questions that can only be properly answered in the light of an understanding of values and how these are shaped.

http://valuesandframes.org

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7.1.2 Promote intrinsic values Furthermore, research suggests that the benefits of promoting intrinsic or ‘bigger-than-self’ problems values can go beyond the targeted like climate change, people with action. When people are stimulated F strong intrinsic values tend to to think about a pro-environmental be more concerned and are more likely behaviour, like car-share, using to act to address the issue (Crompton, intrinsic motives, a completely different 2010). People with predominantly behaviour, like recycling, can be extrinsic values, on the other hand, induced (Evans et al., 2013). Similarly, tend to have lower levels of concern encouraging people to think about about bigger-than-self problems, and climate change as a motivator for are less motivated to act (ibid). saving energy led to a higher propensity It has been argued that civil society to donate to environmental charities organisations should, therefore, (Spence et al., 2014). This behaviour work to promote intrinsic rather ‘spillover’ effect is less likely to occur than extrinsic values so that these if extrinsic motives are engaged more compassionate values become (Thøgersen and Crompton, 2009; Evans strengthened at a societal level and can et al., 2013; Spence et al., 2014). start to challenge the assumptions that There is also interesting research people are solely motivated by money, showing that promoting intrinsic values image and status (Crompton, 2010). may be just as important as promoting For example, a campaign can promote action on climate change directly the collective value of change rather (Chilton et al., 2011; Crompton et al., than appealing to self-interest (ibid). 2015). One study of people with lower This can work across the political carbon lifestyles found that values of spectrum, as intrinsic values such as social justice (for example, concern integrity, loyalty and responsibility are about impacts on poor people in key values held by those of all political developing countries), as well as links to persuasions (Corner et al., 2016). their community, were more important The use of intrinsic factors may motivating factors than environmental have greater effects on adoption and concerns (Howell, 2013). Others have use of some low carbon technologies found that motivations related to and behaviours than financial factors, perceived injustice often outweigh particularly when the possible those related to financial gain (Adger financial benefits are small (Clayton et al., 2016). Perceptions of justice and et al., 2015). For example, in one fairness also affect people’s perception experiment people responded better and acceptance of policies on climate to a nature-focused appeal than an change (Clayton et al., 2015). There is economic appeal to get their tyre evidence that individuals’ willingness pressure checked (Bolerdijk et al., to act in response to flooding events 2013). is strongly influenced by perceptions

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of fairness in the response from fewer goods is still considered to authorities and undermined by distrust be unthinkable despite the clear in authorities (Adger et al., 2016). impossibility and unsustainability of endless economic growth (Sekulova et 7.1.3 Counter consumerism al., 2013). The whole issue of reducing he UK and much of the global consumption is difficult to tackle and economy is dependent on the requires questioning some widely T promotion of ever increasing held beliefs and paradigms in society, levels of consumption of natural including the underlying assumption resources. Maintaining current that ‘growth is good’ or the use of GDP levels of consumption is not an as a measurement of societal value. option – ecological limits to growth Yet, above a certain (rather lower than mean we will all be forced to reduce we might imagine) threshold, reducing consumption eventually. However, the consumption can improve quality of later this reduction occurs the greater life and provide greater happiness the ecological damage and impacts, unrelated to material consumption therefore, it is better to minimise this or GDP (Tukker et al., 2008). Thus, as by reducing consumption levels now well as shifting our production and (Lorek and Fuchs, 2013). consumption models and patterns Much of the problem lies in the away from ever-increasing resource fact that consumption is necessary consumption, there needs to be a broad to economic growth and questioning discussion about alternatives to the the neo-liberal growth paradigm is a current unsustainable economy. political taboo (Gossling and Cohen, Although this will be unpopular 2014). There is such a pervasive and risks accusations of hair-shirt assumption in society that growth is environmentalism, reducing sustainable and desirable, that any consumption does not mean we will all discussion of buying and producing be worse off, indeed quite the opposite, as non-material factors, such as health, social cohesion, family and community, are much more important elements of well-being than how much stuff we own or consume (NEF, 2010). While certain levels of consumption are necessary, and beneficial to well-being, it is the excessive and disposable patterns of consumption in western industrialised economies that are of concern. As a society there is a Cambridge Carbon Footprint © need to start promoting the benefits Repair café in Cambridge.

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of reducing consumption so that it can be increased with very little investment be viewed as a positive step that can (Batley, 2011). Specific examples of the increase well-being, rather than being sharing economy in action include: thought of as a sacrifice (Hill, 2011). The following initiatives, ideas and • Repair Cafés: Started in the policy interventions could be used to Netherlands, these are meeting places directly counter consumerism: where volunteers teach people how to repair their household items for free Reducing the working week: It has to prevent waste and share valuable been suggested that overconsumption skills. There are now over 1,000 Repair is interlinked with a range of Cafés worldwide, including a growing other problems, such as overwork, network in the UK (Repair Café unemployment and a reduced quality of website). life (NEF, 2010). Reducing the working week to 21 hours has been proposed as a • The Swedish government is way to break that cycle, and help people introducing tax breaks on repairs, become less attached to consumption including slashing the VAT rate on of stuff, and more attached to repairs and allowing people to claim relationships and activities that absorb back from income tax half of the less money and more time (ibid). If a labour cost of repairs to appliances much shorter working week became the (Orange, 2016). norm, with everyone using their time differently and many people earning • Real Junk Food Cafés: A global organic less, ideas would change about what network of pay-as-you-feel cafés that really makes a good life and how much divert food destined for waste. There money is ‘enough’ to live on (ibid). are now dozens in the UK (Real Junk Food Café website). The sharing economy: The sharing economy enables produce, items and • Share Shop in Frome, Somerset: The services to be given or exchanged. first of its kind in the UK, allows Many people will be already familiar people to share and borrow a huge with charity shops and freecycle, and range of items, from DIY equipment, there are a growing number of online cutlery and furniture to craft communities, such as swapz, swapcycle materials, children’s books and clothes and swishing, where people swap items (Share Frome website). for free. Although on the whole these are still largely niche activities that barely • Lending clubs: Sharing tools, especially dent overall consumption levels, research as they become more specialist, has shown that online exchange is enables a community to have the right contributing to waste prevention, and the tools for the job without having to pay volume of items exchanged online could for them.

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Projects and initiatives to reduce Farms, which uses aquaponics and consumption: vertical growing to grow salads, herbs and fish sustainably, or Globechain, • Buy Nothing Day: A global campaign which has a global network to reuse to reduce consumerism and spend a unwanted items for social causes (ibid). day without spending (Buy Nothing Day website). 7.1.4 The role of spiritual and ecological worldviews • Zero Waste Week: A grassroots campaign raising awareness of the iven the materialist nature of environmental impact of waste (Zero modern culture combined with Waste Week website). G global problems such as climate change and inequality, it is perhaps On the production side there is not surprising that many people are also growing interest in the principles seeking to reconnect with spiritual of the Circular Economy, “an roots and seek new meaning (Rowson, industrial system that is restorative or 2014). regenerative by intention and design”, ‘Spiritual but not religious’ (SBNR) which aims to design out waste, make is a term increasingly used to identify consumable products non-toxic, durable spirituality independent of any products reusable, and to use renewable organised religion, instead placing energy (McKinsey, 2013). A circular an emphasis upon the well-being economy considers all the inputs and of the mind-body-spirit – a shift sees how they can be used in a closed from an institutional to a personal loop system. understanding of spirituality (Thurston There is a role for the private sector and Ter Keile, undated). in driving innovation and low carbon The number of people in the UK economic activity in this area, and reporting themselves as ‘no religion’ there are now a growing number of is rising with every generation companies using circular economy (Lancaster University, 2016). However, principles. For example, Kingfisher, these ‘non-religious’ groups are not owner of B&Q, has started designing necessarily atheist, with a quarter products for disassembly and offering taking part in some form of spiritual rent/repair services at stores in Poland activity each month (ibid). Studies have (Kingfisher, undated). found that many young adults in the It is estimated that in London alone US are looking for both a deep spiritual there is the potential to create over experience and community experience 40,000 jobs in circular economy sectors that provides meaning in their lives like reuse and remanufacturing (London (Flory and Miller, 2008). Waste and Recycling Board, 2015). Over recent decades, a great many Examples include GrowUp Urban individual and group practices have

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evolved, some based on meditation higher material welfare associated with and physical actions that help engage increased consumerism (ibid). the body, imagination and intellect to In addition to the many religious- work within a frame that encompasses based beliefs that shape human ecological perspectives and practice. relationships with natural systems, For example, there is evidence that there are also many non-religious practice of meditation and mindfulness worldviews that adopt a predominantly can foster greater empathy and ecological perspective, seeing humans compassion for others, and can serve as part of the environment and the as an ‘antidote to consumerism’, by latter as valuable beyond human fostering more sustainable behaviour requirements. Examples include (Ericson et al., 2014). Mindfulness has Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic, Albert been shown to reverse the impact of Schweitzer’s Reverence for Life, deep the ‘hedonic treadmill’ effect where ecology and James Lovelock’s Gaia people quickly become habituated to theory (see box below).

Ecological or ecocentric worldviews

Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic: A holistic the ‘ecological movement’ (adjustment environmental ethic that takes as the highest of humans to the needs of the Earth/life good the integrity, stability and beauty of community) (Berry, 2003). the biotic community. An action is right if it preserves those qualities, both because James Lovelock’s Gaia Theory: A science- protecting land is necessary for protecting based worldview that recognises the humans and because the Earth is to be functioning of the planet as a living ‘super- viewed as a ‘living being’ (Leopold, 1949). organism’ and stresses the role of humans as part of larger nature (Lovelock, 1974). Albert Schweitzer’s Reverence for Life: In Schweitzer’s philosophy an inherent worth Animal Rights Movement: The campaign is ascribed to all living things, which rejects for animal rights arose from concern for a view of human superiority. This requires a animal welfare and historically was part of a worldview that includes humans as part of wider movement associated with abolition nature, and views natural ecosystems as a of slavery, reform of schools and prisons and totality in a complex web of interconnected the poor law (Thomas, 1983). elements (Reverence for Life website). Deep Ecology: In 1972, Norwegian Thomas Berry: Distinguishes the philosopher Arne Naess defined wo ‘environmental movement’ (adjustment of different forms of not necessarily the Earth to the needs of humans) from incompatible environmentalism. The first

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being ‘shallow’ anthropocentric ecology, Radical Ecology: Building on both deep which views humans as somehow above ecology and social ecology, radical ecology or outside of nature whilst also placing a seeks to change the ‘conditioning factors’ ‘resource’ value on nature which humans that exist within our individual consciousness are entitled to control, or (in slightly softer and in our social, economic, political, legal terms), steward, to their own ends. In and technological systems. It seeks new contrast ‘deep’ ecology sees humans and the ways of living in full partnership with the rest environment as one interconnected whole of the natural world through experiments (Naess, 1989). in non-hierarchical social structures, new economics, indigenous science and a Social Ecology: Although deep ecology revitalised spirituality (Merchant, 2005). provides a valuable framework and a powerful critique of the anthropocentric Indigenous Science: Like Western science, framing of our civilisation, some feel it indigenous science relies upon direct has not suffici tly engaged with political observation for forecasting and generating and social factors. The work of many social predictions. It also has specialisations ecologists, such as Murray Bookchin, has and validity tests. It has, however, a more offered a valuable critique, building on deep ecocentric perspective. Unlike Western ecology and offering an analysis of how science, the data from indigenous science social systems such as patriarchy, capitalism are not used to control the forces of nature; and imperialism are inherent to the current instead, it discovers ways and means of ecological crisis (Institute for Social Ecology accommodating nature in delivering our website). needs (http://www.wisn.org).

7.1.5 Role of faith and religion Historically, religions and faith communities have played a major o date, the enormous potential role in advocating or securing social of faith networks to engage and change, for example, in the abolition T motivate people around action of slavery, civil rights, trade union and on climate change has scarcely been anti-poverty movements, a tradition recognised. In a world where many of radicalism that many faith groups wider political and cultural attitudes do and organisations still uphold. Climate not support the zero carbon transition, change is important to many different religious faiths can have enormous faith groups as it raises questions about influence on the attitudes and actions the relationship with the Earth and of their followers, and the major faiths other people, materialism, altruism, also wield significant economic and justice and other fundamental teachings political power (Hulme, 2016). (ibid).

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It should be said that faith is clearly However, over recent years the no guarantee that an individual will main global religions have released adopt or support actions towards a zero increasingly radical statements on the carbon transition, as a person’s faith need for urgent climate action and is often bound up with a wider set of the need to care for the Earth, and in political and cultural attitudes. In fact, the run up to the COP21 UN talks in there are examples where quite the Paris the major religions embraced opposite is true: it has been found in addressing climate change as a core the US that the citizens who are most concept (see box below). dismissive of climate change are more On top of this, hundreds of religious likely to be Evangelical Christians and spiritual organisations from across (Leiserowitz et al., 2007). all faiths signed a joint statement

Faith perspectives on climate change

This summarises some of the major because we have failed to understand our perspectives on climate change from the interconnectedness with the Earth. “Our five major faiths (in alphabetical order) lives are inextricably interwoven with the based on work by Climate Outreach natural world through every breath we take, seeking language that works across all the water we drink, and the food we eat. of the major faiths (Climate Outreach, When the Earth becomes sick, we become 2016): sick, because we are part of her.”

Buddhism: Buddhism is not a prescriptive Christianity: For Christians, ‘Creation’ faith; it’s a way of life that is practised can be a far more powerful frame than through being and doing rather than ‘Earth’ or ‘natural world’. Creation is a direct through ritual. A core concept is ‘dana’ which expression of the divine and a gift to us, can be translated as ‘generosity’. Action on and we have responsibility as its stewards. climate change can therefore be portrayed In the Catholic Encyclical of 2015, Pope as a generous donation rather than a Francis said: “The Earth was here before sacrifi e. For Buddhists, action can also be us and it has been given to us.” Following expressed through changing internal values. on from the Encyclical, in October 2015 The Buddhist Climate Change Statement the heads of Catholic bishops’ federations to World Leaders (signed by 26 Buddhist on every continent issued a joint appeal leaders including the Dalai Lama) states: to COP 21 delegates that they produce “The threats and disasters we face ultimately a “comprehensive and transformational stem from the human mind, and therefore agreement” to address global climate require profound changes within our change during the United Nations climate minds.” The world has become unbalanced negotiations.

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Hinduism: Hindus see the natural world as and vitality.” Language around Creation as an expression of the divine and believe we a Ni’mat (which can be translated as gift, are one part of a highly organised cosmic blessing or favour) is resonant: “Excessive order named Rta. The Hindu Declaration pollution from fossil fuels threatens to on Climate Change issued in 2015 said: destroy the gifts bestowed on us by Allah.” “Climate change is a stark symptom of the (Climate Outreach, 2016). Balance figu ed deeper problem of humanity living out of prominently in the Islamic Declaration on balance with what Bhūmi Devi, our shared Global Climate Change issued in 2015: “The planet, can renewably provide.” Also in Earth functions in natural seasonal rhythms Hinduism, the internal change in values and cycles. Climate change is a result of the is as important as the outward change in human disruption of this balance.” behaviour. As the Hindu Declaration said, “We become servants of the Divine, all our Judaism: Jewish narratives centre on actions, including those in protection of the humanity being caretakers of Creation. world around us and all the beings therein, There is also a strong sense that climate becoming acts of worship.” change is a moral issue. There is focus on justice as a core value and use of language Islam: The Islamic faith teaches that Allah around social justice and intergenerational has placed humans as stewards (khalifah) rights. The Jewish Environmental and Energy of the Earth to protect and safeguard His Imperative of 2012 states: “We weep at the creation. The dominant narratives are rooted heavy burden that climate change imposes in or built on language from the Qur’an on the world’s poor...we tremble at the harm and the Sunnah/Hadith (sayings, doings, we impose upon our own descendants” affirmations) of the Prophet Mohammed, (Coalition on the Environment and Jewish which are regarded by Muslims as the source Life, 2015). Judaism is an action-based faith: of all truth and guidance. Muslims see the “We are a people of menders, of healers, and world as the creation of Allah: “Allah created our fractured planet – compound fractures, the universe in all its diversity, richness at that – cries out for healing.”

confirming the need for ecological not bound by the doctrine of their stewardship, intergenerational equity religion. The work of Mama Efua, and climate justice (World Council of Desmond Tutu, Gerrard Winstanley, Churches, 2015). Sojourner Truth and Julia Butterfly There are numerous examples of Hill, demonstrates the transformative faith and spiritual communities directly power of spiritual principles in action engaging with action on climate (McIntosh and Carmichael, 2015). change at a political level, and a rich Spiritual and religious practice history of spiritually led activism from can be successfully combined with inspirational individuals who were social and political change. A cross-

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generational dialogue between a of responses to climate change. homeless youth advocate and an Examples include sponsored vigils, internationally renowned Christian awareness-raising bicycle rides, and theologian shows how the desire direct action at London museums for social change at the heart of the as part of the arts collective “Art Occupy movement can be successfully not Oil” to protest for an end to oil united with a powerful spirituality company sponsorship of the arts (Bucko and Fox, 2013). Such work helps (DANCE website). enable individuals and communities to access a path where ecological framing • Christian Aid and Tearfund are goes hand in hand with personal running a ‘Big Shift’ campaign transformation and radical social supporting churches and individuals change. Examples include: to move their energy from fossil fuels to renewables and to send a • The SanghaSeva group facilitates clear message to the UK government ‘Meditation in Action’ retreats to move away from fossil fuels. The that integrate meditation with campaign is framed in terms of both participation in positive actions, such stewardship and climate justice for as planting trees on deforested land. the world’s poor (Big Shift website). The group aims to offer opportunities to explore living fully through • The Church of England has voted positive actions (SanghaSeva website). to withdraw some of its investment funds from tar sands and coal. • Initiated in 2013 by a group of Speaking for the Church, the teachers, staff and friends of Reverend Canon Prof Richard the Buddhist Insight Meditation Burridge said: “The church has a retreat centre, Gaia House, the moral responsibility to speak and act Dharma Action Network for on both environmental stewardship Climate Engagement (DANCE) is and justice for the world’s poor, a forum for the wider community who are most vulnerable to climate to catalyse Dharma responses change.” (Vaughan, 2015) to the climate crisis, (Dharma is a Sanskrit term which is used to There are also many examples of refer to wisdom teachings and faith groups supporting action at an deep inquiry). A network of DANCE individual level through the promotion groups has since grown across of less materialistic and lower impact the UK that continues to generate lifestyles. For example, the Church of projects with a core intention to England’s ‘Shrinking the Footprint’ support creative ideas, connect campaign is a national campaign to practitioners and encourage address climate change (Church Care engagement with a wide range website) while the Catholic Church

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offers a ‘Live Simply’ award to parishes and showcases work that the Muslim that demonstrate the principles of community is doing to tackle climate living more simply, for example, change. For example, the resources encouraging people to walk or cycle on its website include a ‘Muslim to church, or to generate their own Green Guide to Reducing Climate electricity (CAFOD website). Muslim Change’ and a toolkit to support young Climate Action (MCA) is a group of Muslims to get their local mosques UK Muslim organisations concerned and communities thinking about about climate change (MCA website). environmental issues (ibid). The organisation shares best practice

Reconnect – supporting campaigners in stressful times

Spiritual or religious practices and networks Tools have been developed by spiritual can be an important source of support in practitioners to help support people uncertain and stressful times. campaigning for change. For example, The phenomenon known as ‘burnout’ Joanna Macy’s Work That Reconnects which (where a person or group reaches draws on deep ecology and Buddhist exhaustion caused by continued action, practice to build motivation, creativity, combined with the stress of fear, urgency courage and solidarity (Macy, 2012). and anger) has been seen to affect people Macy explores three equally important working in the area of environmental and elements of ‘the work that needs doing’: social campaigning (Macy and Johnston, creating positive solutions; grassroots 2012). campaigning and activism aiming to ‘stop In response to this, the Transition the wrong things happening’ and so limit the movement has developed a process of damage that is being done both to human ‘Inner Transition’, which involves a revisiting and natural systems; and ‘reconnection’. of relationships with ourselves, each other ‘Reconnection’ aims to teach by direct and the Earth. Practical measures that experience that human beings are deeply have been taken include: a free mentoring connected to each other and are actually service, inviting local therapists, coaches and part of nature, creating stronger connections supervisors to offer free one-to-one support and understandings both among humans to activists; a group simply taking time to and between humans and natural systems, get to know one another; supporting people with the aim of increasing both well-being who are taking on too much (Banks, 2016). and capacity for action (ibid).

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7.1.6 Role of the arts rts and culture have long been another powerful catalyst in A transforming existing social norms and worldviews. Arts can do what science, politics, academia, media Humans are capable of a unique and other disciplines simply cannot. trick, creating realities by first Art has the power to create spaces for dialogue; art can communicate imagining them, by experiencing information which might otherwise them in their minds...By this be alienating to people; art can bring communities together and make process it begins to come true. The difficult things understandable; and act of imagining somehow makes art can inspire people with visions of it real...And what is possible in art a sustainable future. In short, art can transform worldviews (Arts Council becomes thinkable in life. of Wales, 2014). Whilst it is important

Brian Eno, The Big Here and Long Now, 2003 to engage the more formal arts, much broader-based mass culture – including video games, films, TV shows – is also ©Sarah Woods A scene from The Roadless Trip by Sarah Woods.

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powerful, for example, in the way that exploring their own personal the future is commonly portrayed as understanding of them. Facilitated ecological collapse and dystopia. well, people are able to acknowledge In one survey of artists, an their uncertainty and confusion (ibid). overwhelming number of respondents were of the opinion that the arts can communicate important ideas and information which might otherwise be alienating or too It is very difficult to give up complex, or which might cause people to switch off (ibid). Sustainable our uncertainties – our positions, development is overrun with jargon, our beliefs, our explanations. environmental science is thick with These help define us; they lie at facts and figures, and the media and politicians too often present the heart of our personal identity. biased opinions (see section 6.2). Yet I believe we will succeed in The arts can help transform difficult complex information into something changing this world only if we understandable that we can act on can think and work together in (ibid). new ways. Dialogue is a key aspect: 94% of the respondents in the survey stated Margaret Wheatley, 2001 that the arts can support a cultural shift towards a sustainable future by creating ‘spaces for dialogue’ (ibid). This is not necessarily a pre-existing ‘arts space’ or venue: 62% said that At times of social and political change, their projects are carried out in or changes in worldview, artists are site-specific or non-building-based often the outriders, becoming more spaces. The key point here is having engaged and socially aware before the access to a safe, creative space where rest of society. The artist Suzi Gablik people have ‘permission’ to speak, to (1991) reminds us that “persons who explore their ideas and connect with grow up in a society are culturally other people (ibid). ‘hypnotised’ to perceive reality the By opening up a creative space way the culture experiences it…The for dialogue, the arts enable people challenge of the next few decades will to consider crucial questions by be to awaken from this hypnosis.”

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Expert View The Great Imagining: how the arts spark cultural change

Lucy Neal

Theatre-maker, a core member of Transition Town Tooting, and co-founder director of London International Festival of Theatre (LIFT)

”It’s the job of the artist, poet or storyteller to point out the ground under our feet, to offer us images through which to wake up to our present condition, to show us anew the moment we stand in.”

Mat Osmond, Dark Mountaineer

Finding our part to play

It’s hard to imagine, at this ‘moment we stand in’ that, as humans, we’re accountable for reimagining our world on behalf of ourselves, subsequent generations and all species.

Whilst blueprints, such as the Centre for Alternative Technology’s ‘Who’s Getting Ready for Zero?’ demonstrate how societies across the globe can transition to low carbon futures, there’s no collective map of how they’re invented socially, or how a cultural commons is created for the future we want and can find our place in.

When facts and figures about climate change cannot catalyse the shifts needed to move towards a zero carbon future, the arts have a tradition of sparking cultural change and speaking differently, creating emergent space to rethink the future - collectively. With

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poetry and metaphor, they explore the language of the heart, the pain of what we’re losing and the deep yearning in us for the restoration and celebration of life. They re-engineer time to allow our imaginations to flourish, glimpsing other ways of seeing and feeling, and it is from these experiences that different futures can emerge.

Artists use the word ‘practice’, but it’s one that everyone can use to describe a daily life that combines creativity and intentional change. Drawing on patterns of belonging, empathy, kindness, community resilience, stewardship, reskilling, alternatives to ‘limitless’ growth, the arts energise people’s capacities for action, activate their skills and transform their capabilities.

In recent years, UK artists along with pioneering initiatives such as Platform London, Cape Farewell, Julie’s Bicycle, Tipping Point, Artsadmin, Emergence, Creative Carbon Scotland and others have created a step change in recognising the role the arts play in reimagining a more viable future on the planet, shifting society’s rules and values away from consumerism and commodity towards community and collaboration.

Playing for Time

My own handbook Playing for Time has gathered an abundance of over 100 stories of artists and activists, reclaiming a traditional role for artists in the community as truth-tellers and agents of change. Few fall into the conventional, siloed categories of ‘dance’, ‘music’ or ‘visual arts’ - or art that can be purchased, coveted or consumed; all include recipes for action to trigger ways of making art ‘as if the world mattered’.

When science cannot play the role of interpreting the challenges we face, or questioning the values that underpin the need for change, the arts have the ability to challenge the status quo and engage people collectively at an imaginative level. They draw on the perspectives of everyone to create a future we want to live in: their

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metaphors, dreams, disruptions and symbolism provide that ‘other space’ from which a new exploration of the self and the world can emerge, and an unshakeable belief that change can and does happen. Excitement for getting our hands on life and being an agent of change gets inhibited by a culture of commodity, but, like a tide turning, it can be reached for, reclaimed, reinvented, renewed, rediscovered and remembered. The arts have the power to build our resilience and reinvent us: they hold the things we care about; give us moments to begin from again; extend our imagination, collective courage, and intuitive knowledge that we’re part of a larger whole. The opportunity to play for time is in our hands. The chance to reweave our world is within our imaginative grasp.

This is an extract from a longer article. Republished with permission. For more information see Neal, 2015.

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7.2 Communications • Amend the Code of the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP Code) he way in which we (CAP website) to take more account of communicate and frame the the impact of advertising on cultural T zero carbon transition is values. critical in improving traction and engagement. Reducing the impact • Enable ways to reduce exposure to of advertising, whilst increasing the advertising (for example, software to media profile of both problems and block online adverts). solutions, and correcting commonly held misconceptions or misinformation, • Protect and promote alternative will help build support for action. advert-free ways of subsidising media This section outlines some of the key (for example, the BBC licence fee). aspects. • Add disclaimers to billboard adverts 7.2.1 Restrict advertising to make the public more aware of the unconscious impacts of advertising iven the pervasive and (Alexander et al., 2011). detrimental nature of G advertising, restrictions It has long been argued that greater should be introduced on this largely regulation around the advertising of unregulated industry. Suggestions to obesogenic foods, such as fast foods reduce the worst impacts include a ban and carbonated sugar-sweetened on advertising in public spaces; a ban drinks to children is both needed on all TV advertising to children under and justifiable, even within a ‘free 12; regulations to limit the amount of market system’, to protect the rights information gathered, shared and used of children. Governments can also use without our permission online, and; a the ‘precautionary principle’, which tax on all ads that encourage greater allows action to be taken even before consumption (Gannon and Lawson, definitive scientific proof is available 2010). when the risks are such that delaying Others have suggested these and action could be damaging (Swinburn other ways to reduce the negative et al., 2011). Many countries and cities impact that ads have on cultural elsewhere in the world have imposed values and reduce the pervasiveness of some restrictions on advertising (see advertising (Alexander et al., 2011): case study below). It is unlikely restrictions on • Use the existing powers of the advertising will happen without a large Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) and sustained campaign. However, to regulate the use of extrinsic values it is likely that a campaign to limit more widely. advertising would have public support.

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For example, there is widespread public CASE STUDY: Restrictions on support for campaigns to ban junk food advertising around the world advertising before the 9pm watershed (Food Active website), although this São Paulo banned outdoor is fiercely resisted by the industry advertising in 2006 with the (Farey Jones, 2016). New campaign controversial ‘Clean City’ law, organisations have also been set-up which has improved the urban to limit the impacts of advertising on environment (Kohlstedt, 2016). people’s lives and to better regulate the industry (Adbrake website). The Several states in the US, including campaign ‘Leave our Kids Alone’ wants Alaska, Hawaii, Maine and Vermont, an end to all advertising to primary have also banned billboard school children and younger (Leave advertising (ibid). our Kids Alone website). Meanwhile, unilateral action has been taken by Spain has banned ‘cult of the body’ NHS England, which has removed advertising before the watershed adverts, price promotions and checkout (for example, slimming products, displays for high sugar and salty foods surgery procedures and beauty in hospitals and other health centres treatments) because of a link to (Meikle, 2016). eating disorders in young people There may also be support from (Volz, 2010). establishment figures who have strongly criticised extreme consumerism, for Sweden does not allow TV and radio example, the Pope in his Encyclical and advertising to children under 12 leading figures in the Church of England. (Olsen, 2010). While concerns about the impacts of advertising and increasing Numerous European countries materialism are not new (Packard, regulate television advertising 1957), more recently there have been to children. For example, Austria overt campaigns to challenge the has banned advertising during power of advertising through ‘culture children’s programmes before jamming’. These include spoof ads or 8.15pm, while Greece has banned ‘subvertisements’, such as the anti-car toy advertising between 7am and ad ‘Autosaurus’ (Adbusters, undated). 10pm and has banned adverts for Canadian TV channels refused to air this toy weapons entirely (Kang, 2001). and were successfully taken to court by Adbusters (Morrow, 2009). The UK-based activist group Brandalism, posted fake ads all over Paris during the December 2015 COP21 talks (Brandalism website).

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For example, one jammer’s email exchange with Nike about their refusal to put the word ‘sweatshop’ on his The financial collapse happened custom Nikes went viral worldwide because people borrowed money (Centre for Communication and Civic Education website). Larger they didn’t have, to buy things they organisations, including Friends of didn’t need, to achieve a happiness the Earth, PETA and Greenpeace have also used culture jamming successfully that wouldn’t last...The whole to raise awareness of social and of consumer society is based on environmental issues. stimulating demand to generate ‘Tweetjacking’, the process of turning others’ tweets against them, expenditure to produce economic has also been used successfully to growth. This involves turning counter corporate greenwash, as genuine values upside down. demonstrated by a twitter campaign by McDonalds that was pulled Advertising creates a thousand after a twitter backlash (Lyon and blandishments that focus our minds Montgomery, 2013). Marketing and advertising can also on what we don’t have, while real be a force for good. The considerable happiness lies in rejoicing in what creative power of the marketing and we do have. So in a curious way a advertising industry can be used in ways that are helpful to climate change consumer society is a mechanism by promoting sustainable marketing for creating and distributing of products as well as marketing unhappiness. sustainability (Hurth et al., 2015). Marketing needs to evolve so it is John Sentamu, Archbishop of York not simply pushing consumption but (in Bingham, 2015) is part of a service to promote valuable products and services that make people’s lives better (ibid). To help support this goal, a framework of six These are small but high profile principles has been developed including attempts to challenge the mainstream understanding people’s real needs, media and the underlying ideology adopting a long-term sustainability of advertising, though the groups’ mindset, and taking a rigorous approach resources compared to the spending to measuring the sustainability of all power of the advertising industry are marketing decisions (ibid). tiny. However, in the right circumstances For companies like Tesla, social need they can have real impact. fulfilment rather than profit is the end

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goal, removing patents to promote EV technology to that end (Hower, 2014). Examples of sustainable marketing include companies like Max Burgers, Patagonia and B&Q promoting eating less meat, buying fewer clothes or sharing power tools respectively. M&S stocking only sustainably sourced fish or Sodastream’s anti-bottled water campaign are further examples (Hurth et al., 2015).

7.2.2 Break the climate silence with more stories and positive imagery

t is important to break the

prevailing climate silence amongst by Marc van Woudenberg, CC BY 2.0 I the public, media and political Photo discourse so that levels of public support for effective policy action are advertising (NESTA, 2008). It suggested more visible. Focusing attention on climate change communications should climate change is important because it emphasise the normality of taking helps to make the issue more salient, action on climate change and the thus helping to prime action (Spence et importance of fairness, they should al., 2014). make the issue personally relevant More effective communication and should be focused on positive and improved communication skills opportunities (ibid). on climate change can help towards Looking at the elements of successful this. To maximise effectiveness, marketing campaigns it suggested communications programmes and many climate change campaigns had campaigns need to be carefully struggled because they neglected designed. For example, information that the importance of opportunities and highlights the links between specific the power of positive emotions – as actions and effects has been found to be communications need to work at both a most effective in motivating behaviour rational and emotional level (ibid). change (Spence et al., 2014). The use of alarming language The innovation charity NESTA around climate change is considered looked at how to harness the potential appropriate and necessary in view of social marketing for changing of the severity of the threat it poses behaviour on climate change, using (Risbey, 2008) but the use of fear in insights from successful commercial climate change campaigns needs to be

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combined with a sense of personal or audience should be motivated and able social efficacy (Spence and Pidgeon, to act (Clayton et al., 2015). 2010). Fear can be highly motivating Visuals in news media can have under the right circumstances and a strong framing effect and impact when there is a clear way of responding opinion and behaviour (Powell et al., that deals effectively with the situation. 2015). Visuals are known to evoke a Studies of public health campaigns heightened emotional response and have shown that the greatest are more memorable, thus powerful behavioural change comes from images can have a strong mobilising strong fear appeals coupled with effect. Historically, the climate change effective responses that individuals movement has tended to rely on can take (Witte and Allen, 2000). negative images of catastrophic impacts The recommended responses must rather than positive images of solutions make people believe they are able to (Corner et al., 2016). achieve them and that they will help to While negative images can indeed minimise the threat (ibid). be very powerful (for example, a photo While there is the potential for of a drowned Syrian refugee child ‘green fatigue’, this can be countered provoked sympathy and action around by new stories and unusual images, the world), the use of images associated particularly focused on the positive with death and destruction for climate benefits of climate mitigation. change need to be used sparingly and be For example, in terms of reducing accompanied by messages that provide dependency on car use, the positive agency (Spence and Pidgeon, 2010). marketing of alternatives can highlight Based on lessons from past social the benefits associated with not driving, movements, it has been suggested that for example, productive time spent on the climate movement should adopt public transport, reduced stress, fun or local and positive icons and imagery freedom. Not only do these emphasise that people can relate to, such as local more positive intrinsic values they also energy solutions (Delina et al., 2014). use a similar aspirational/lifestyle tactic A project set-up by climate used in car advertising. organisations and photographers, Storytelling is a particularly Climate Visuals, is an evidence- effective way of engaging attention based resource for climate change and sympathies, as stories have communication (Climate Visuals universal and direct appeal and can website). The research involved in-depth be more salient and memorable than discussion groups to find out how people information alone (Slater et al., 2014). respond to different images of climate To increase the chances of climate change, followed up with surveys of communications being heeded, the 3,000 people in the UK, Germany and source needs to be trusted, the message US (Corner et al., 2016). The research should be relevant and clear and the developed seven key principles for visual

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Lessons from history: The role climate change communication that can of non-traditional media be used by climate campaigners:

History shows that the lack of 1. Show ‘real people’ not traditional media support for staged photo-ops. climate change movements can be countered by non-traditional 2. Tell new stories. forms of communication. Historical analysis of the early US labour and 3. Show climate causes at scale. civil rights movements suggested that independent media and 4. Climate impacts are communication networks were emotionally powerful. an important element of both movements (Krajnc, 2000). For 5. Show local (but serious) example, while the mainstream media climate impacts. covered major strikes it was generally hostile to the US labour movement 6. Be very careful with protest in the early 20th century (ibid). To fill imagery. the gap, the alternative socialist press (political parties, trade unions and 7. Understand your audience individuals) was prolific: be ween 1912 (Corner et al., 2016). and 1913 there were over 300 English and foreign language publications, 7.2.3 Use alternative and social media with a total circulation of more than two million (Krajnc, 2000). This iven the important role of the media alternative media was the main vehicle in communicating information, for promoting class consciousness Gideas and values, it is essential that and helped foster an alternative future climate change, and particularly potential vision of society (ibid). solutions, receives sufficient coverage in In the Philippines, citizen-led the media. radio broadcasts helped publicise While there are many studies suggesting and mobilise people for the 1986 that media coverage can reinforce Revolution (Delina et al., 2014). The pre-existing attitudes, particularly as 19th century Chartist campaign to people tend to select media sources in secure votes for all men used the line with their own views (Feldman et al., first mass circulation newspaper, the 2014), there is also evidence that where Northern Star, to give it national and there is persistent and clear coverage of an extensive reach, with an estimated issue, especially from trusted sources like circulation of 400,000 in 1839 (Chase, television, it can directly change attitudes 2016). (Sanders and Gavin, 2004).

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However, as the barriers section has The importance of Facebook over shown, climate change is a hard subject Twitter in driving news traffic has to sell to the media, and it is difficult been found in many studies, to the for NGOs, with their limited resources, point that the goal for many news to lead the agenda. In a series of organisations is to work out what seminars to share learning between works best on Facebook, so that it will media editors and environmental and be subsequently shared (Harcup and development specialists, a number of O’Neill, 2016). This, according to the ways of working were identified that Editor-in-Chief of Buzzfeed is “stuff might lead to more effective public that makes you laugh and stuff that understanding and debate of climate makes you angry” (ibid). change (Smith, 2005). Not surprisingly, fun stories These included new resources to and arresting visuals are the most base stories around, and use of new commonly shared or tweeted items production/broadcasting technologies (ibid). to reach more diverse audiences and Research has shown how Twitter is encourage interactivity, which can help a valuable tool for raising awareness tell more stories about everyday lives of climate change and fostering public (ibid). The most important conclusion acceptance (Cody et al., 2015). There is was for science and policy specialists evidence that Twitter is more focused to act as a source of “ideas, advice, and on the consensus on the science of critical feedback relating to climate climate change and evidence of need change storytelling” (ibid). for action than other media (O’Neill et A lack of traditional media support al., 2015). for progressive social movements is not A good example of the effective a new thing, as the box below shows. use of Twitter is the campaign ‘Who’s In the absence of media support social the Most Powerful Climate Sceptic movements have historically relied on of All?’ run by Avaaz to put pressure alternative media to communicate and on Rupert Murdoch and mainstream mobilise support. media (using #telltheclimatetruth Modern campaigners have new and #thedebateisover). This tools such as online and social media, proved particularly effective in which are low-cost and enable rapid generating tweets about the 2013 and widespread communication to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate a global audience, and can be used Change (IPCC) report (Pearce et al., to mobilise large numbers of people 2014). very quickly. Online and social media Launched to counter media bias communications are routinely used by in Murdoch media outlets, the Avaaz NGOs to provide information, address website included a list of media the news media, strengthen support editors’ Twitter usernames and ready- and mobilise action. made tweets (ibid), complemented by

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an online petition (Avaaz, undated). 7.2.4. Tackle misinformation head-on The campaign appeared to make a significant contribution to conversations he continued incidence of about the IPCC, although it wasn’t clear “tendentious and misleading if the campaign’s tactics were effective T coverage of climate science” in changing media reporting (Pearce has prompted leading climate et al., 2014). However, the importance scientists to urge other scientists to of social media in driving news traffic, challenge such poor reporting (Krebs, discussed above, suggests that more 2016), while others have suggested positive coverage of climate change on science and policy communities social media is likely to be helpful. need to be more active on this As well as social media there is (Smith, 2005). Groups like the Union also a resurgence in print pamphlets, of Concerned Scientists in the US zines and graphic novels, which can all have taken News Corp to task for be used by climate campaigners and its misleading coverage of climate policymakers to get their message out. science, calling for standards and For example, an independent German practices for communicating the scientific advisory body have produced subject (Huertas and Adler, 2012). a graphic novel setting out practical Media editors are sensitive to measures to accelerate the transition to external feedback and have pointed a low carbon society (WGBU, 2015). out that environmental and policy To counter the fossil fuel industry specialists have the capacity to shift influence on policy discourse some have the terms of debate through responses suggested explicit media campaigns to news reporting (Smith, 2005). Given parallel to those executed by the fossil the considerable constraints and fuel industry (Norgaard, 2010). However, pressures on the media, this is an area in the absence of equivalent resources, where climate scientists and policy the climate movement needs to be specialists can help inform debate and much more astute in how it counters reduce uncertainty. misinformation and lobbying power. A large network of climate For example, following a Greenpeace scientists around the world have also Youtube video, ‘Lego: Everything’s NOT heeded the call and provide up to date Awesome’, which showed an Arctic scientific feedback on the accuracy or Legoland being swamped in oil, and otherwise of online climate coverage received over 6 million hits, Lego did (Climate Feedback website). In the not renew its partnership contract period May-June 2016, two articles with Shell (where Shell-branded Lego from UK broadsheets were classed sets were sold at petrol stations) as having low to very low scientific (Greenpeace, undated). credibility (ibid).

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The organisation Carbon Brief also 7.2.5 Increase media plurality provides a daily summary of where the national newspapers stand on climate he current concentration of change and energy based on analysis UK media, which gives media of articles and editorials (Carbon T owners a disproportionate Brief, 2016). There are also numerous influence on UK public opinion, needs resources for communicating effectively to be addressed. Remedies put forward about climate change, for example: to foster media plurality include clear ownership thresholds established in • The Psychology of Climate Change law, with triggers for intervention Communication: a guide for scientists, (Media Reform Coalition, 2013). When journalists, educators, political aides an audience share rises above a certain and the interested public (Shome and threshold it is proposed there should Marx, 2009). be public interest obligations to ensure editorial autonomy and prevent owners • Resources for Communicating Climate and shareholders from exerting undue Change (Climate Outreach, 2013). influence on news output (ibid). Following an inquiry into media On specific sector issues there is plurality in 2013, the House of Lords also a need to counter misinformation made a number of recommendations or misconceptions. For example, the including the introduction of a new misconception that British society is framework for regulating the ownership locked into car use in urban areas is of media enterprises, with media belied by the situation in other northern regulator Ofcom taking a leading role European countries (Pooley et al., 2011). in deciding whether specific media There is no physical reason why cycling transactions can go ahead (House of rates in Britain cannot reach the levels Lords Communications Committee, of say, the Netherlands. High cycling 2014). rates can be found in hilly places like Independent think tank ResPublica Switzerland and Norway, in medieval has also made a number of suggestions towns with narrow streets, in places for regulating the concentration of that are much colder, hotter, wetter or media power, including: windier than the UK, and in places with longer commuting distances (Hembrow, • A new levy imposed on the revenues 2011). Research on car use has suggested of major online search and social that campaigns could make more networking services. explicit the misconceptions about car travel (Gardner and Abraham, 2007). • A new decentralised structure for the BBC to improve editorial independence.

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• Enhanced transparency for meetings of better information (for example, and relations between senior media energy labelling) to making certain and political figures. environmental choices more noticeable (for example, using smart energy • New legislation to support media meters) or attractive (for example, plurality and extend the existing providing financial incentives for energy public interest test (Schlosberg, 2016). efficient appliances) (Swim et al., 2011).

Admittedly, many of these 7.3.1 Address scepticism and recommendations are unlikely to win helplessness by promoting political support in the current climate efficacy of action without a widespread and sustained public campaign. o overcome feelings of powerlessness we need to be 7.3 Psychology and T provided with opportunities behaviour for effective engagement in which our actions matter (Norgaard, 2010). hanges to our diets, the way we Individuals can be motivated by travel and how we choose to heat perceptions of efficacy – both their C and power our homes can make an own ability to act and the perceived enormous difference to our greenhouse effectiveness of that action. A gas emissions. Behaviour change at all systematic review of interventions to levels is essential for a rapid transition to reduce energy in workplaces found that a zero carbon future and there are many providing participants with control useful insights from psychology and and responsibility to alter practices behavioural change studies that can be were particularly effective strategies, employed to encourage action on climate resulting in electricity savings of 30% or change and increase public support for higher (Staddon et al., 2016). policies. While changes are needed at While focusing on personal a structural, industry or government action often reinforces helplessness, level, individual behaviour does impact addressing collective action can on climate change, and individuals can strengthen perceptions of efficacy and also promote action at an institutional or thus the intention to act (Barth et al., policy level. 2016). For example, the use of electric Such interventions can produce vehicles (EV) can be incentivised by meaningful and lasting change in building on the belief that a group behaviour (for example, in addiction to is capable of affecting change, behaviour programmes) or small changes include targeting communications at that add up to a large positive effect. communities or framing individual EV Interventions on behaviours that affect use as part of a collective endeavour climate change can range from provision (ibid).

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Providing examples of solutions the English groups (Harrison et al., that show what is possible and foster 1996). This breakdown in the social a sense that other people care can be contract in England was attributed to very empowering and can show that multiple causes, including greed and the the actions of individuals can make a consumer society (ibid). difference. Surveys have shown that a majority of people agree with the 7.3.2 Provide effective information idea of ‘doing one’s bit’ on the basis and training that they are contributing to action at a cumulative level (Capstick, 2013). hile provision of information However, we often need to see that alone is not generally other people are contributing before Wsufficient, information that we commit to action. The belief that highlights the links between specific a group is capable of effecting change actions and effects has been found to be (‘collective efficacy’) is an important most effective in motivating behaviour factor that influences behaviour (Barth change (Spence et al., 2014). In some et al., 2016). cases, additional information or training Taking responsibility for climate can help overcome resistance to change. change involves a powerful moral For example, improving cooking dimension, either from personal skills and knowledge of alternative conviction or to contribute to the dishes is important to help individuals collective good, but needs to be coupled move to a more plant-based diet in with a sense of control over the outcome the future (Cumberlege et al., 2015). of actions and a demonstration of the Suggesting that individuals try one worth of those actions (Harrison et al., new dish a week that doesn’t have 1996). It is suggested that more success meat as the main food source, for stories of collective action can help to example, is thought to be an effective overcome a negative view that society way of encouraging willingness to is too selfish and could encourage more change at the consumer level (Dibb people to take action (Fischer et al., and Fitzpatrick, 2014). Campaigns 2011). such as Meat Free Mondays encourage There also needs to be a sense a day-based approach to plant-based of shared personal and national eating (Meat Free Mondays website) responsibility, so that people see that whilst Eating Better’s #MeatFreeLunch government and industry are also doing campaign focuses on a meal occasion. their bit. One study found a marked NGOs could increase the amount of difference in the sense of shared information on, and further promote responsibility for pro-environmental other organisations that are working behaviour between communities in towards, improved dietary sustainability England and the Netherlands, with (for example cafés and restaurants) the Dutch group more positive than so that individuals can support those

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trying to make a change (The Food relating to fruits and vegetables. When Foundation, 2015). produced out of the British season, Calling for the elimination of all many fruits and vegetables imported meat and dairy products in people’s from elsewhere in Europe can be lower diets may not be the most effective in emissions than British grown produce way to promote change (Lea et al., (Garnett, 2014). Improving awareness 2006). The fact that mostly plant-based of which fruits and vegetables are in ‘flexitarian’ diets still include some season is, therefore, also needed. meat and dairy products means that Labelling could be introduced to they do not invoke the same strong convey messages relating to seasonality negative reactions that vegetarian or and mode of transport. As long as it vegan diets might. Flexitarian diets can is kept relatively simple, consumers be seen as less restrictive, allowing the have identified labelling as being a promotion of a diversity of foods and helpful method of conveying this encouraging experimentation. type of information and enjoy greater It has been shown that simple transparency in the products they buy messages or ‘rules of thumb’ are the (The Food Foundation, 2015). Labelling most successful ways of creating has also been shown to provide a good movement in the right direction incentive for manufacturers to improve (Cumberlege et al., 2015). For example, their products (Bailey and Harper, 2015). encouraging people in the UK to choose Knowledge of the methods and root vegetables and vegetables that can technologies for energy efficiency be ‘field grown’, such as carrots and (for example, for Passivhaus) must parsnips, is a simple way of increasing increase for builders and installers the consumption of UK grown veg through training, exemplar projects (Garnett, 2006). and information sharing. This is Fruits and vegetables that are already occurring – for example, in shipped to the UK or transported by the ‘Passivhaus Diaries’ of the Green road have much lower associated Building Company (GBS, 2009). emissions than those that are flown in, Familiarity and awareness must so it is not always distance that dictates also be increased among users of whether associated emissions will energy efficient buildings, so that they be high or low. A good rule of thumb are comfortable and can operate the here is that foods that spoil easily buildings efficiently. Firstly, systems (for example, berries), that have been must be designed to be as simple and grown overseas, are likely to have been intuitive to operate as possible. A flown here to ensure a quick arrival so-called ‘soft landings’ approach is to supermarket shelves, particularly if then needed, with an extensive period of grown outside Europe (ibid). handover and support from the project Climate conditions and farming team to the building owners/occupants. methods also influence emissions Since 2013, the Royal Institute of

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British Architects’ plan of work for standard good practice for all, rather architects has included a stage for than the preserve of ‘eco-warriors’ or Post Occupancy Evaluation to assess ‘energy geeks’, is important. Framing a building’s in-use performance and the issue in terms of ‘avoiding waste is rectify any issues identified by data common sense’ has been found to be collection and occupant feedback. This effective, whilst emphasising health helps to ensure that buildings are and quality of life benefits can also operated efficiently and allows lessons work well with some audiences (Corner to be learnt for future projects (Bunn, at al, 2016). 2014). This approach should become There have been cases where social standard practice. norms have been used to encourage sustainable behaviour but have instead 7.3.3 Use the power of social norms reinforced unhelpful behaviours (Griskevicius et al., 2008). For example, iven that people tend to behave drawing attention to people littering in accordance with perceptions can increase the incidence of littering G of how others behave (ibid), or comparing household energy (descriptive norms) as well as in ways use to that of neighbours can cause that are socially acceptable (injunctive households that use less than the norm norms), there is enormous scope to increase their use (Allcott, 2011). for using social norms to encourage Ways to avoid such unintended sustainable behaviours. The importance consequences include focusing of normative beliefs – individuals’ communications on how people should beliefs about what others expect of behave (injunctive norms) or on how them – is often also underestimated many people are taking positive action, both by individuals themselves and in especially people who are similar to studies (Nolan et al., 2008). the target audience (Griskevicius et al., Approaches that use the power 2008). of social influence, for example, Giving positive feedback to low engaging volunteers in a particular energy users can help convey that this neighbourhood to make energy is socially desirable, utilising the power reduction interventions and to advise of injunctive norms (Allcott, 2011). neighbours, can be effective and can Social norms are especially effective in reinforce more significant behaviours conditions of uncertainty when people through peer pressure (Abrahamse and are unsure how to act so there is a good Steg, 2013). opportunity when a new environmental Many people are highly motivated law or policy is introduced to influence by the idea of ‘doing the right thing’ wider public opinion through based on what they think society and communications utilising social norms their peers expect of them. Trying to (Griskevicius et al., 2008). promote energy efficiency retrofit as High profile individuals acting in

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ways that help to tackle climate change Transition Wilmslow community energy can help to normalise such behaviour. scheme: This utilised a peer-to-peer For example, in London the Mayor’s community engagement approach by vision is for cycling in London to “be a training 40 local residents to provide normal part of everyday life, something advice in the local community. The people hardly think about and feel group reported that they felt that comfortable doing in ordinary clothes.” residents were ‘fed up’ with being (Mayor of London website) targeted by commercial energy measures. Policies have to be put in place They therefore developed a “friendly, that make walking and cycling safe, neighbourly approach” which helped convenient, comfortable and ‘accepted 73 out of 100 householders pledge to and normal’ (Pooley et al., 2011) for take action to reduce their energy use. everyone, including vulnerable road This was one of over 200 community users, such as the elderly, disabled and schemes that won awards from the £9.2 parents with young children. million Local Energy Assessment Fund Social norms can also be used to (LEAF) administered by the Department increase the uptake of electric vehicles of Energy and Climate Change (DECC, (EVs) through programmes that get 2014d). people to experience EVs, which have the benefit that people are then more Green Open Homes: A national network likely to recommend EVs to others that aims to support low carbon open (Buhler, 2014; Barth et al., 2016). homes events across the country through High profile individuals, such as free resources and advice. By visiting real celebrity chefs and food writers, could homes and hearing stories from people also be involved in setting new food like themselves, visitors can overcome trends and discussing important food knowledge or perception barriers as issues. Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, for well as change their social norms and example, created the campaign ‘Hugh’s expectations. The Green Open Homes Fish Fight’, which brought attention to project has had over 10,000 visitors to the amount of fish being wasted in the over 600 homes (Green Open Homes, North Sea due to quota systems and was undated). successful in getting the policy on fish quotas changed (Fish Fight, 2014). Legislation and policy can also be Religions can also help establish new helpful in establishing new social norms, social and ethical norms and promote as was the case for recycling and use of the shift in lifestyles and intrinsic plastic bags. For example, mandatory values that are essential to support policies setting minimum efficiency action on climate change (Hulme, 2016). standards in buildings could help Some good examples of the use of establish a new social norm that everyone ‘peer-to-peer’ learning that capitalises must undertake appropriate energy on social norms include: efficiency measures in their homes.

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7.3.4 Address a lack of urgency

o address the view of climate change as a distant future T threat, which allows people to discount the risk, the proximity of climate change in both time and place needs to be emphasised (Marshall, 2014; van der Linden et al., 2015). Young people show a clear preference for a narrative that frames climate change as an issue for the ‘here and now’ rather Footprint Carbon © Cambridge than talking about how climate change Open Eco Homes, Cambridge will impact future generations (Climate Outreach, undated). Or, in the case of flooding, it may be seen Framing climate change in terms of as an excuse for inaction by public bodies local risks – for example, when extreme (Butler et al., 2016). weather events occur – helps make the Framing climate change as local or issue more salient and the benefits of personal may also cause individuals action more tangible (Spence et al., 2011; (in the West) to focus on what they Messling et al., 2015). perceive as less severe than say, impacts Thus, it is found that people who on developing countries (Spence and have experienced flooding are likely to Pidgeon, 2010). To avoid trivialising the be more concerned and are more likely issue, it is also important to highlight the to act on climate change (Spence et al., distant impacts of climate change which 2011). The Environment Agency and many people are concerned about (ibid). local authorities have also focused on There is also research that a the impacts of severe weather events combination of abstract thinking about to make messages more relevant and global issues combined with specific immediate to people (LGA, 2016b). goals at local level may be the most However, the psychology of how useful approach to environmental issues people respond is complex, and caution (Rabinovich et al., 2009). In the case of is needed when highlighting the ‘here severe weather events, climate change and now’, as it can sometimes backfire can be used to highlight more novel (Brugger et al., 2015; Butler et al., 2016). solutions, such as new housing design, For example, it may make climate to better manage the risk in future change appear overwhelming and (Butler et al., 2016). induce guilt or mistrust, which triggers Framing a global threat like climate defensive reactions to reduce the change as an issue that incites moral negative feelings, but does not result in passion can help to increase the sense any positive action (Brugger et al., 2015). of urgency and shift public attitudes

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when it becomes a narrative shared by 7.3.5 Use transition moments large numbers of people (Lifton, 2014). to break habits Framing environmental degradation from climate change in terms of atural periods of change or human stewardship and preventing transition have been found destruction of the purity of the natural N to be a good opportunity to world has been shown to increase change habits. A change in context, moral engagement and policy support such as moving house, has been shown by people not usually engaged in the to help disrupt a habit by providing climate change debate (Markowitz and a window of opportunity where Shariff, 2012). people can shift their actions in line Similarly, linking action on climate with how they would like to behave change to positive (moral) emotions (Verplanken et al., 2008). Thus, people such as hope, pride and gratitude can who had recently moved house were help support action on climate change less likely to travel by car, and this (ibid). Pride has been shown to have effect was strongest for people with powerful motivational properties. pro-environmental views (ibid). This Eliciting positive moral emotions as effect was confirmed in more recent well as improvements in well-being can studies in which it was partly attributed help to reduce feelings of guilt and can to the large upheaval associated with be rewarding (ibid). On the other hand, moving house, forcing residents to guilt can be associated with positive reconsider their existing habits and behaviour intentions, particularly making them more open to change when someone acts to avoid violating (Thomas et al., 2016; Thomas and moral standards in the future (Renner Poortinga, 2016; Verplanken and Roy, et al., 2013). For example, studies have 2016). shown that guilt can be used positively Recognition of this has led to many to reduce energy use in shared houses initiatives that are based on transition (Leygue et al., 2014). moments in people’s lives – young Note that it is important not people leaving home, starting a new to be judgemental when framing job, changing jobs, moving house. something as ‘moral’, as this can lead For example, the transition from to resentment by others in the form of school to university is a teachable feelings of moral inferiority, confusion moment that has been used to promote or imagined reproach (Monin, 2007). healthy lifestyle habits (reduced People with these negative feelings smoking, exercise, fruit and vegetable adopt defensive strategies, such as consumption) to students using an casting doubt on the virtue, labelling the online intervention (Epton et al., 2013). action naïve ‘do-gooding’, or distancing Embarking upon parenthood themselves from the morally superior represents one of the biggest changes person or action (ibid). in people’s lives, so arguably is the

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ideal time to instil better habits. Total and unconscious thoughts on behaviour responsibility for someone else’s future (Lilley et al., 2014). fosters an entirely new outlook on Better targeting can also help by the nature and meaning of existence. reaching those thought more open to Presenting decarbonisation as a health change (thus more people are likely to issue taps into a key concern for new change behaviour), and by focusing on parents – the immediate and long-term those who currently have the highest prospects of survival for their child. impact (thus each change in behaviour has higher efficacy). For example: 7.3.6 Use behaviour change programmes more effectively • Lea et al., (2006) found that younger generations show a greater lthough behavioural change willingness to change their eating studies have been criticised behaviours. Making allowances for A for failing to address the different target audiences within fundamental shifts in policy and behaviour change campaigns should, lifestyles needed for a zero carbon therefore, further their success. future, there is still an important role for them, provided they are not seen • ‘Educated suburban families’ have as the dominant approach to reducing been shown to have both a high climate change. Indeed, they can be a annual mileage and a high number of valuable complement to the wider set of flights but they are aware of climate structural, political and economic levers change and their impacts (Thornton needed to address climate change, et al., 2011). As a group, they may be including regulations and standards, receptive to initiatives promoting market mechanisms and policy very fuel-efficient cars, car clubs, solutions. cycling and the possibility of home Better programme design can working (ibid). improve the outcomes and it is important to learn what works from the • A study that looked at the energy effective interventions (or what didn’t behaviour of residents in identical work in other cases) and refine and flats in Germany before and after apply this elsewhere. While traditional major energy retrofits found government policies have focused more that 20% of the households were on the rational dimensions of behaviour consuming 50% of the heating energy change – provision of information (Galvin, 2013). This group of ‘heavy’ and financial incentives – more recent consumers showed very stable policies in Wales are developing more patterns of consumption, bound up emotionally literate interventions, with fixed habits and behaviour, and such as the use of mindfulness, that the physical environment. Rather account for the influence of emotion than a scattergun approach it was

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suggested this group could be communities and innovation and targeted through a one-to-one support at local levels. Changes to approach to tackle routines, false communities, villages, towns and beliefs, physical barriers or lack of cities need the backing of policy and skills that were locking people into planning processes. Specific practical overconsumption (Galvin, 2013). changes need to be made to make zero carbon alternatives more attractive. Behaviour change at all levels is The development and support of low essential for a rapid transition to carbon communities is important a zero carbon future and there are and potentially transformative for a many useful insights from psychology number of reasons: and behavioural change studies that can be employed to encourage • Low carbon interventions often have action on climate change and co-benefits for local communities increase public support for policies. – for example, an income stream, While structural transformation is cleaner air, addressing fuel or needed, individuals do and should food poverty. They are also often have some direction over their own enjoyable and fun activities, behaviour and perspectives which developing cultures of sharing and work across disciplines are needed to co-operation. bring the individual and structural approaches together, or complement • Local examples of low carbon them (Whitmarsh et al., 2011). technologies and practices give The knowledge and insights from people hope and address feelings of psychology and behavioural change powerlessness, giving them a sense studies can and should be used to of agency and collective efficacy. influence co-operative behaviour and social action in positive and far • Examples of behaviour, such as reaching ways, or to tackle more insulating your house, riding a bike, damaging and entrenched behaviours eating less meat and installing like frequent flying. solar panels, help to facilitate social learning and normalise such 7.4 Overcoming carbon behaviour. lock-in • Low carbon communities also offer vercoming the problems of potential for bottom-up political carbon lock-in involves the change, to complement the role of O development of low carbon advocacy groups.

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7.4.1 Encourage and promote Disability and low innovation at a local level carbon enterprise

here are plenty of examples of innovative practice at a small- Disability Essex: Commissioned a T scale or ‘niche’ level, with a Passivhaus building in 2010 to be its growing number of communities around flagship entre for Disability Studies, the UK (and globally) practising low housing operational headquarters and carbon lifestyles, or developing solutions a training centre. The building provides to climate change. It is estimated a model of how to easily integrate that there are between 600-6,000 sustainability into construction, whilst community groups in the UK addressing meeting the needs of disabled users by climate change in some way (Mayne offering ‘absolute accessibility’ for a wide and Hamilton, 2013), while others have range of conditions, including physical, estimated over 5,000 community groups sensory, cognitive, mental and learning have undertaken energy initiatives in impairments (Disability Essex website). the last five years (Community Energy Coalition website). Flower Pod: Enables people with A large number of low carbon learning disabilities to: community projects have resulted from Transition Town initiatives, a community- • Participate in the growth, care and led process to help neighbourhoods, sales of beautiful flowers and confetti. villages, towns and cities become more resilient in the face of climate change and • Potentially take part in performances, transition towards a low energy future tours and talks. (Transition Network website). Groups develop practical, positive solutions to suit • Gain important skills needed for more local circumstances. These have included independent living. the following (Transition Network, 2015): • Enjoy physical activity, fresh air and the Food: The Transition Community Café natural world. in Fishguard (Bro Gwaun) in Wales uses perfectly good food that would otherwise • Get to know other people beyond their have gone to landfill and turns it into immediate circle of family and paid-for affordable healthy meals. carers.

Transport: The Million Miles project • Participate in the development of across the Black Isle in Scotland cut car Flower Pod activities and support each travel by over a million miles in three other. years by promoting public transport, active travel and car sharing. (Flower Pod website)

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Buildings: The Aadehuizen Project is a change, and now have a community housing development of 23 houses and owned renewable energy company a community building in Olst, in the (ibid). Netherlands. This is the first ecovillage It is also vital that local initiatives project in the country, with 12 are as inclusive as possible and not Earthships (buildings with walls made the preserve of a privileged few. At the from tyres packed with rammed earth) grassroots level, sustainable enterprise and the remainder of the buildings is thriving, with initiatives that made from straw bale. incorporate a wide range of benefits for people with disabilities, such as Energy: Many transition groups Disability Essex and Flower Pod (below). are involved in community energy The reach of these low carbon schemes. For example, Brixton Energy, communities to the wider population which grew out of Transition Town is still relatively small and the extent Brixton, has installed 134.24kW of to which the activities have wider solar energy across three schemes. implications for systemic change is yet Described as ‘a social experiment on to be seen. While many community- a massive scale’ the ‘Transition Model’ scale projects are too small to reduce envisages groups scaling up activities greenhouse gas emissions significantly all the way to national level (Transition by themselves, Rob Hopkins, one of Network website). Note that scaling the founders of Transition Network, up may not always mean making a has suggested they “help people project bigger but rather spreading recognise that they have power to make the message of Transition across a difference,” (Flintoff, 2013) and give different groups and communities, them confidence and the impetus to and allowing initiatives to develop take political action. elsewhere. Started only a decade ago As well as building a community in recognition of the urgency of the of committed people, every local problem, by mid 2016 there were over project undertaken helps expand the 1,200 Transition groups in 45 countries political choices available and makes it (Giangrande, 2016). difficult for decision-makers to say that Other villages and towns are something can’t be done. It is suggested organising themselves to significantly that one of the strengths of low carbon reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. communities lies in empowering For example, Ashton Hayes in Cheshire people, which complements the delivery aims to become England’s firstcarbon role of local authorities (Mayne and neutral community (Ashton Hayes Hamilton, 2013). Local communities are Going Carbon Neutral website). Since undoubtedly important for spreading 2006 they have cut their carbon the ideas, enthusiasm and experience dioxide emissions by 40% by working necessary for a wider transformation together, sharing ideas and behaviour process.

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Stories for Change

Anna Joyce

Project Manager, Flower Pod

Most people don’t appreciate that the flowers they buy from a florist aren’t grown in this country, they need to be told. You can do that through flowers. They sit in a vase in your house, reminding you. They’ll sit there for a week. It’s got more chance of getting through.

Flower Pod is a horticultural-based service for adults with learning disabilities offering learning and recreational activities. It is part of Reach, which is the new name for the Southwell Care Project in Nottinghamshire. The learning and recreational activities focus on growing beautiful cut fl wers that are sold to local domestic and businesses markets to generate an income. Flower Pod offers consumers the opportunity to buy locally produced fl wers with a low carbon footprint whilst supporting some of the most vulnerable people in society.

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Flower Pod

“I married an architect and he is We have clients with learning involved in a lot of environmental, disabilities and they’re not aware sustainable buildings. I’m also they’re interested in seeds and from a background of growing, plants. But they’ve got their names horticulture, botany, landscape; so on some of the seeds and the trays via osmosis it’s been getting under of cuttings, and as they come my skin. weekly they can see them growing, Flowers are a great link, from and I think it’s almost an animal the clients and volunteers growing instinct it satisfies. them, to giving them out at the We have lots of volunteers who other end, perhaps to a bride. It’s think they want to help us with made all the more serious because gardening, but within hours of they know they’ve been grown by them coming, the barrier is broken people with learning disabilities down between them and the clients, and they love that feeling, knowing and they end up coming for the they’ve contributed something clients rather than the flowers. more than just buying a bunch of It’s social inclusion, mixing flowers. people up, forcing the issue Flowers resonate deeply with somehow. I think it leads to a much people – it might mean something better community, a much better like a song would or a piece of society that will go forward as one music. The people we support may voice in terms of creating zero never have a chance to nurture and carbon Britain. It’s no good one look after a child. I think there’s an section of society fighting for one innate need in all of us to do that, cause. We’re all together and we and flowers satisfy that to some can all believe in one another and degree. contribute.”

http://fl werpod.org

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Instead of traditional political demonstrates the enormous appetite advocacy, the coupling of leadership/ for positive local solutions and action driven by a combination of inspiring action, which has a positive motives (such as poverty, health, feedback loop. Successful local projects housing) with ‘action networks’ generate their own momentum and of low carbon communities that attract more people, and help to spread influence behaviour may be a better ideas through society. For example, approach (Hale, 2010). Rather than Incredible Edible, a project started in seeing individual behaviour as an the small town of Todmorden to help alternative to political action it is build resilience by growing food on suggested it should be seen as a means public land, has quickly grown to 100 to it: “Individual action on the scale groups (Incredible Edible Network). necessary will only emerge through By the same token, a lack of success collective decisions in the networks can leave people feeling disillusioned and communities...which give them and disempowered. Therefore, to both the motive and opportunity to properly harness the positive energy act.” (ibid) People are more likely to act within communities requires support. if they see that their action contributes This is already happening to some to an effective collective effort. There extent with local community projects is a need for a visible, collective project often undertaken in association with or that individuals can coalesce around with support from local government. to make their actions feel worthwhile However, more needs to be done (Hindley and Benton, 2013). both locally and at a national level The rapid growth of the Transition to provide long-term and systematic Network and low carbon community support. initiatives both in the UK and globally 7.4.2 Support scaling up

hile there are many examples of highly W innovative local projects, these often require support to overcome the problems many have in scaling up, or simply surviving. The Photo by Peter Blanchard, CC BY 2.0 role of intermediaries – organisations that can connect grassroots projects, share knowledge, publicise success and build momentum – is very important (Hargreaves et al., 2013). For example, the growth of community energy schemes Straw bale house

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demonstrates the benefits of scaling a specialist architectural firm (Modcell up, with a growing number of website). Using prefabricated straw bale knowledge networks, intermediaries walls, the development moves it from and support organisations. A total of a niche technique to a mainstream 94 intermediaries were identified in product. one study (ibid). These intermediary Low carbon community movements organisations, such as Community are important change agents who Energy England and Community Energy play a complementary role to local Scotland, help to initiate new projects, authorities, but their potential is share information, offer services and, limited by structural issues, such as increasingly, lobby policymakers (ibid). the government policy framework They also play a role in brokering and incentives which are weighted to and managing partnerships outside technical infrastructure and market the sector, for example, with large solutions (Mayne and Hamilton, 2013). energy companies, by finding capital This restricts the potential reach, for investment as well as a stream of scale and speed of carbon reduction. revenue for other community projects Suggested solutions to address this (ibid). include: Measures proposed to take the learning and experience of the Arizona- • Reintroducing statutory obligations based Canelo straw bale housing project for carbon reduction for local (see section 6.4.1) to the mainstream authorities. include more stringent building standards that force mainstream • Investment in the human and social builders to look for new techniques, infrastructure for community action. and funding and institutional support similar to that given to technology • More funding (ibid). innovators (Seyfang, 2010). Inspired by the Canelo project, social enterprise The Government’s support for Amazon Nails was formed to work community organised sport has towards the mainstream adoption been suggested as a useful model as of straw bale housing in the UK it comprises a long-term strategy, (Amazonails website). The UK’s first is inclusive, helps to mobilise the straw bale house was built in 1994, by community, and has significant 2001 there were 70, and in 2015 it was (£1 billion) funding attached (Hamilton estimated there were around a thousand and Berry, 2013). Unlike community-led in the UK and a hundred or so in Ireland climate action, community organised (Jones, 2015). In 2015, the first straw sport has formal structures, support bale homes on the open market went up services and significant funding to for sale in Bristol (Gill, 2015) developed help improve knowledge and skills by the University of Bath working with and encourage ongoing participation

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(ibid). Similar support for low carbon by a vegetarian mince alternative. communities could address some of the It has been shown that a significant current issues they face in increasing proportion of consumers would be their reach and scale of activities. interested in buying these products (Mintel, 2014). This also helps to 7.4.3 Make alternatives convenient overcome practical barriers, such and attractive as long work hours, which may be particularly relevant for people on n all sectors, making zero carbon low incomes, who have fewer options alternatives more convenient and with regards to which products they I attractive in practical terms can purchase and less time to prepare the help facilitate their uptake and address foods that they buy (Tait, 2015). the problem of carbon lock-in. If these products could be manufactured so that the taste Food (and cost) remained similar, many consumers may also buy them without ome studies have shown that even noticing a change, which would direct replacement of meat help to limit resistance. This may be S products with vegetable-based one of the most effective solutions to alternatives is particularly effective introduce in the short-term, whilst at overcoming skill barriers. Meat many individuals are unaware of the replacements, such as vegetarian links between meat and dairy and sausages or ‘chicken’ pieces, may be climate change and are less willing to important as they can be prepared in change certain behaviours themselves an almost identical way to their meat (Cumberlege et al., 2015). equivalent (Lea et al., 2006). Less direct, The engagement of the food but other good substitutes are foods industry in producing more plant- such as pulses, nuts and seeds. These based meat alternatives, ready meals will require a greater knowledge of and convenience foods is, therefore, cooking skills but can be promoted as a another important area for change way to add more variety to the diet and (Lea et al., 2006). Restaurants and introduce new cooking techniques and food-to-go chains could also easily flavours (Cumberlege et al., 2015). increase their range of vegetarian and New products could also be vegan options. Ultimately, restaurants developed by food manufacturers to designed around high meat and improve the number of low/no meat dairy dishes will either need to be and dairy options of ready meals and frequented much less regularly by the processed foods. A beef lasagne, for same customers or change what they example, could begin to be substituted are entirely, becoming a different type with both more vegetables and beans, of restaurant or company (Cumberlege or some of the beef could be replaced et al., 2015). Supermarkets could use

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new healthier and sustainable options needs to be much greater investment in to attract customers through the cycling infrastructure (Hembrow, 2011). improvement of their product choice Cycling campaigners have called for and reputation. Here, again, more some of the £15 billion for roads to be options could be deemed a positive reallocated to cycling instead (Geffen, contribution to creating business 2016). opportunities through innovation and This investment in walking and increasing diversity (ibid). cycling infrastructure can pay for itself. There is much evidence that Transport the health and economic benefits associated with high quality walking tudies have shown that the and cycling infrastructure far outweigh rise in cycling in Denmark, the costs (for example, Woodcock S Germany and the Netherlands et al., 2009; Rabl and Nazelle 2012). was not only due to investment in Each additional hour spent in a car cycling infrastructure but was also per day is associated with an increase supported by making driving expensive in the likelihood of obesity (Frank et and inconvenient and by land-use al., 2004). Experts have suggested the planning to promote compact, denser NHS could save £2-6 billion a year by developments (Pucher and Buehler, 2025 through Dutch levels of spending 2008). The towns, cities and countries on cycle provision (Lovelace and with high rates of cycling have Woodcock, 2014). invested in high quality walking and Additional funding at local level can cycling infrastructure (for example, achieve good outcomes: off-road routes) complemented by softer measures (such as publicity or • Funding for 18 cycling demonstration bike training), while at the same time towns led to increases in cycling to often restricting the convenience or work among 1.3 million commuters increasing the cost of using a car. that increased over time and provided Improving the actual and perceived extremely cost-effective health and safety of cycling (and walking) is done environmental benefits (Goodman et most effectively through the provision al., 2013). of off-road segregated cycle paths as well as reducing traffic speeds on roads. • Funding for 77 local authorities to This has been done effectively in many improve local sustainable travel, other European countries and cities including measures to promote where cycling is the norm. For example, walking and cycling (LSTF website), in Copenhagen 50% of residents suggests this has contributed to a commute by bike every day and there 24% growth in cycling in Nottingham are more bikes than inhabitants. To and 43% in Manchester between 2011 match the Dutch level of cycling there and 2014 (Sloman et al., 2015).

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The real and perceived safety Increasing the number of public of cyclists and walkers can also be charging points may also improve addressed at minimum cost through uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) (Lim speed reduction. Most Northern et al., 2015), as experience in Oslo has European countries have default shown. Plug-in hybrid vehicles may also speed limits of just 30km/h (19mph) help the transition. Overnight parking in residential and urban areas. While offers an alternative low cost network safety is the main aim of lower speed (Element Energy 2013) with 70% new limits, driving more slowly at a steady car owners having access to a garage or pace will generally save fuel (unless off-street parking where an EV charging an unnecessarily low gear is used) and unit could be installed by householders encourage higher levels of walking and (ibid). cycling (DfT, 2013d). There is convincing evidence that 20mph speed limits are Buildings effective in reducing accidents and injuries, traffic speed and volume, ombining energy works as well as improving perceptions of with general home repairs, safety (Cairns et al., 2014). Sherwood in Cmaintenance and improvements, Nottingham reported a 17.5% increase so that the costs and disruption become in walking and cycling as a result of a marginal, offers major opportunities 20mph pilot (Nottingham City Council, for low carbon retrofits (Maby and 2014). Owen, 2015). It has been found

Fig. 7.1 Proportion of residents who cycle daily by EU country (European Commission, 2013).

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that most homeowners wait until building components reach the end of their useful life before considering replacement (Achtnicht and Madl, 2014) so, as well as being affordable and offering a good payback, there must also be a good opportunity to retrofit (ibid). The market for refurbishment and renovation of existing homes is estimated at £11 billion annually. Each project is an opportunity for energy reduction. Such work is often delivered by sole traders or micro enterprises, often overlooked in policymaking, but it is suggested that these local building tradespeople could be the frontline for promoting energy efficiency improvements (Maby and Owen, 2015). For many existing homes that have not undergone a whole-home energy efficiency retrofit, heat pumps would not necessarily be a good choice from an energy or cost perspective, since they would not operate as efficiently. However, there is an opportunity to combine whole-building retrofit with heat pump installation in order to maximise energy savings and minimise cost compared with doing these separately (Wang et al., 2015). This could occur at a convenient time to minimise disruption, such as when a home is sold or between rentals.

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CASE STUDY: Energiesprong

Energiesprong is a Dutch Government- inspection and verification mean that supported approach to delivering a long-term (30 year) performance ‘whole-house’ refurbishments that warranty can be offered. achieve net zero energy (NEF, 2015). So far, the programme has delivered over Affordability: Assured performance, 800 pilot-scale refurbishments and has coupled with efficiencies of scale begun delivery against an agreement reduces costs and allows for the between housing associations and refinancing of the upfront investment. builders to refurbish 111,000 homes to Guaranteed energy cost savings, net zero energy levels. generation of on-site renewables and Energiesprong solutions use real estate value improvements make customised, off-site prefabricated the solution affordable, independent of walls and roofs, which are pre-fitted public grant. with windows and doors. This not only insulates the building but gives it a Desirability: The fast, low disruption, modern, updated look. In addition, an hassle-free process, improved aesthetics energy module is provided which holds and comfort levels, increased asset everything needed for sustainable heat, value and neighbourhood renewal hot water, power and ventilation and make the refurbishments highly just needs to be plugged into the house. desirable. Three key aspects of the Energiesprong approach are: Inspired by the Dutch Energiesprong approach, a range of organisations have Quality and assured performance: come together to form Energiesprong High quality standards, assured UK. The intention is to create a ‘game- manufacturing and delivery methods, changer’ for the retrofit sector in the UK.

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Examples of retrofit Similarly, in rolling out zero carbon best practice heating and hot water systems it is important that windows of opportunity Retrofit for the Future are taken and that systems are installed The Retrofit or the Future competition in situations where they can operate catalysed the retrofit of ver 100 efficiently and that make strategic homes across the UK. Funded by the sense. A big opportunity, currently Technology Strategy Board (now being missed, is to have incentives called Innovate UK) it awarded up to or mandates to install heat pumps £150,000 to 86 teams to implement in new buildings. New builds are the retrofits in eal homes, and encouraged most appropriate for heat pumps as the collaboration between housing technology operates most efficiently providers, designers, contractors and in well insulated buildings with researchers. Analysis of data from 37 underfloor heating. New homes would properties found that three projects provide a very suitable area to grow achieved the desired 80% reduction the market for heat pumps and build in carbon dioxide emissions, with familiarity with the technology. New 23 reaching between 50% and 80% buildings and major renovations also (Innovate UK, 2014). The project also provide a good opportunity to install developed a Low Energy Buildings solar hot water systems. However, there Database (LEBD, undated), which stores are no mandates for new homes to information and measured energy have zero carbon heating systems, and use data from hundreds of exemplar incentives such as the Renewable Heat buildings. The database includes Incentive are generally unavailable to examples of buildings retrofit ed to new homes (Ofgem, 2015). the EnerPHit standard – the Passivhaus Since biomass fuels may have a standard for existing buildings. limited role for heating in a zero carbon future, it makes most sense to install Super Homes network biomass systems strategically – for The Super Homes network is a rapidly example, in historic buildings that expanding network of 200 energy are likely to be very difficult to make aware households. These pioneering sufficiently airtight for an efficiently homeowners have retrofit ed their operating heat pump. It may also be old homes to the highest standards best to distribute biomass heating of energy efficie y. The homes are at systems widely so as to minimise local least 60% less reliant on fossil fuels. The air pollution impacts. Biomass could network’s website provides a wealth be combined with heat pumps and/or of information about retrofit and the solar hot water to make a very efficient homes can be visited on open days system – this may work well in district (SuperHomes website). heating systems.

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One study looked at the drivers and low carbon heating systems. barriers to homeowners in Germany switching from fossil fuel to renewable • Make heating easier to control. heating systems (Michelson and Controls for low carbon heating Madlener, 2016). To switch to renewable should make it easier for consumers heating, homeowners need to be to get the experiences they want in aware of, and concerned about, the their homes. impacts of fossil fuels, and convinced of the convenience and usability of Better training and awareness alternatives such as wood pellet boilers is required for low carbon heating and heat pumps. It was suggested that systems, and though this should be a sufficiently high grant could provide delivered naturally to some extent as a signalling effect that overcomes the UK market for new technologies homeowners’ habits and routines, while grows, there is no room for better communication of basic technical complacency as the efficient operation principles and usability of technologies of these systems is vital. could overcome the perceived difficulties of use. 7.4.4 Effective planning A report by the Energy Technology and policy support Institute (ETI, 2015) highlights that low carbon heating systems need to be he role of planning is made an attractive choice by offering particularly important for a zero something better than existing heating T carbon future. For example, systems. They suggest: cities, towns and villages can be better planned to make it harder to drive and • Improve low carbon heating more convenient to walk, cycle and use experiences. Low carbon heating public transport. Key to this is ensuring designs should improve heat that new housing is near to shops and experiences (for example, by services and well-served by public improving indoor air quality) transport and good walking/cycling and allow people to get clean and infrastructure. comfortable in diverse ways. European cities such as Copenhagen, Hamburg and Vienna have pioneered • Make low carbon heating simple to denser development with better public prepare for and install. Workable low transport, excellent support for cycling carbon heating options should be and walking, and a focus on low carbon designed so they can be installed in growth (CBT, 2015). a similar timeframe to a gas boiler The neighbourhood of Vauban in replacement. People need to know Freiburg, Germany (population around what solutions will work in their area 5,000), was planned as Europe’s largest and how to prepare their homes for car-free development. An extensive

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network of cycle routes and a public country where local authorities have transport system of light rail and bus taken a more integrated approach to means there is little need to own a developments, planning them around car (Field, 2014). In residential areas public transport, walking and cycling pedestrians come first and car access is (see case studies below). only permitted for deliveries; children Changes needed to existing planning playing and cycling in the streets is policy to encourage sustainable travel common (ibid). and reduce car dependency include the London is by far the least following: car-dependent city in the UK, though cities such as Manchester, • Higher national minimum densities Nottingham, Liverpool and Brighton for housing, which makes public also demonstrate the success of local transport more cost-effective. The initiatives in reducing car dependency Sustainable Development Commission (CBT, 2014). Dense urban areas are has recommended increasing better able to support good public from the current 30 dwellings per transport services that play a large part hectare (dph) to 50 while some have in reducing car dependency. There are a suggested 100 dph is needed for growing number of examples from this sustainable transport (Taylor and

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Sloman, 2008). Most new London CASE STUDIES: Examples housing developments and Georgian of developments planned to terraces are already around this reduce car dependency level, while in Vauban, Germany, housing density is 95 dph (Field, Hackney, London: Almost 90% 2014). of developments planned in the borough are car-free, with the council • 50% of transport funding in new guaranteeing that every resident will development areas to be spent live within three minutes of a car-club on walking, cycling and public bay. Household car ownership has transport (Taylor and Sloman, 2008). dropped from 44% to 35% over 10 years and has the highest level of bus • Tighter parking provision. New usage in London, despite an increase developments in Europe have in population of 45,000 over the same much lower levels of provision. period (Moss, 2015). It is suggested that there should be a maximum of 0.5 spaces per Tower Hamlets, London: The household with a significant council’s ‘car-free homes’ planning proportion of developments policy was introduced in the car-free (Taylor and Sloman, 2008). late 1990s to help reduce traffic Copenhagen’s policy to remove 3% of congestion and better manage the parking every year and not build any limited supply of on-street parking new roads was thought to be a major spaces. It also helps to reduce the level contributor to the fact that there was of air pollution and encourages more zero traffic growth in the old city people to walk, cycle and use public for 15 years (Havlick and Newman, transport (Tower Hamlets website). 1998). Removal of parking provision has the added benefit that it can New Road, Brighton: A run-down double the number of dwellings road in the centre of Brighton was that can be provided on a given site, turned into England’s first shared- increasing the potential supply of space street in 2007. This has affordable homes (CPRE, 2006). transformed the area: traffic levels have dropped by 93%, the number The Merton Rule was a ground- of pedestrians has increased by 62%, breaking planning policy initiated and there has been a 600% increase by officers in Merton Council in activities like sitting, eating and in 2003 that required large new drinking that encourage people to commercial buildings to generate spend time in the space (Healthy at least 10% of their energy needs Cities website). from on-site renewable energy at a time when there was no national

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requirement for renewables (Merton 7.4.5 The role of local authorities Council website). This was adopted by many other councils and eventually became part of national planning guidance, helping support an emerging renewables industry and increasing Local authorities have a crucial the amount of renewable energy role in helping the UK reach its installed in UK new builds (ibid). It has since been superseded by new ambitious carbon emissions energy requirements though some have targets. suggested resurrecting it in the light of government backtracking on renewable Committee on Climate Change, 2012 support and policy (Green Building Press, 2015). Unfortunately, the Government has advised that, under the Deregulation Act 2015, Local Planning Authorities ocal authorities have significant should not require any additional local influence on the development technical standards or requirements L of sustainable buildings, relating to the construction or renewable and low carbon energy, performance of new dwellings, sustainable transport, locally grown including any policy requiring any level food, reduction of waste and other of the Code for Sustainable Homes to be aspects of a low carbon economy. They achieved by new development (Pickles, are ideally placed to link top-down 2015). This backward step in planning policies and bottom-up delivery, and are needs to be overturned to allow councils major players in the local economy, as to push for higher standards and purchasers of goods and services and as support local low carbon industries. A local regulators (Damso et al., 2016). The number of ‘mini Stern’ reviews have role of local governments in governing shown that local councils investing in climate action can be categorised in the low carbon infrastructure can create following way (UN Habitat, 2015): massive benefits for a region, including savings on energy bills and the creation In house: Management of municipal of thousands of jobs (Gouldson et al., buildings, land and facilities. Local undated). The actual Stern Review: The government’s energy spend in 2012 was Economics of Climate Change can be estimated to be around £900 million downloaded via a google search. (LGA, 2016b).

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Public provision: Local government- requires them to outline commitments led development of low carbon and actions on climate change (LGA, infrastructure and services. For 2016b). This represents only a third of example, councils are responsible for councils in England (ibid). delivery of social housing, social care, By contrast, all but four of transport and education. Denmark’s 98 municipalities have a Climate Action Plan and 79% Public-private provision: Development of these have community carbon of low carbon infrastructure targets, nearly half of which are and services with private sector above the national target (Damso et engagement. al., 2016). The rural municipality of RinglobingSkjern in West Jutland has Regulations and incentives: Local a target of 100% self-sufficiency in governments are responsible for local renewable energy by 2020, largely planning of housing, transport, waste based on local businesses (ibid). and mineral extraction, and small-scale Fifteen municipalities have a target energy schemes; they also set local of becoming carbon neutral for the council tax and business rates. entire municipality (producing enough renewable energy to offset fossil fuels Enabling and supporting: Provision in transport) and a further four for of information, awareness raising and heating and electricity sectors only, demonstration projects to encourage while five municipalities aim to be action by local people and support for free of fossil fuels entirely, in one case community-led initiatives. by 2025 (Damso et al., 2016). Local authorities in the UK could do well to Corporate-community-led: Direct follow Denmark’s example. action taken by corporates and Many UK authorities have communities that are outside of council developed innovative approaches to influence but aligned with local policy promote low carbon solutions, and goals. can be pioneering in their transition to sustainability or through ambitious Climate Local is a Local Government setting of environmental targets. Association (LGA) initiative to “drive, Examples include: inspire and support council action on climate change”, which helps councils Food: In Scotland, local authorities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and are required to offer a food waste increase resilience in the face of climate recycling service to households, which change (Climate Local website). In is driving an increase in the amount of January 2016, 113 councils (of which 112 food waste being recycled (mainly at were from England) and one national anaerobic digestion plants) (Renewable park authority had signed up, which Energy Association, 2016).

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Transport: Nottingham’s Workplace of powers and responsibilities as well Parking Levy reduces the incentive as a way of measuring and comparing for employees to drive to work and performance. raises finance for new public transport Budget cuts are making it extremely infrastructure (see case study in difficult for local authorities to continue section 7.5.1). existing services and projects, let alone initiate new ones. Increased Buildings: The comprehensive revenue funding is necessary as well redevelopment of a high rise housing as capital investment. However, some estate in Tower Hamlets, London, local authorities have worked around has seen residents rehoused in newly the funding cuts by pooling resources, refurbished flats with much reduced partnership working and use of energy bills and improved health and volunteers (LGA, 2015a). well-being for residents (UKGBC, 2015). In the case of transport, London has a unique advantage over other UK cities Energy: Nottingham City Council is receiving a steady stream of transport the first city to become a fully licensed funding from the congestion charge, a independent supplier. Its company revenue grant from central government Robin Hood Energy is the first local that is renewed on a three-yearly authority owned energy company run basis, as well as part of the Council on a not-for-profit basis since the Tax on London residents. However, in market was nationalised in 1948 (see other parts of the country the funding case study, section 7.5.5). Bristol City mechanisms are far more complicated Council has set-up Bristol Energy – a resulting in short-term planning municipal energy company owned horizons due to uncertainty of funding wholly by the council. It aims to (Palmer et al., 2011). An immediate reinvest profits to fight against fuel measure that can help is combining poverty and support locally generated local authority transport capital and renewable energy. revenue funding, as well as allowing the use of other budgets for transport Many local authorities were in a projects that deliver health and other good position to deliver Green Deal targets (LGA, 2015b). Money currently programmes but have now had to lost to shareholders of private bus withdraw schemes, highlighting the companies across the UK could also be importance of longer-term strategic ploughed back into services, were they planning (Rosenow and Sagar, 2015). to be returned to municipal ownership. There is a role for local authorities as In the absence of further government delivery partners but, in the current funding, local authorities can also climate of cuts, few of them have fund infrastructure and behaviour suitably qualified and experienced change programmes through other people. There needs to be a framework ways, including: development planning

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contributions (known as Section Examples of city and local authority 106 or, more recently, Community renewable energy schemes in the UK Infrastructure Levy); congestion charging; parking charges, and; funding from health or growth/ The Bristol Solar City project aims to regeneration pots. Local authorities install 1GW of solar photovoltaics (PV) also have considerable financial by 2020, with opportunities for local resources, largely untapped, in the community groups to invest in installations form of their pension funds. There on council properties rent-free. is huge potential for reinvestment of some of the money in their pension Lancashire County Pension Fund has funds into more environmentally committed approximately £200 million to and socially beneficial projects (see low carbon projects, including a £12 million section 7.6.1). investment in Westmill Solar, a community There are also good opportunities solar project. for councils to make significant financial savings fromenergy Cornwall Council has supported a wide efficiency and increase revenue from range of community energy projects renewable energy schemes (LGA, throughout the county through a revolving 2016a). For example, it is estimated investment fund of £2 million. The that solar and medium wind schemes projects include electric vehicles, energy could generate income of up to efficie y and renewable energy, including £790,000 a year for a county council geothermal, marine, biogas and solar. that owned and operated them (ibid). While a package of energy efficiency Lambeth Council is partnering with measures could save between £60,000 Repowering London – a non-profit th t and £2.4 million a year depending facilitates community owned renewable on council size (ibid). Many local energy projects – to offer community authorities have set up their own shares and raise citizen loans. The aim is renewable energy schemes (see box, to raise £180,000 to invest in community right). owned solar projects on housing estates in Brixton.

Thamesway Energy is a Municipally Owned Energy Service Company (MO- ESCO) with renewable energy assets in Woking and Milton Keynes. Energy is distributed over a private-wire electricity network and a heat distribution network.

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7.4.6 The role of cities Australian Government website). Copenhagen is close behind with plans to be carbon neutral by 2025 (State of Green website). Munich, Germany has a target to supply the entire We believe that a better global municipality of one million people future lies in urban innovation with renewable electricity by 2025. The city has already invested €900 and action. As the majority of million in renewable energy projects future humans will live in cities, it and has plans to invest €9 billion to deliver its 2025 target (C40, 2014 in just makes sense that our solution Platt et al., 2014). to climate change will reside there A global network of over 7,000 too. cities, including nearly 40 in the UK, have signed up to a common platform C40 website for the sharing of data and knowledge, and pledged to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by at least 40% by 2030 (Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy website). Signatories have to rban density presents many submit within two years a Sustainable opportunities that enable Energy and Climate Action Plan U more efficient infrastructure (SECAP) outlining the key actions they and planning. As with smaller local plan to undertake (ibid). In addition to authorities, cities are also in a position this, a network of more than 80 of the to catalyse wider climate action, using world’s biggest cities (C40), including innovative approaches and governance London, has been collaborating since techniques, even where they don’t 2006 to drive urban action on climate have strong power (Arup, 2015). To change (C40 website). help cities plan for climate action, a In the UK, eight ‘city deals’ have number of guiding principles have been enabled cities like Birmingham to developed, the first of which aims to deliver low carbon growth, through ensure cities are ambitious and that £3 million government funding to trial planning reflects the scale and urgency new technologies and engage residents of the challenge (UN-Habitat, 2015). on domestic energy reduction (Scott, Some cities have already set 2012; NAO, 2015). The Government’s themselves ambitious goals. For Local Sustainable Transport Fund example, Adelaide in Australia aims (LSTF) has also enabled over 40 local to be the first carbon neutral city authorities including cities to invest in in the world, with a plan to achieve sustainable transport infrastructure that in less than five years (South and services (LSTF website).

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There are a large number of good city boundaries), it is argued they practice examples of how cities are could transform the energy system to leading the way on climate change (C40 make it cleaner and more affordable 2016b): while providing opportunities for job creation and growth (Platt et al., 2014). Food: Milan’s Mayor initiated a Milan Decentralised energy can be used Urban Food Policy Pact, signed by 100 to improve city and local authority other mayors, to create a network of finances by generating income directly cities developing and implementing through ownership or indirectly sustainable food systems (Milan Urban through the business rates paid by Food Policy Pact website). decentralised energy schemes (ibid).

Transport: Oslo, Norway is now the 7.4.7 Further devolution electric vehicle capital with the highest to local authorities number of EVs per capita achieved through a range of incentives and over evolution deals for English 1,000 electric vehicle charging points local authorities also offer installed. D opportunities for additional control and innovation, though it is Buildings: New York’s Greener Greater unclear at this stage whether this will Buildings Plan is one of the world’s help the transition to zero carbon. most comprehensive energy efficiency Although it has been suggested that packages, affecting half of the city’s the areas proposed for devolution were building volume. being set-up to fail as they were the ones that have suffered the greatest Energy: The redevelopment of Heygate, cuts (Sandford, 2016), there is hope that an old social housing area in Elephant devolution can bring about progressive and Castle, London, uses highly change (Millett, 2016). For example, the efficient technologies like combined Greater Manchester local authorities are heat and power, and is projected to be planning to form a local energy supply climate positive with a reduction of company that would reinvest funds over 10,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases in local communities, and are taking annually. steps that would make Manchester ‘a globally recognised low-carbon Cities and local authorities can hub’ (ibid). While these plans existed be key drivers for a decentralised, before the proposals for devolution, renewable energy system. Through they will be made easier as a result a twin approach of engaging in the due to the greater levels of control and energy supply market and raising additional funding (ibid). A devolution finance for low carbon energy deal for Cornwall also proposed a low infrastructure (both inside and outside carbon enterprise zone with support

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for geothermal energy, smart grid than the UK as a whole in reducing solutions, energy efficiency and roll greenhouse gas emissions (Committee out of community energy schemes on Climate Change, 2015c; 2016b). (Cornwall Council, 2015). Similarly, despite less devolved powers In future, a strengthened role for than Scotland, Wales has initiated some local authorities in delivering energy groundbreaking measures such as a new efficiency schemes, either directly Well-being of Future Generations Act or supporting community interest (see Section 7.6.5). organisations, is needed. There is also scope for local authorities to provide 7.5 Economics and finance Council Tax rebates for properties that are more energy efficient. The here is an urgent need for a shift freedom for local areas to push ahead in economic ideology away from with higher standards of energy T an outdated economic model efficiency, energy performance or that has exacerbated environmental on-site renewable energy, where they problems and inequality to a fairer and deem it appropriate, is an important more ecologically sustainable economic one. It allows local areas to experiment, paradigm. Many argue there is a need demonstrate what is possible, and to focus completely on wider goals set develop knowledge and skills for new by society, that work within the limits technologies and building methods. of natural resources, rather than simply Given the freedom, some local areas increasing GDP. This transition can may choose to be very ambitious. be facilitated through business and This has occurred in Ireland, where ownership models based on broader some local authorities, such as Dun environmental and social objectives Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council rather than a narrow focus on profits and Dublin City Council, have adopted and returns to shareholders. a requirement that all new buildings There needs to be a level playing field must meet ‘Passive House standard or for low and zero carbon alternatives so equivalent’ (Colley, 2016). that the large subsidies for fossil fuels There are proposals for additional are removed and their price reflects the devolution to Scotland, Wales and full costs of pollution and other societal Northern Ireland, while the future damage. There is a clear opportunity for independence of Scotland is also still new forms of financing the investments a possibility. The results reported by we need in energy, buildings, transport the Committee on Climate Change and food systems that also have lower suggest that Scotland is leading the UK societal costs and provide multiple with more ambitious climate change benefits, such as jobs, improved health targets and has performed better and cleaner air.

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7.5.1 Level the playing field: taxes and charges

ow carbon alternative technologies, infrastructure, L services and behaviours are often more expensive than fossil fuel-based alternatives. This is because there is not a level playing field: there is a greater level of government subsidy given to BY 2.0 BY the fossil fuel industry, and the societal or ‘external’ costs of the industry (for example, the health costs of air pollution) are not currently accounted for in their pricing (IMF, 2015).

Tax unsustainable options Ozzy by Photo Delaney / CC

n terms of encouraging behaviour programmes (Cafaro et al., 2006). change in food choices, taxation This would help to mitigate a negative I could be a useful tool. The response from the public by ensuring government has the ability to that the money raised is of benefit to impose the necessary taxes and new the whole of society (Wellesley et al., regulations, and indeed has done so 2015). with regards to improvements in other A study that compared the responses areas, such as transport and housing of the American and Brazilian (Bailey et al., 2014). As price is one of governments to the obesity crisis the primary influencers in consumer found that upstream interventions are choice for food, incentives could be the more effective. Unlike in America, developed to make sustainable options policies were implemented in Brazil more financially appealing. Taxes to help local authorities make positive could be levied against unsustainable changes to their health care systems foods, such as meat and dairy products. alongside the development of awareness Moreover, subsidies should be switched campaigns. Public health services were from high carbon food products, such as better funded and obesity prevention lamb and beef, to lower carbon plant- programmes were also introduced. They based food items, such as fruits and also successfully managed to regulate vegetables (Cumberlege et al., 2015). food markets in Brazil, which is now The money raised from various taxes internationally recognised as having one could be used in improving nutrition, of the most effective obesity prevention education, public health and exercise programmes in the world (Gómez, 2015).

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Taxes can also be an effective travel. Air travel demand is relatively measure in the transport sector. inelastic, so that prices would have Motoring taxes that reflect the full to go up considerably to drive down societal cost of driving, such as fuel demand (Brand and Boardman, 2008). duty (levied on petrol and diesel at This would most likely be resisted the pump) and Vehicle Excise Duty by the airline industry and national (VED), are important environmental governments (Grote et al., 2014). policy tools to encourage greater fuel Given the disproportionate impact of efficiency and a shift to more efficient flying by a relatively small proportion vehicles. While fuel costs are just part of wealthy individuals, a frequent of the overall cost of motoring (which flyer tax has been proposed as a more also includes insurance, vehicle tax, politically acceptable solution to replace maintenance and repairs, purchase, Air Passenger Duty. This focuses depreciation), this is the most obvious efforts on the frequent flyers while still cost component of running a car. High allowing for occasional holidays and fuel costs tend to suppress driving the economic benefits of international as people make fewer unnecessary trade and inbound tourism (Murray, journeys (Hopkinson, 2012). The 2015b). Under this proposal, a levy is set successful policy of graduating VED by at zero for the first outbound flight and carbon dioxide emissions (replaced in then increased progressively for each 2015 with a flat rate for 95% of cars) subsequent flight (for example, £20 for needs to be restored, and fuel duty the second flight, £60 for the third, needs to rise to reflect the full costs of reaching £420 by the ninth flight). motoring to society. This is estimated to prevent passenger Another financial incentive for demand from increasing by more than newer and cleaner vehicles, such as 60% in 2050, as well as raise electric buses, is the introduction of £9.7 billion a year for the Exchequer clean air zones in Birmingham, Leeds, by 2030, far in excess of the revenue Nottingham, Derby and Southampton projected from the Passenger Air by 2020 as a result of high levels of air Duty (Devlin and Bernick, 2015). The pollution. While this will not affect excess revenue can be used to support private cars, the owners of the most improvements to rail infrastructure polluting buses, coaches, lorries and and rolling stock. While international taxis will have to pay a charge to aviation is often promoted as benefiting enter the zones, but newer and cleaner the UK economy, instead it is a massive models will be exempt (newer models drain with the UK trade deficit on air tend to have lower greenhouse gas travel and tourism estimated at £16.9 emissions) (DEFRA, 2015c). billion in 2015 (ONS, 2016) as money Using fiscal measures can also be is taken out of the economy by British effective to suppress demand for air people holidaying abroad.

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Congestion charging and road pricing However, despite the demonstrable benefits of congestion charging it ne of the fairest and most has proved extremely difficult to effective disincentives to driving win public and political support. In O is road pricing, which has Edinburgh and Greater Manchester been consistently recommended as a proposed congestion charges were way forward by countless government overwhelmingly rejected by the and external studies (for example, public in referendums in 2005 and Eddington, 2006; Johnson et al., 2012; 2008 respectively, and the political DfT, 2012). difficulties makes it much less likely Congestion charging (a form of road to be adopted elsewhere (Mullen and pricing) has been successful in London Marsden, 2015). The failure to win in both reducing car dependency and support for charging schemes outside raising revenue for investment in public London has been explained by a lack of transport and other infrastructure. information and a lack of belief in the In 2013 car driver trips in London charge’s effectiveness (Hensher and Li, were 14% lower than in 2001, despite 2013). a 15% increase in London’s resident While congestion charging appears population over the same period, while regressive, as the payment as a the volume of road traffic fell by a proportion of total income decreases similar amount (TfL, 2014). as income increases, detailed analysis National road pricing covering all shows that the poorest income group roads is thought to be technically as a whole suffers the lowest average feasible in the next few years, burden of the charge, since a higher with significant benefits for the proportion of poorer households environment, economy and social than richer households do not own a inclusion (DfT, 2012). This would car (Blow et al., 2003). Clearly, those consist of a distance charge set by low-income households with a car Government with variations by time will be affected, but on the whole and place so that drivers would pay many more low-income households more on congested roads (for example, benefit from the improved public in town and city centres) and less on transport than are burdened by an uncongested roads (for example, on increased charge. A road charge could rural roads) (ibid). Road pricing could also progressively replace fuel duty as gradually replace fuel duty, which will electric vehicles become more popular, become redundant as more people so it is not an additional burden on poor switch to electric vehicles. car-owning households.

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Workplace parking charges Food production subsidies

sing economic disincentives to educing subsidies for livestock drive, combined with incentives and increasing environmental U for alternative travel, has been R subsidies could help livestock shown to be highly effective at both a farmers to grow a wider variety of workplace and national level: protein sources and diversify their income away from animals alone. • In central Cambridge, car commuters Studies have shown that linking were much more likely to walk or productivity to greenhouse gas cycle for part of their journey if emissions can be an effective way of their workplace restricted parking or lowering emissions related to livestock, charged for it. The study found 90% of but these reductions will not be enough people drove to work if there was free to prevent serious levels of climate workplace parking, 65% if they were change (Garnett, 2014). Policies could charged parking and 20% if there was be created that reward farmers for no parking (Goodman et al., 2011). sustainable practices: as livestock subsidies decrease, environmental • An Australian study found a 42% subsidies can increase, presenting reduction in driving at one hospital opportunities for energy crops, that implemented restrictions on wildlife restoration and better land parking and introduced paid parking management. Taxes could also be compared to a 5% reduction at an dropped for all organic or diversified adjacent hospital that introduced production systems, and for animals measures to encourage sustainable reared to high welfare standards, and and active travel but had no ‘stick’ taxes introduced and/or increased on measures (Petrunoff et al., 2015). fertilisers and pesticides (Cafaro et al., 2006). • A review of 20 (mainly private) UK organisations found those who 7.5.2 Remove fossil fuel subsidies had restricted parking in some and introduce carbon pricing way achieved more than twice the reduction in car use compared to those he scale of government subsidies who had not (Cairns et al., 2010). for fossil fuels worldwide calls T into question the commitment to While Australia is a world leader in internationally agreed climate targets introducing Workplace Parking Levies (Bast et al., 2015). Greater transparency (WPL), to date only one UK local on this can help expose government authority, Nottingham City Council, has hypocrisy on climate change introduced a WPL (see case study below). (Compston, 2014).

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CASE STUDY: Nottingham’s Workplace Parking Levy (WPL)

(Dale, 2016) relocate some activities away from Nottingham and more than 50% said What is the Workplace Parking Levy? they would reduce planned investment Nottingham’s Workplace Parking (ibid). However, the proposed cost of Levy (WPL) was introduced in 2011 the WPL was less than 1% of turnover in to tackle the problems of congestion most cases and was unlikely to have a by providing funding for public significant adverse effect on employers’ transport and acting as an incentive investment and location decisions (ibid). to find alternatives to driving to work. Employers with workplace parking in How were the barriers overcome? the City are required to licence any Nottingham City Council’s long-term parking place and are charged if they political stability is thought to be the have 11 or more parking places for staff main factor which allowed it to take the (excluding blue badge places). The political risk of implementing a scheme annual levy is currently set at £379 per that would provide long-term gains year per parking space and set to rise but with short-term pain. There was each year by the rate of inflation. The already a strong sustainable mobility revenue raised over 23 years will go culture in the Council and history of towards an extension to the existing innovation, helped by the fact that many tram system, redevelopment of the elected Members and officers had been railway station and support for the bus in post for a long time and had a good network. understanding of the traffic issues and potential solutions. Although new taxes What were the barriers to are always unpopular, the Council took implementing it? the view that people working in the city The main barriers were public and had a choice to avoid it by travelling business acceptance. There was differently. The Council also provided much public opposition when it exemptions for small employers (<10 was proposed, with the business parking places) as well as key public community particularly critical. Prior to sector workers like the NHS, which its implementation it was argued that meant most of the burden fell on the the levy would discourage business largest companies who were more able investment and damage the economy, to pay. The council also tried to make was unfair to motorists and would be it as easy as possible for employers ineffective against congestion (Dale et and ran an extensive communications al., 2014). Before it was introduced 60% campaign. The final decision was made of businesses surveyed said they would by an independent Planning Inspector,

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which was seen as fair and free from the scheme was implemented there has political influence. been a reduction in parking spaces. The council have tracked inward investments What have been the results so far? to the city and there is no evidence The WPL has funded the extension of that the WPL is acting as a deterrent the tram system to the south of the city. to business, nor is there any rational In the first year of operation it raised business case for relocation based on £7.77 million of revenue, of which the WPL. An evaluation of the WPL by £7 million was ring-fenced for public the City Council in partnership with transport improvements. As the tram Loughborough University will report was only completed in September 2015, back in 2017. the longer-term impacts on congestion will not be apparent for some time. Can it be replicated elsewhere? However, the share of people using Other councils will need a high degree public transport for travel in the inner of political will to propose this in the face city area has risen to 40% for the first of inevitable opposition from business. time and the large number of passenger However, in a climate of severe budget journeys on the tram suggests that it cuts this measure is a promising way to is helping take cars off the road. Since fund key public transport improvements.

Phasing out fossil fuel subsidies many countries to facilitate reform. For presents an opportunity to shift public example, reforms of coal subsidies in finance into renewable energy sources, Germany and Poland were accompanied though this will require a great deal of by support for regional economic political will and overcoming blocks to development, social assistance and reform by vested interests. A report by generous severance packages for the Nordic Council of Ministers provides affected workers (ibid). useful guidance on the principles for successful reform of subsidies, Carbon pricing including clear and robust consultation and communication to build support oving from a fossil fuel (Merrill et al., 2015). Several case economy to one based studies show how good communication M on clean energy could be helped build support for reforms that achieved by applying a carbon tax to entailed an increase in consumer all fossil fuel use. Renewable electricity energy prices, and cases where reform generation is already cost competitive was hindered by a failure to engage with fossil fuels without subsidy in stakeholders properly leading to public many situations around the world, and protests (ibid). New or improved social will be competitive in the UK provided safety nets have been provided in fossil fuels pay a fair carbon price. To

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create a level playing field between greenhouse gas emissions are now fossil fuels and clean energy sources subject to some form of carbon pricing. it is necessary to include the pollution For example, Canada’s province of costs in the prices of fossil fuels British Columbia introduced a revenue- (Lagarde, 2015). This is known as the neutral carbon tax (where revenue ‘polluter pays’ principle. is used to reduce other taxes). Since A global carbon price (and prices on 2008, when the tax was introduced, other greenhouse gases in proportion the province’s fuel consumption has to their warming potential), delivered reduced by nearly a fifth;GDP has kept by carbon taxes or carbon trading, pace with the rest of Canada; and the would reduce emissions sharply in tax shift has enabled British Columbia a cost-effective way. In practice, to have Canada’s lowest income tax this will be difficult to achieve but rates. About 60 other countries, states something we should work towards. It and provinces are now considering is difficult to be sure exactly what level implementing carbon pricing (Skeptical the carbon price should be. For the Science, 2016). UK, the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) has suggested that a price of £30 Renewable subsidies per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2020, rising to £70 in 2030, would here is a need for support to be consistent with achieving UK overcome the infrastructural Government targets for emissions T and regulatory barriers of an reduction (Bowen, 2011). A higher energy system designed and built for carbon price may be needed for the centralised generation and fossil fuels. more rapid emission reductions many In the absence of fair prices for fossil believe are necessary. fuels and the necessary level of carbon In order for such a carbon price to pricing, there is a strong case for be politically acceptable, it has been subsidising renewable energy sources suggested that the revenue generated to incentivise their uptake. should be returned to all citizens New technologies need support on an equal share per person basis. to develop the scale of production Whilst such a levy would raise energy necessary to reduce costs. Schemes prices, many people, particularly those like the Feed-in Tariff have been very on lower and middle incomes, who successful in incentivising the uptake generally pollute less, would come out of renewable energy and reducing ahead financially (Hansen, 2015). their costs. However, an important Carbon prices are already being distinction is that these subsidies are applied around the world, albeit at a transitional and, in time, renewables generally very low carbon price and will compete without subsidy. In the with only partial coverage of fossil fuel UK, it is predicted that onshore wind use. It is estimated that 20% of global and large solar farms are likely to be

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competitive on cost, without subsidy, reduction in consumer bills (Good with new gas-fired power generation Energy, 2015). by 2020, provided gas pays its fair share Meeting the costs for subsidies through a carbon price (Committee through general taxation rather than on Climate Change, 2015a). Globally, passing on the cost to consumers various forms of renewable energy have through energy bills may be both already achieved cost parity with fossil fairer and more popular but would fuel generation. These include solar be necessary to overcome political power in North and South America, resistance to higher government offshore wind in Asia, and onshore spending. wind in many regions (IRENA, 2015). Interventions are also needed in Where governments have subsidised the energy market so that saving renewable energy, deployment has energy is prioritised over new supply. been rapid and costs have reduced. Changes to the electricity market have For example, Germany’s pioneering been proposed by Green Alliance who Feed-in Tariff guarantees good prices advocate the creation of a ‘negawatts’ for energy from renewable sources Feed-in Tariff paid on the basis of such as solar photovoltaics (PV). The avoided energy consumption, with policy has proved extremely effective: recipients competing in auctions to by 2015 Germany had a world leading deliver energy savings in homes and 38GW of solar PV, generating 7.5% of businesses at lowest cost. In addition, their electricity. They have also seen a the electricity market must be reformed dramatic reduction in the installed cost so that energy demand reductions of PV – from 500€/kW in 2006 to 1,300 can compete on an equal basis with €/kW in 2015 (Wirth, 2015). electricity generation in the so-called Despite the common perception that ‘capacity market’, which aims to ensure subsidies for renewables raise energy that there will be enough supply to bills, when all government policies are meet demand at all times (Mount and taken into account, including those for Benton, 2015). energy efficiency, analysis shows that average energy bills are lower than 7.5.3 Access to finance: local, municipal they would otherwise be (DECC, 2014c). banks and citizen finance In addition, estimates of the impact on bills of renewable energy subsidies lternative forms of finance have been criticised for not including are needed to address the the reduction in the wholesale price of A investment gap for renewable electricity caused by increased supply energy and other technologies and from renewables. It has been estimated infrastructure. that renewables reduced the wholesale In economic terms the capital price of electricity by £1.55 billion requirement for much of the in 2014, with a potential knock-on transition to a zero carbon economy

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(infrastructure, services and so on), Citizen finance is ‘productive spending’ as it benefits the economy – for example, in terms xamples of emerging citizen of cleaner air, improved health, finance in the UK include more employment. It can also help E Abundance Investment, which individuals save money – for example, offers debentures for small-scale through reduced energy bills as a investors, and Pure Leapfrog, which result of improved building insulation provides affordable finance through a and energy efficiency. Cuts in Community Energy Fund. There are productive spending, such as many of also community banks, such as Robert those implemented through austerity Owen Community Banking, which measures, can actually significantly seek to invest in community energy weaken the economy (Ostry, 2016). projects. The County of Hampshire is in the process of establishing a Local and municipal banks community bank and cites the example of the German banking model in ermany’s long tradition of civic supporting renewable energy as an and municipal ownership of inspiration (Johnson and Hall, 2014). G energy supply is thought to Crowdfunding is where the public have been facilitated through regular are able to invest in new businesses, access to finance from co-operative, films, community projects and other state owned and local banks (Barton et ventures. This can be preferable to al., 2015). Local financial institutions traditional funding because any risk are able to build project expertise, can be spread between a large number develop ties with local government and of people, who all only stand to lose co-ordinate local stakeholders. a small amount if something goes It is a similar story in Denmark wrong. It’s an effective way to fund where co-operatives and, more projects where lots of people benefit a recently, larger-scale citizen little, for example community projects. ownership models contributed to The investor’s, ‘return’ can be varied, a rapid expansion of onshore wind from a copy of a film to a stake in a (ibid). If the UK is to achieve levels of company, or simply a sense of being community or civic energy ownership part of a project. similar to other European countries, Peer-to-peer lending is normally it will require the growth in citizen used to finance a venture from an and mutual finance that supported the existing organisation. It can be used growth of the European civic energy for microfinance but can also offer sector (Johnson and Hall, 2014). small business loans.

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Low and zero interest loans Central bank and intra-bank (between banks) lending has a very low interest big opportunity missed by rate (around 0.75%). If this was also the Green Deal was to make available for low risk renewables, for A the cost of capital cheaper by example, wind, solar PV and hydro with providing low or zero interest rate accredited developers, then this could loans. Given the long payback periods have a huge impact on the projects for some energy efficiency measures that were commercially viable. While a and the tight margins by which they greater role for government leadership are cost-effective, this is vital to in the transition to zero carbon would be incentivise higher uptake. Low interest welcome, giving the renewables industry rate ‘preferential’ loans (at 3% interest similar treatment to the banking sector or less) would make a scheme like the could radically change our domestic Green Deal much more attractive than it position by allowing greater deployment was with commercial interest rates (of of renewable energy and a faster around 7% or more). Such low interest transition. rate loans could be provided by the UK To be most effective it is important Green Investment Bank – and perhaps that subsidies provided for energy should have been in the case of the efficiency measures are integrated with Green Deal (Shankleman, 2015). a ‘pay as you save’ loan system (Green In the Netherlands, the government Age, 2015), so that the maximum number had a scheme similar to the UK Green of households can be incentivised to Deal domestic housing refurbishment undertake energy efficiency measures for scheme. While the Green Deal was a given subsidy budget. considered a failure due to low uptake, A simpler, lower cost ‘pay as you save’ in the Netherlands the scheme was loan system than that currently available hugely successful. A key difference lets people borrow what they need. There was the interest rate. In the UK it was are good examples of well designed around 8%, whereas in the Netherlands schemes from the public sector. Salix it was around 2%. Due to the success have provided interest-free loan schemes of the scheme in the Netherlands their for energy saving investments, paid back suppliers are looking to export to through energy savings, which have the UK and France. In Scotland, zero proved popular with local authorities, interest rate loans are being provided the NHS, schools and universities (Salix, for energy efficiency measures through undated). Nottinghamshire has used the Home Energy Efficiency Programme the Local Authority Energy Finance (EST, undated). It is unfortunate that, (LAEF) scheme to carry out energy following the scrapping of the Green saving improvements in over 75 schools Deal, the repayment of these loans (Nottinghamshire County Council, cannot be tied to the property’s energy undated). There are also examples of bill. successful low interest ‘pay as you save’

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loan schemes from other parts of the 7.5.4 Alternatives to growth and GDP world, as shown in the box below. Similarly, to overcome the barrier of higher upfront costs in buying more efficient appliances, small amounts of low cost finance may be helpful to allow Questioning growth is deemed to the purchaser to spread the additional be the act of lunatics, idealists and cost over time. This could make the upfront cost no more than for less revolutionaries. efficient models and allow the extra cost Tim Jackson, 2009 to be paid off as the user benefits from lower energy bills.

Green mortgages

n alternative solution to cover lobal economic growth has increased construction cost is been the main driver of climate A to provide specific finance, such G change (Antal, 2014). Yet, as green mortgages, for the additional despite the clear undesirability, not build cost. The repayment of this to mention logical impossibility of finance can then be spread over time infinite economic growth, the need for as the occupants benefit from very low growth remains largely unquestioned. energy bills. This requires a willingness As Herman Daly pointed out while most on the part of buyers to pay an upfront standard economic models assume that premium for highly energy efficient “natural resources” are a subset of the homes in recognition of their low human economy, it is in fact the other running costs. way around (Daly, 2007). Additional build costs for energy efficiency measures can in this Green Growth way be passed to the owner. Some organisations, such as the Ecology he response to the negative Building Society, are already showing impacts of our highly a willingness to provide such finance. T industrialised and globalised This may reduce developer resistance to lifestyles has been the development of higher energy efficiency standards as ‘green growth’ or ‘green capitalism’, the costs would be passed to buyers. An which relies on nominally free markets alternative way to raise finance to fund and market-based instruments to the zero carbon transition is a Tobin Tax address environmental problems. It commonly known as the Robin Hood is argued by proponents that market Tax. approaches which link self-interest to

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CASE STUDIES: Examples of successful ‘pay as you save’ energy efficiency loan schemes from other parts of the world

How$mart, Midwest Energy, USA Energiesprong, Netherlands Available to Midwest Energy customers, Energiesprong aims for large-scale How$mart provides money for energy uptake of highly ambitious net zero efficiency improvements, repaid energy retrofits. Householders have through energy savings on customers’ an energy contract similar in cost to monthly energy bills. A monthly their pre-retrofit energy bill. The energy How$mart surcharge covers the cost contract provides an energy allowance of qualifying improvements, and the that should meet the householders surcharge is estimated to be less than needs – additional energy consumption the projected savings. Additionally, the must be purchased at additional cost to surcharge is tied to the location. If the deter excessive/wasteful energy use and property is sold, the next customer pays ensure that the financing is sufficient. the surcharge. The process starts with Upfront cost is repaid over time by the an energy audit to determine potential difference in cost between the energy savings. Midwest Energy then develops contract and the actual energy use. See a conservation plan with recommended section 7.4.3 and Stories for Change in improvements (Midwest Energy, 2016). Section 6.6.4 for more details.

PACE (Property Assessed Clean KfW Bank, Germany Energy), PACE Nation, USA The German infrastructure bank KfW PACE operates across the USA providing underwrites ‘pay as you save’ loans loans for energy efficiency, renewable for energy efficiency improvements energy and water conservation provided by retail banks lending to upgrades to buildings. PACE pays for households. The system is such that the 100% of a project’s costs and is repaid higher the energy efficiency standard for up to 20 years with a charge added that is achieved, the smaller the fraction to the property’s tax bill. PACE financing of the loan that must be repaid, up stays with the building upon sale. to a maximum 30% reduction. This State and local governments sponsor incentivises people to take out larger PACE financing to create jobs, promote loans and retrofit to better standards, economic development and protect the undertaking ambitious whole-home environment (PACE website). retrofits rather than smaller, single measure improvements (KfW, 2016).

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environmental outcomes are a more changes are relatively recent and it is flexible way to increase efficiency, unclear how long this can continue. innovation and profits while achieving This decoupling is also only evident for environmental goals (Mansfield, 2007). energy use and carbon emissions and This approach embedded doesn’t address the impacts of growth environmentalism into the existing on ecosystems and unsustainable neo-liberal system rather than material and resource use. Relying on challenging the fundamental problems decoupling to happen fast enough to of growth. It proved popular with a avert our already changing climate whole generation of policymakers and is a high risk scenario. In general, environmental NGOs who promoted the impacts of growth tend to green consumerism and market- swamp any efficiency gains (Lorek based solutions like tradeable permits and Fuchs, 2013). While technical (Prudham, 2009). Even the Kyoto efficiency improvements leading to Protocol had flexible mechanisms to dematerialisation and decoupling are ‘deploy markets as the solution to necessary, they are insufficient. The environmental problems’ (Bakker 2007). urgency of the ecological crisis requires A large part of the concept of ‘green us to address the issue of continued growth’ is the idea of dematerialisation, growth. which is the degree to which economic growth can be ‘decoupled’ from energy Degrowth and material use through greater production efficiency. This has been egrowth represents a shift away suggested as a way of achieving growth from the prevailing paradigm without the environmental side effects D of economic growth. It has been (Doll, 2010). There is some evidence that defined as a “downscaling of production it can help. and consumption that increases human Between 2000 and 2014, 35 countries wellbeing and enhances ecological managed to increase their GDP conditions and equity on the planet” whilst decreasing their ‘production’ (Research and Degrowth website). It (domestic) emissions of greenhouse is not the same thing as recession or gases (Carbon Brief, 2016). While some depression (Kallis, 2015) and is based of this would have been achieved by on the idea that societies can prosper countries ‘exporting’ their emissions, and people can flourish within the 21 of those countries also managed to ecological limits of the planet without increase their GDP whilst decreasing economic growth (Jackson, 2009). their ‘consumption’ (domestic and Others have similarly argued international) emissions of greenhouse that growth isn’t possible and a new gases (ibid). economic model is needed (Simms and However, while this absolute Johnson, 2010). The idea of degrowth decoupling is encouraging, these is that everyone can live a good life

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without the need for growth. This suggested that “it seems easier to will require some radical cultural and imagine the end of the world than to structural changes. This includes a imagine the end of growth” (Evans, re-evaluation of ‘work’ to include 2012). Yet there is a growing community household, family and voluntary of researchers and practitioners and work that produce social ‘use value’ debate around the practical measures and not just monetary ‘exchange that will help put degrowth into value’ (Joutsenvirta, 2016). Degrowth operation (Degrowth website). proponents believe it is possible to have Some of the institutional changes meaningful work, sustain a functional that are suggested will be needed welfare state and increase equality include a guaranteed basic income, a and eliminate poverty, without ever shorter working week and job-sharing, continuing growth (Degrowth website). removal of subsides for polluting The idea that growth creates work activities, green tax reform and reducing and generates wealth is a powerful one advertising (Evans, 2012; Kallis, 2015). which makes challenging the growth These policies would reduce economic paradigm more difficult. Yet, according insecurity without the need for further to the Secretary General of the Club of economic growth (Kallis, 2015). Many of Rome, growth does not create jobs, it the examples given in this report, such destroys them (Maxton, 2015). In the as Transition’s REconomy enterprises last 35 years, the world has experienced (see Section 7.5.5), are based on the fastest economic growth in sustainable, ecologically-sound solutions human history, but at the same time that benefit local communities and do unemployment has gone up (Maxton, not aim for growth. 2015) both in absolute and relative Degrowth rejects the idea that ‘more terms. is better’ and suggests what is needed is Economists are also familiar with better quality food, and better designed ‘persistent jobless growth’ – identified transport, houses and energy systems by the World Economic Forum as one rather than more. This is at odds with of its 10 upcoming global trends in dominant political worldviews and will 2015 (Summers, 2015). Yet, economists’ be fiercely opposed by those who benefit belief and reliance on ‘Ok u n’s L aw’, from the current system (Maxton, 2015). an economic rule which suggests a Political sensitivity makes even NGOs positive relation between output and reluctant to challenge growth (Lorek employment, remains strong (Antal, and Fuchs, 2013). 2014). The transition away from a growth Degrowth is still not considered a centred economy will be politically realistic alternative by most mainstream difficult. “Our tie to perpetual growth economists and there is still scepticism is a contingent aspect of how we have about whether degrowth can be put organized ourselves economically, not into practice. Some researchers have an eternal law to which we must submit

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to avoid misery.” (Evans, 2012). One The new constitution was approved measure that can help convince people of in 2008 after a referendum, with 64% the benefits of degrowth is the adoption of votes in support (Berros, 2015). Buen of alternative measures of well-being to Vivir rejects market globalism and free help overcome the political addiction to market environmentalism and is based growth (Lorek and Fuchs, 2013). on a biocentric approach. It is critical While there is still a wide gap of current methods of extraction between the radical ideas of degrowth for natural resources, including proponents and how to bring these mining and hydrocarbon exploitation, into mainstream practice (van der industrial-scale agriculture, forestry Bergh, 2011) far more work is needed by and fishing (Salazar, 2015). mainstream economists to demonstrate how the current economic model of Beyond GDP: alternative growth is compatible with ecological and indicators of success environmental limits and human welfare and survival. iven the problems with GDP, a number of alternative Buen Vivir Gindicators of success have been proposed to help shift societies away uen Vivir, Spanish for “good from a narrow focus on growth: living” or “living well”, is a Bconcept with many elements The Genuine Progress Indicator of degrowth. This is a transformative (GPI): Developed in the US in the programme that has gained ground late 1990s (Evans, 2012). Unlike in South America since the mid-2000s GDP, GPI is reduced by pollution, (Salazar, 2015). It is based on the concept resource depletion, crime, and other of collective well-being or good living detrimental aspects of economic and has already been incorporated into activity. It is basic double-entry the constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia bookkeeping (Havens, 2014). GPI also (ibid). takes into account the distribution The Preamble of the Ecuadorian of income, the amount of leisure Constitution states: “We decided time and the value of household to construct a new form of citizen labour (Evans, 2012). The US state of co-existence, in diversity and harmony Maryland has incorporated GPI into with nature, to reach ‘el buen vivir, state measurements of well-being el sumak kawsay’.” Following its (Havens, 2012) and has actively constitutional adoption in 2008, sumak implemented policies to encourage kawsay (“collective good living” in the the increase of GPI. The media in indigenous Quicha language) was taken Maryland also now regularly report on up in a National Plan for Good Living changes in GPI (Kubiszewski, 2014). 2009-2013 (ibid).

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Gross National Happiness: Developed Indicators of national success: The by the Kingdom of Bhutan, the concept New Economics Foundation has covers non-economic aspects of proposed five headline indicators of well-being, including psychological national success based on good jobs, well-being, health, education, time well-being, environment, fairness and use, cultural diversity and resilience, health (Jeffrey and Michaelson, 2015). good governance, community vitality, While improvements have been seen in ecological diversity and resilience, and some areas since 2009, inequality has living standards (GNH website). The worsened, the proportion of people in Gross National Happiness Index is a decent, secure jobs has fallen and carbon single number index developed from emissions are a cause for concern (ibid). 33 indicators in the aforementioned categories (ibid). The Human Development Index (HDI): This was based on the ‘capability A similar World Happiness Index approach’ developed by India’s Nobel ranks 156 countries by happiness levels, Prize winning economist Amartya with Denmark the happiest country Sen and is a composite statistic of life in 2015 (Helliwell et al., 2016). The expectancy, education, and per capita report found that for countries which income indicators. It was created single-mindedly pursued economic to emphasise that people and their development to the neglect of social capabilities should be the ultimate and environmental objectives, “the criteria for assessing the development of results can be highly adverse for human a country, not economic growth alone. well-being, even dangerous for survival. Many countries in recent years have The Human Development Index achieved economic growth at the cost (HDI) is a summary measure of average of sharply rising inequality, entrenched achievement in key dimensions of social exclusion, and grave damage to human development: a long and healthy the natural environment.”(ibid) life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living (UNDP National Well-being Index: since 2012 website). Comparing the Gross National the UK government has collected data Income (GNI) per capita rankings and on personal well-being which shows the HDI rankings of countries can reveal this has been improving over the last much about the results of national five years (ONS, 2016b). The government policy choices. Gabon, with a GNI per reports on indicators for aspects of life capita of $16,367, has a GNI rank of 68, that matter to people including personal but an HDI rank of 110 – the same as well-being, relationships, health, that of Indonesia whose GNI per capita economy and the environment (ibid). is only $9,788.

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UN Sustainable Development Goals New business models (SDGs): A set of 17 SDGs, or Global Goals, offer a universal framework for lternative business or economic, social and environmental ownership models can offer advancement. While there is a lack of A a huge opportunity for funding for implementation, and they stakeholders to demand responsible rely upon the traditional economic behaviour, such as disclosure of system based on growth rather than carbon risks in investments and other structural policy reform (Esquivel, environmentally beneficial actions 2016), the goals do represent a laudable (Transforming Finance, 2016). blueprint for global society to work It is also possible to design towards. It is suggested that tackling models of ownership and financing climate change will only be possible if to improve inclusivity. For example, the SDGs are met, and the SDGs will Brixton Energy, a renewable energy only be met with extremely ambitious co-operative, used crowdfunding action on climate change (CDKN, 2015). to finance a solar array in a social housing estate in Brixton and offered While in 2015 the UK ranked fifth residents of the estate a lower in the world in terms of GDP (World minimum investment threshold (£50) Bank, 2015), it was ranked 23rd in compared to outside investors (£250) terms of World Happiness (Helliwell et (Johnson and Hall, 2014). al., 2016) and 14th in terms of Human The Transition Network defines Development (UNDP website), revealing Transition enterprise as “a financially much about national priorities. viable trading entity that fulfils a real community need, delivers social 7.5.5 Reversing neo-liberalism: new benefits and has beneficial, or at least business and ownership models neutral, environmental impacts.” (REconomy website). Examples of such o reverse the effects of enterprises include the Big Lemon neo-liberalism, there needs in Brighton which offers bus and T to be a return to business coach services using recycled waste and ownership models that balance oil, or GroCycle which grows Oyster environmental and social benefits with mushrooms from local waste coffee economic returns. While traditional grounds and has significantly reduced business models define success through the energy required for cultivation returns to shareholders and an increase (Transition Network, undated). in a firm’s valuation, new business models are often based on broader environmental and social objectives and can help the transition to zero carbon.

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New energy supply models However, all of these models may either be administratively complex n the energy sector the dominance and time consuming, and/or may not of the ‘Big Six’ energy supply extract the best deal for energy due the I companies makes it hard for involvement of another existing energy new renewable energy generators or supplier. The ideal model for small/ suppliers to enter the market. Crucial distributed generators is to be able to to making renewable energy projects sell directly to customers in a way that financially viable is the price renewable minimises administrative complexity. generators receive for their energy. Traditionally, this has been achieved Models are being developed that may through a power purchase agreement allow this. For example: with an existing supplier, typically one of the Big Six energy companies. Whilst • Energy Local, working with the price was not a good one, subsidies Community Energy Wales, are such as the Feed-in Tariff made these developing a ‘farmers market’ arrangements viable. With the reduction for electricity that would allow in subsidies, the price paid for the communities to buy electricity electricity generation is more important. directly from local renewable Various new models are being developed suppliers. This system requires the that can allow renewable energy community buying the energy and generators to get a better price. the community energy scheme to be Alternatives ways for new energy on the same grid (connected to the suppliers to enter the energy market same substation). It also needs an include: agreement with an existing licensed supplier (likely to be one of the • Becoming a fully licensed energy smaller suppliers). It is estimated that supplier. a 100kW micro-hydro scheme could retain £25,000 a year within the local • Forming a partnership with an community using this system (Blake, existing licensed energy supplier 2016). and taking responsibility for some operational aspects of the supply • To address the dominance of the Big business. Six energy companies, the energy market regulator Ofgem has tried to • Entering into a ‘White Label’ make it easier for small generators arrangement where an existing to sell directly to end users through energy supplier markets the a simplified licensing arrangement community or local aspect of energy known as ‘Licence Lite’ (Ofgem supply whilst still controlling all 2009 in Platt et al., 2014). Yet, operational issues (Platt et al., 2014). six years after it was introduced,

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no generator has managed to make this work, suggesting that the level of complexity remains restrictively high. However, the Greater London Authority (GLA) is currently attempting to be the first organisation to get the licence (GLA, 2015). If successful, the GLA intends to purchase locally produced energy from heat, waste and renewable sources and supply large local consumers, such as Transport for London, at preferential rates (Platt et al., 2014).

With all the above models, the process will be difficult and complex for the pioneers but can become easy and more straightforward for those that follow.

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Stories for Change

Chris Blake

Founding director of The Green Valleys Community Interest Company (CIC) and TGV Hydro

You can argue that perhaps energy is the defining commodity of the last 200 years. Where we get it from, who owns it, how it’s distributed and how it’s used is crucial to our social structure and civilization. Having it local, municipal, socially owned, as it has been in the past, could be very liberating.

The Green Valleys Community Interest Company was set-up by community members in and around the Brecon Beacons National Park in 2009. We aim to inspire and support communities to work together to reduce carbon emissions, generate income and deliver social and environmental benefit . TGV Hydro is owned by The Green Valleys CIC and offers a full design, permissions and construction service for small-scale hydroelectric systems. We make micro-hydropower a practical reality for landowners and community groups across Wales.

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The Green Valleys Community Interest Company (CIC) and TGV Hydro

“We’ve designed and built about renewable generation requires 40 micro-hydro schemes across a substantial multi-decade Wales, about a third of which are investment in changes in the community owned. The projects distribution grid. You could argue raise awareness about renewable economically that’s one of the energy, together with energy saving reasons to stick with centralised attitudes and initiatives. They can generation, but if you’re generating build community cohesion, they electricity next to where you’re don’t always, but they can. using it, it’s more of a robust When Feed-in Tariffs were system. generous, a project could generate I’m currently working on a green energy and create a project to get more money for the community fund. That financial local electricity we generate. At the incentive has been cut substantially moment, electricity from renewable and all but the very best schemes on generation can gain between 4 and the most attractive sites don’t really 5p per unit. 4 years ago, micro- work anymore, so the industry is hydro schemes were getting 20p for grinding to a halt. generation tariff in addition. That’s We don’t have a very clear energy been cut to 8p and will go to zero strategy in the UK. We certainly effectively. Smaller and distributed don’t have one that works in favour schemes are not economic at that of either renewables or distribution level of support. So if they can’t get generation. The Conservatives took more generating tariff, can you get up a very strong anti-on shore more for export? Can you directly wind and renewables stance, which sell that electricity to other people they implemented. They’ve got a locally? Can you get 7-8-10p a unit? pretty clear policy towards nuclear While that may be possible, and gas which never quite gets it’s complicated. It’s taking a stated, because it’s not that popular. lot of effort and negotiation and But the consequence therein is determination. Offgem regulation the reduction of support for all and distribution grid charging renewables. Half of the UK’s 35,000 mechanisms are the key issues. employees in the solar industry have The way the market was privatised been made redundant. in the early nineties has put an To go from centralised carbon- emphasis on short-term savings. burning generation to decentralised It could be argued it has kept

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electricity bills cheap, but it’s locally. You don’t have to have that preventing strategic solutions from many people using the system to being realised. increase the amount of money in Electricity supply is basically the local economy. In areas of rural multinational, often foreignowned. Wales where I’m based, areas of Anybody who buys electricity – that enormous deprivation: very low money is leaving the community, average incomes, poor services, and leaving the country in most fuel poverty – if we can keep local cases. Under the local energy supply services running and operating, models that we’re working on, you create a better community for half the electricity can be supplied everybody.”

http://www.thegreenvalleys.org

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Public ownership Alternatively, in Germany there is public investment in the grid, which nother alternative to traditional is seen as being in the common good business models is public (Blake, 2015). A ownership or renationalisation, Taking the railways back into which increases the democratic public ownership could save £1 billion control of investment and can mean a year, which could be used to lower that money goes towards social good fares and improve services (Taylor and rather than purely profitseeking Sloman, 2012). This could be done in enterprises. a step by step approach with minimal Rather than settling for cost to the public purse, involving part-ownership of renewable energy acquisition of franchises as they expire schemes for some members of the or as companies fail to meet franchise community, broader public ownership conditions (ibid). Elsewhere in Europe, may be required for systems that between 80% and 100% of passenger exploit the UK’s common resources. train services and the majority of rail This is particularly the case for freight (except in the Netherlands) are technologies such as offshore wind or provided by the public sector (ibid). tidal energy, which are not likely to be Surveys suggest that two-thirds of the delivered by community-scale projects public across the political spectrum or tied to particular communities. support bringing the UK railways back The ‘We Own It’ campaign calls into public ownership (Yougov, 2013b). for a publicly owned and controlled energy system based on a combination Municipally owned companies of national, regional and local public ownership (WeOwnIt, 2016). This ome local authorities, such as includes a publicly owned grid which Nottingham City Council and would allow renewable energy projects S Bristol City Council, have adopted to get connected to the national the innovative approach of becoming grid at a reasonable cost, and better fully licensed energy suppliers (see case deliver the necessary investment and study below), supporting local renewable improvements in the electricity grid schemes and those in fuel poverty in (WeOwnIt, 2016). their local communities.

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CASE STUDY: Robin Hood Energy

(Pastor-Vicedo, 2016; can partner with existing suppliers for Robin Hood Energy website) the more costly aspects of a licence) and White Label (where Councils can partner What is Robin Hood Energy? with an existing supplier to offer gas and Robin Hood Energy (RHE) is a non-profit, electricity using its own brand). However, local authority owned energy company they wanted more control that only a full established by Nottingham City Council. licence could give them. The licence was Launched in September 2015, it is the a significant investment for the Council, first company of this kind set-up for many though the full amount is commercially years, although Bristol Energy has since confidential. been launched by Bristol City Council. RHE has its own supply licence and offers How were the barriers overcome? gas and electricity to residential and Political will was very important. business customers nationwide. Nottingham is politically stable and the Council has a strong energy tradition, Why was it set-up? with the largest district heating scheme The main drive behind the company was in the country, private wire (for the to tackle fuel poverty though greener university and arena), and large numbers energy is also part of its objectives. It is of solar panels installed in social housing. currently offering a low tariff to customers The Council had been engaged in the on pre-payment meters, generally energy market for a long time and had those in the worst fuel poverty, and a good understanding of what was replacement of pre-payment meters with not working. They had previously tried smart meters. Being non-profit allows it working with a switching site but found to reinvest all surplus revenue back into this hadn’t been entirely successful in the company. Staff don’t receive bonuses reaching their target customers with pre- and its directors are not paid a salary, payment meters. which keeps overheads down. Currently, The Council also learnt lessons from RHE uses energy generated locally and Enviroenergy (the Council owned also buys in gas and electricity from the non-profit company that runs the district market, some of which is issued with heating). This has been running for about Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs). 10 years, although RHE is on a much bigger scale. By keeping the set-up of What were the barriers? RHE in-house, rather than outsourcing to Breaking into the energy market is consultants, they kept costs down and difficult for small suppliers. The Council allowed teams in the Council – finance, considered alternative approaches legal, marketing – to benefit from including Licence Lite (where Councils upskilling.

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What have been the results so far? Can it be replicated elsewhere? RHE are still in a settling-in period, RHE offers councils that wish to enter the but customer take-up so far has energy market a white label partnership. been promising. Under their licence This allows councils to sell energy to condition they need to comply with the their residents without incurring all Renewables Obligation but have also of the operational costs of a licensed voluntarily taken out a licence for FITs energy supply company. RHE believe (which only the larger suppliers political will is essential, and are happy are required to do) as they wanted to to advise other councils, who they view support small-scale renewable schemes. as partners.

Ways in which the UK electricity market beneficial to the low carbon transition. could rapidly transform to a low carbon Uniquely in mainland Britain, London system have been examined in a major controls the bus network through interdisciplinary study involving nine a franchise system rather than a universities. ‘Realising Transition deregulated service, which gives it much Pathways’ analysed historical energy more control. As a result, London bus transitions and social, behavioural and services have improved and passenger technical drivers of electricity supply numbers have risen. Over half of all bus and demand, as well as modelling trips in England are now in London, different scenarios. The project looked and between 1985/86 and 2014/15 at three pathways to a low carbon bus patronage increased by 105% in future by 2050 – a centrally coordinated London compared to a decline of 37% in pathway, a market-led pathway, England outside of London (DfT, 2015f). and a civic-led ‘Thousand Flowers’ There are also twelve local pathway. In the latter, by 2050, authorities in Britain that still have distributed generation forms 50% of municipally owned bus operators, which final electricity demand (Barton et al., can reinvest profits to enhance the 2015). Renewable (biogas) community/ service rather than paying dividends micro CHP, onshore wind, solar PV and (Taylor and Sloman, 2016). The largest offshore wind are the bulk of the energy of these, Lothian Buses in Edinburgh, mix. This transition would require a has high levels of customer satisfaction step change in civic participation and and recently returned £5.5 million profit the creation of Municipally Owned to the public purse (We own it website). Energy Service Companies (MO-ESCOs) Other municipal operators include who purchase electricity from local Reading Buses, which was ‘Operator energy supply organisations. of the Year’ in 2015, and Nottingham Municipal control and ownership City Transport, which has the highest of transport infrastructure can also be passenger satisfaction rating of any

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English operator (Transport Focus, CASE STUDIES: Community 2015a). or public ownership of energy In Europe, many bus services are municipally operated, and in France supply and distribution there are examples of municipalities which have shifted from franchising • In Germany, around half of private or public-private operators to renewable energy capacity is running the bus services themselves owned by citizens either as due to the need to cut costs (Taylor individuals, in co-operatives and and Sloman, 2016). similar community groups, or as In recognition of the problems with community shares (ILSR, 2013). the deregulated bus system, the UK There is also an increasing trend Government has introduced a new towards bringing energy supply and Bus Services Bill, intended to make it distribution networks into public easier for local transport authorities ownership through ‘Stadtwerke’ to franchise networks of bus services (municipal energy companies and give Local Transport Authorities owned by the local authority) or the powers to plan, develop and through local co-operatives (Julian, regulate bus services. This includes 2014). offering passengers simpler, integrated Oyster-style ticketing and guarantees • In Denmark, around three-quarters on service quality (Urban Transport of wind turbines in the country are group). The Bill is generally welcomed under some form of community by transport campaigners who see it ownership and ‘Right to Invest’ as an opportunity to improve services, legislation requires developers though have criticised a clause to offer 20% ownership of wind restricting councils from running their projects to local communities own bus services (We Own It website). (Dunning, 2014).

Community ownership • Perhaps surprisingly, in the United States around a quarter of all n addition to public or municipal electricity sold is generated by ownership of energy there is huge co-operatives or public power Iscope for community ownership. utilities (RAP, 2011). By contrast, Compared with other countries, in the UK in 2014, community such as Denmark and Germany the energy was only 0.3% of electricity proportion of community or public generating capacity (DECC, 2014a). energy ownership in the UK is extremely low (see case studies, right).

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The UK Government’s Community than genuine community energy. Energy Strategy was launched in 2014 To overcome resistance to (DECC, 2014a). It aims to encourage specific renewable energy projects communities to pursue their own at the local level, it is suggested that energy projects and to get involved communities must have a greater in the ownership of commercially stake in renewable energy projects developed renewable energy projects. in their area. An ongoing survey of The strategy learns from the attitudes to renewables finds that Community and Renewable Energy around 80% of people believe renewable Scheme (CARES) in Scotland and the energy developments should provide Ynni’r Fro programme in Wales. direct benefit to the communities in The Shared Ownership Taskforce which they are located (DECC, 2016d). (RenewableUK, 2014) and Community Interestingly, though, motivations Benefits Protocol (RenewableUK, 2013) for interest in community energy aim to ensure that communities benefit schemes are not just about individual from renewable energy developments financial gain. They also include in their area. Published in 2014, the local economic development, creation Shared Ownership Taskforce report of jobs, community development, includes details of the voluntary Shared democratic participation, environmental Ownership Framework. It recommends education and environmental concerns that: “Commercial project developers (Hargreaves et al., 2013; Seyfang et al., seeking to develop significant renewable 2013). energy projects (in other words above Public and community ownership £2.5m in project costs) for the primary means more public engagement with purpose of exporting energy onto a clean technologies and more people public network should offer interested with a financial stake in renewable communities shared ownership.” energy, both of which can help to (RenewableUK, 2014) reduce public opposition and build Under the Community Benefits support for clean technologies (Murray, Protocol, developers in England with 2014). Research suggests that public qualifying projects commit to provide acceptance for renewable energy is community benefits of £5,000 a year per easier to achieve if it is matched with MW of installed capacity (RenewableUK, high levels of individual ownership 2013). This money can be spent on (Smedley, 2013). things such as village halls or solar In Germany, the widespread panels. However, when this is placed in ownership of renewable energy is the context that a 1.5 MW turbine could considered vital in the positive public generate revenue of around £500,000 attitude to the country’s energy a year (Renewables First, 2015), it does transition, known as ‘Energiewende’ not seem so generous and may be (see box below), whilst in Denmark considered more a community handout laws require that communities are

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offered partial ownership in wind community energy companies forming farms (Buchan, 2012; Murray, 2014). following cuts in government support In the UK, the policies that encourage (Pratt, 2016). community energy projects and see that communities have a stake in, or Alternative ownership models for appliances benefit from, energy projects, need strengthening, particularly as subsidy ew ownership models for cuts have made it much more difficult individuals could also help with to fund community energy projects. Nthe uptake of zero or low carbon There has been an 80% drop in new appliances, by helping to balance higher capital costs with lower running costs:

Energiewende • Many electric vehicle (EV) suppliers are now offering long-term financing Launched in 2010, ‘Energiewende” is options, and options to lease the car Germany’s ‘Energy Transformation’ to or the battery at monthly costs of less replace fossil fuels and nuclear with than a conventional car, while electric renewable energy, to cut greenhouse car clubs have been established in gas emissions by 40% by 2020 and 80% Oxford and Milton Keynes allowing by 2050, to ensure that renewables local residents and businesses to hire contribute 80% of Germany’s energy by electric cars or vans by the hour (Low 2050, and to reduce energy consumption Carbon Oxford North). Other models by 20% by 2020 and 50% by 2050. could include shared ownership or Energiewende embraces micro- pay-as-you-go schemes similar to generation and micro-ownership – also mobile phones (Tran et al., 2012). known as a ‘prosumer’ model. Over 50% Uptake can also be supported by of renewable energy capacity is owned non-financial measures such as free by individuals or farmers in Germany – parking and use of bus lanes (Element the Big Four energy companies own Energy, 2013). just 6.5% (according to 2010 figu es). This in turn is causing the big utility • New models of appliance ownership companies to reassess their role. Rather could be explored where the service than continuing to rely on business as of, the service of being able to wash usual, they are significa tly ramping up clothes, for example, is paid for but investment in biomass plants, offshore appliances are not owned by the user. wind and large-scale photovoltaic plants. This type of model allows Energy In addition, some utility companies are Service Companies, who have access becoming service providers, changing to both information and finance, to their portfolios to stay in business make optimal decisions based on (Smedley, 2013). whole-life costs.

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Local economies Local loyalty cards: Independent any communities have Birmingham is one local loyalty card wealth extracted from them scheme that offers an alternative to a M by distant ownership. The local currency with potentially similar flow of money out of a local economy benefits but less administration. Local weakens it. When money is spent with loyalty cards can also provide a more local businesses it tends to recycle visual sign of local presence. around the community, having a multiplier effect. The New Economics 7.6 Politics and governance Foundation estimates the cycle to be three to four times before the currency ackling climate change and is exchanged back to the pound (NEF, getting Britain to zero carbon 2002). Local economies tend to be T faces some momentous hurdles: stronger and more vibrant economies, the inertia of the fossil fuel and other and ‘local’ is often more sustainable in high carbon systems (carbon lock-in), environmental terms. the power of vested interests, an There are many methods in which unsustainable economic system based local economies can be developed on growth, and a lack of political will to and supported. Local currencies, local tackle all of the above. loyalty cards and small business clubs Many of the changes needed to move all help create a more local economy. swiftly to zero carbon will also require Other physical economies (time and new or strengthened legislation and ‘things’) can only be done on a local policy and greater accountability for level: achieving zero carbon targets. Stronger political action on climate requires Local currencies: Totnes, Lewis, Bristol increasing the visibility of climate and Brixton have set-up their own change amongst the electorate, showing currencies. In practice these are like that more people are concerned and a voucher and can be used in a wide providing workable solutions. range of local businesses, supporting The stability of the fossil fuel them by encouraging people to spend status quo is such that determined and money within a local community. innovative methods of unsettling the Each currency is accepted differently, consensus are needed. The transition some can even be used to pay the local from a fossil fuel-based energy system council or utility companies. Hull is a political struggle, one that cannot Council have even created their own be simplistically viewed as amenable to digital currency. technologically innovative and win-win solutions (Barry et al., 2015).

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To achieve a transition to zero carbon means regulation of those interests that subvert democratic control, and greater transparency and accountability in governance. There are existing tools that can be used to hold those who govern us to account and to challenge the influence of vested interests. Ultimately, broad social movements must be built with a collective identity that challenges the status quo and the power of vested interests. ShareAction ©

Lessons from history: Powerful vested interests can be overcome

Astonishingly, at the turn of the 19th criminalised the international slave trade in century three-quarters of the world’s the early 1800s, the 1833 Slavery Abolition population was estimated to be held in Act, which banned slave ownership, was bondage against their will in slavery or a result of popular campaigning based on in serfdom (Forsythe, 2009). Although moral claims rather than insider lobbying millions of people are still enslaved and (ibid). trafficked illegally oday, the fact that One of the key mechanisms for the slavery is not legal anywhere in the world success of the UK abolition movement is a legacy of the enormous success of was the fact that groups with significa t the political movement against slavery. and ingrained theological and political This movement had to overcome a policy differences were still able to unite on inextricably linked with the economic various moral principles, such as human system and the powerful vested interests dignity or the shame of colluding with of the slave owners (Huzzey, 2015). The brutality, illustrated by the famous abolition movement had to concede to image ‘Am I not a Man and a Brother?’ ‘buying off’ the West Indian slave owners (Turley, 1991; Huzzey, 2016). The popular with approximately £30 million (equivalent movement utilised emotional appeals, to £1 billion today) in compensation from moral principles, petitions and boycotts to the British government (ibid). While the UK build political will for change.

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7.6.1 Overcoming vested interests: of England to drop their policy of shareholder action and divestment ‘robust engagement’ and divest from ExxonMobil and other oil and vercoming vested interests is gas companies on the basis that not a simple process: modern engagement is not working (Fossil Free O economies have been built UK, undated). on fossil fuel and other high carbon In 2015, the charity ShareAction, systems, the financial resources of the which runs shareholder campaigns, various industries are enormous and mobilised thousands of campaigners their political influence often deeply to email the French oil and gas entrenched. However, as the box corporation Total to demand above shows, campaigners in the past they pull out of the trade group have managed to overcome powerful BUSINESSEUROPE, which waters down interests against all the odds. EU climate legislation (Phillips, 2015). As well as mass social movements, While Total did not pull out of the discussed later, an effective way to trade body the campaign secured a challenge the power of fossil fuel commitment for increased disclosure companies and other vested interests of Total’s lobbying activities and is to mobilise the power of investors. support for progressive policies within Transparency on the amount of such trade bodies (ibid). lobbying by the fossil fuel industry and There is also a fast growing disclosure of the risks posed by climate international divestment movement change are important for investors calling for organisations, institutions in those companies. In recent years, and individuals to end their financial there has been an increasing number support for the fossil fuel industry via of shareholder resolutions demanding pension funds and other investments. information on the scope and spend on Led by coalitions of students, faith climate change lobbying (PRI website). groups, environmental groups and For example, in May 2016 the trade unions, the fossil fuel divestment Church of England filed a shareholder movement aims to remove the resolution urging ExxonMobil legitimacy of the fossil fuel industry, to disclose the impact of climate in a similar way to campaigns against change policy on its business which, tobacco or apartheid in South Africa although defeated was supported by (Fossil Free UK, undated). institutional investors with more There are indications that these than $6 trillion of assets (Church of campaigns are also causing some England, 2016). However, at the same reputational damage to the fossil meeting, 81% of shareholders rejected fuel industry (Ansar, 2013). In April a resolution to limit global warming 2016, it was estimated that over 500 to 2°C. As a result, campaigners have organisations worldwide had divested started a petition to get the Church over $3.4 trillion, including the

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Church of England, British Medical What do I want that world to look Association, Glasgow University and like?” (APPG:LTG, 2016). While the the Environment Agency (Fossil Free motives of pensions investors and UK website). There are also active insurers are mixed, their interest campaigns targeted at a large number in climate risks could be a valuable of universities and Local Authority part of the solution to climate Pension Funds. change, potentially encouraging their There is growing evidence that not divestment from fossil fuels and other only are fossil fuels a serious financial unsustainable industries. risk (the ‘carbon bubble’), but that Many of the divestment funds that have divested perform better campaigns have a ‘divest to reinvest’ (Collinson, 2015). Many UK pension element, which advocates using funds are seriously exposed to the the funds invested in fossil fuel carbon bubble (Weyzig et al., 2014). companies to reinvest in socially and Fossil fuel companies risk wasting up environmentally beneficial projects, to $2 trillion (£1.3 trillion) of investors’ such as low carbon and renewable money in the next decade on ‘stranded schemes or social housing. For assets’, projects or resources left example, Greater Manchester, West worthless by global action on climate Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Merseyside change and the surge in clean energy and West Midlands have joined an (Carbon Tracker Initiative, 2015). For initiative to use their investment example, Aviva Insurance has around funds to make ‘impact investments’, £300 billion in assets, and plans to committing £152 million to projects divest from around 40 companies that have an economic impact as well with more than 30% of their revenues as positive social and environmental deriving from coal where they consider outcomes (Investing For Growth, they are not making sufficient progress undated). Nottinghamshire Pension towards the engagement goals (Aviva, Fund is investing up to £1.5 million 2015). Aviva is also investing £2.5 in a community solar energy farm billion in renewable power and energy (Nottingham Energy Partnership, efficiency over the next five years to 2016). avoid what its Chief Executive describes The Environment Agency Pension as “eye-watering financial risks” Fund has done thorough research to (Clark, 2015). develop their investment strategy and The view from pensions and are keen to work with industry and insurance policy holders is also academics on how to better integrate changing. One stated that “I have climate change into investments considered the size of my pension (Environment Agency Pension Fund, for many years, but now I am also 2015). considering the type of world that will There are a number of organisations exist in 30 years when I take it out. that can provide information for

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fund managers on climate change Other countries have more and alternative investments – these comprehensive and robust registers of include Share Action (Share Action lobbyists that the UK could learn from: website) and Investing for Good (Investing for Good website). • The US has a register with a much higher degree of transparency, which 7.6.2 Increase transparency includes quarterly reports from of lobbying and prevent lobbyists and financial disclosure (US revolving doors House of Representatives website).

n response to the failure of • The Canadian register also has a the Transparency of Lobbying, high level of detail (though not I Non-party Campaigning and financial disclosure), with monthly Trade Union Administration Act 2014 reports from lobbyists and readily to improve transparency of lobbying accessible information organised by of government ministers and civil subject (Office of the Commissioner of servants, the campaigning group Lobbying of Canada website). Canada, Spinwatch have called for the with half the population of the UK, has following (Cave, 2013): over 5,000 lobbyists registered (ibid) compared to a little over one hundred 1. A robust register that covers all in the UK in March 2016, one year after lobbyists. the register was set-up (ORCL website).

2. Lobbyists to reveal sufficient • Ireland’s lobbying register is also information (who they are much more comprehensive than the lobbying, what they are UK’s and covers direct and indirect lobbying about and how much communications with a wide range they are spending). of public officials (Lobbying Ireland website). 3. The register to be financed by the public purse rather than The current system to control through registration fees. ‘revolving doors’ through the independent advisory public body, Government Ministers and the Advisory Committee on Business departments should be required to Appointments (ACOBA), also needs to be publish information on the number of strengthened. Specifically, there needs times they meet with industry-related to be a legal requirement on Ministers groups as well as interest groups and civil servants to consult ACOBA, and representing consumers and other controls on former Ministers and civil members of the public (Shapiro, 2012). servants who have joined industry for

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the purpose of lobbying their former silence’. If a significant proportion departments (Cave, 2016). of voters don’t view climate change Greater transparency in the as relevant or important to them regulatory process will not totally and their families, this will translate eliminate but can start to address the into a lack of cross-party support for problems of regulatory capture. policy and action. The agenda setting function of the media, discussed in 7.6.3 Build political will and section 6.2, means that politicians cross-party support are worried about, or pay attention to, those issues that garner the most uilding the political will to headlines. This re-emphasises the support urgent action on climate importance of good communications B change is essential. Political campaigns that can help get climate will is a slippery concept yet some change back onto the political agenda. researchers have managed to define it Climate change needs to be seen in terms of four conditions (Post et al., as a cross-party rather than a party 2010): political issue, and not as a narrow environmental issue but one that 1. A sufficient set of decision-makers impacts all sectors, including health to support a policy. and economy. Politicians also need to understand our fundamental 2. With a common understanding of dependency on nature (Willis, 2013). a particular problem on the formal One of the challenges for most agenda. political parties is accommodating the radical responses required by climate 3. Committed to supporting a particular change action into their political policy. thinking, which is influenced by their political cultures (Hoppea and 4. With a commonly perceived effective Wesselinkb, 2014). To help achieve policy solution. this, politicians (like all of us) need to talk about climate change with people This definition helps to identify that they trust (Willis, 2013; Marshall where the shortcomings in political will et al., 2015). Climate communicators lie so that tactics for creating or building have suggested connecting with those it can be developed (Post et al., 2010). on the centre-right by framing climate change in language that resonates Build cross-party support in terms of narratives (for example, localism, energy security, the green o build greater cross-party economy and the good life) and support on climate change values (for example, pragmatism and T requires breaking the ‘climate stewardship) (Marshall et al., 2015).

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Similarly, action on climate change can be encouraged within conservative thinking by an emphasis on increased resource productivity, support for entrepreneurs and innovation, while The impact of climate change social democrats can look at ways is something about which all to increase civic input to improve decision-making on infrastructure people of faith are concerned. We renewal (Green Alliance, 2014). need to work together in order One suggestion for effective to find our responses to some of communication with those on the centre-right is to bring in climate the most significant moral issues communicators who share centre-right facing the world. We want to values, or who can identify arguments that will resonate with people who encourage our politicians to keep share these values, for example, Britain committed to taking a business or faith leaders (Marshall et global lead on climate change. al., 2015). Using social justice or the case for Bishop Nicholas Holtam moral action can also help develop a (Church of England, 2015) shared narrative used by multiple actors and groups. Different faith groups, for example, may have different ways of talking about climate change but the narrative they use has common Various Parliamentary Groups and elements. The role of faith groups in Select Committees make an important the UK could be extremely valuable, contribution to cross party working given the unity in statements on and support for action on climate climate change, the relatively high change. For example: level of public trust in the clergy and the numerous examples of faith All Party Parliamentary Climate communities engaging with action Change Group (APPCCG): A coalition on climate change at a political and of businesses, parliamentarians and individual level (see section 7.1.5). In organisations from the third and 2015, over 30 representatives of the public sectors informing government main faith groups in the UK signed policy-making on climate change the Lambeth Declaration recognising adaption and mitigation (APPCCG the need for urgent action on climate website). change (Churchcare website).

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All Party Parliamentary Group likely to support action, particularly on Limits to Growth: A group of if those concerns are framed parliamentarians for cross-party appropriately. dialogue on economic growth in a time of environmental and social transition Build political will and public support (APPGLG website). onsistent political support is Parliamentary Renewable and vital for the transition to a zero Sustainable Energy Group (PRASEG): A C carbon future. For example, cross-party group of UK politicians and one study systematically investigated senior industry stakeholders to promote the factors shaping energy system sustainable energy issues in Parliament changes in Brazil, Sweden and the USA and the wider political community over the past 50 years (Hultman et al., (PRASEG website). 2012). It found that a strong national commitment to new technologies, Environmental Audit Committee: A including consistent and sustained House of Commons Committee that policies, were a common feature of audits the policies and programmes successful transformations. While of government departments and market forces were important, pricing non-departmental public bodies policies actually followed rather than against sustainable development and led the policy development. environmental protection targets (EAC As the discussion in section 6.6.3 has website). shown, there are many reasons why politicians may be unwilling to commit The submission of representations to action, even when they are aware that on enquiries to Select Committees is a an issue is urgent and important. good opportunity for NGOs, academics Practically speaking, an and industry bodies with an interest understanding of the many influential in promoting policies to counter factors working on politicians and climate change to present evidence decision-makers can help by identifying and influence MPs. Individuals can the ‘windows of opportunity’ for also hold their representatives to change (Rickards et al., 2014). Possible account and inform them about climate strategies include an ‘inside track’ based change issues by writing to their local on direct relationships with politicians councillors and MPs or inviting them to understand their constraints, an to local events on climate change. ‘outside track’ by social movements, MPs and Councillors of any political and an intermediate ‘middle out’ party respond to the concerns of their approach demonstrated by shareholder constituents and if their mailbags and activism, which combines the influence inboxes show that voters are concerned of insiders with the independence of about climate change they will be more outsiders (ibid).

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The fear of political failure and to be attuned to public opinion. While unwillingness to act can be addressed politicians have a leadership role, they by increasing the visibility of climate need to bring people along with them. change amongst the electorate, It doesn’t pay to be so far ahead of their showing that more people are constituents that they lose connection concerned and providing workable with their voters and leave them behind solutions. Politicians are more likely (ibid). to make innovative policy decisions Decreasing opposition to policy if there are strong public views change, increasing the willingness of on an issue, visibility of failure is the public to accept change, or building low, and if voters perceive that the popular support for policy are critical problem could have been predicted to allowing government to pass policy or averted (Howlett, 2014). Providing without fear of recrimination. Within clear evidence that the problem can the current system there are ways that be avoided and solutions do exist a community can be better engaged, gives politicians no place to hide and schemes that provide a stream and undermines the various blame of benefits to the community or are avoidance strategies (Bache et al., 2015). community initiated are likely to be Political risk can also be reduced better supported by the community. by bundling climate policies with There are a number of ways in which complementary policies with popular support for policy change can co-benefits – for example health, be built in various sectors, and lessons cleaner air and reduced congestion can then be applied to other areas. Clear (Bailey and Preston, 2014). communication of the benefits of the Demonstration of success through pilot initiative and involvement of a wide projects with the private sector and range of stakeholders seems to be key. civil society can also help to overcome Examples include: opposition and misperceptions, and help avoid policy deadlock (ibid). Food: There are many factors involved Faced with a deluge of urgent issues in the purchase of food. Decisions are to address, politicians also need help both subconscious and conscious, and to negotiate possible solutions. It is price and marketing sway customer suggested that giving politicians a choices. However, studies have ‘blueprint’ for action on climate change shown that health is an important is similar to giving instructions for a consideration and can have a bearing flatpack wardrobe without the parts: on purchasing decisions. Understanding politicians need hand-holding through the benefits of low meat diets has been the practical process of sourcing and shown to increase the willingness of assembling the parts and the people the public to accept and support policy (Willis, 2013). Political leadership is intervention, regardless of whether a risky business and politicians need or not this changes purchasing habits

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at an individual level. In this regard, Ison, 2005). Opposition can be fierce increasing public awareness is, until a charge is introduced, after which therefore, considered to be the first step it dies away rapidly (ibid). This suggests in making any significant changes to that good communications and political the food system (Wellesley et al., 2015). resolve are needed for measures that are clearly in the public interest, as was Transport: Experience from the seen with the introduction of seatbelts introduction of congestion charging or the ban on smoking. Keeping the in the Swedish cities of Stockholm charges low, income-related and applied and Gothenburg shows some of the with few exemptions; making sure any ways to win public and political exemptions have clear and transparent support and provides a number of criteria; and ring-fencing the funds for useful lessons that can be applied travel improvements are all measures elsewhere (Hysing and Isaksson, 2015). that can help increase acceptability These cities implemented permanent (ibid). The success so far of Nottingham’s congestion charges in 2007 and 2013 WPL in terms of raising funds for respectively. Stockholm’s proposal essential public transport infrastructure was subject to high levels of political would suggest this is an option more conflict but criticism was managed by councils should consider. the promise of a referendum after a pilot. An effective communications and Energy: The Danish island of Samso consultation process during the pilot, was ‘the world’s first’ 100% renewable alongside the provision of more public energy island (Spear, 2014). The pitch transport, helped deliver a majority was made many times for renewables on vote for the charge in the referendum their island to meet all the community’s (ibid). By contrast, in Gothenberg a needs but was repeatedly rejected. It largely top-down process made little was only via discussion with different effort to engage the public but there groups involved that change began to was broad cross-party political as well happen. Once farmers became interested as business support for a charge as in a new income stream, plumbers would part of a package of regional transport be able to set-up district heating, and investment (ibid). electricians could install photovoltaics (PV). Once the community was part of The introduction of economic it they supported the project. Analysis disincentives like the Nottingham of how renewable energy gets portrayed Workplace Parking Levy (WPL) is rare in the media found that jobs and outside the public sector due to the employment tended to be associated sensitivity from an industrial relations with positive coverage, so it is important point of view, with some describing it that these positive economic benefits are as “more emotive than pay” (Rye and communicated (PIRC, 2011).

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7.6.4 Build mass social movements website). Change is possible with just a small proportion willing to take road and deep political a stand (ibid). Throughout history, support is needed for decisive progressive thinkers and radical B urgent action. At least 20 voices have challenged and helped leading international climate change overturn systems of injustice such as researchers and policymakers slavery, colonialism, dictatorships and identified mass social movements as apartheid. one of the key drivers for action on climate change (Wiseman et al., 2013). Build coalitions Individual issue groups are generally not strong enough on their own to he history of past social bring political pressure to bear, and, movements shows that coalition therefore, join forces with others to T building plays an essential part create meaningful change. Some have in creating a sufficient base of support. suggested that climate activists must Recognition of how climate change link up with other movements such as intersects with social issues like civil rights, feminism and indigenous health, poverty and inequality creates sovereignty to have any chance of opportunities for building coalitions. success (for example, Klein, 2014). Coalitions are often formed in response to political opportunities and threats and can come together for single events or form more formal enduring alliances. Only mass social movements can The Campaign Against Climate save us now. Because we know Change brought 20,000 people onto the streets of London for their grassroots where the current system left Time to Act demonstration in March unchecked is heading. 2015. As part of a wider coalition the group helped organise the People’s Naomi Klein, 2014 March for Climate, Justice and Jobs in November 2015, with an estimated 70,000 turnout (Campaign Against Climate Change website). Such protest actions are not only ways to raise Less than 1% of Americans awareness of issues and influence actively took part in the Civil decision-makers through the media, Rights Movement and indeed most but are important ways in themselves successful movements for social in which groups develop a collective change involve between 1% and 5% identity and help build a movement of people (Compassionate Revolution (Taylor and van Dyke, 2003).

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Successful examples of coalition • The ‘Feeding the 5000’ event by building include: food waste campaigners, Feedback, which serves up which serves up a • The Green Alliance, Oxfam, NEF delicious feast for 5000 people made (Johnson, 2008) and the Baring out of food that would have gone to Foundation (Smerdon, 2009 and waste, brings together a coalition of 2013) broadened the range of organisations that offer the solutions organisations involved in climate to food waste, pushing the issue up change outside the environmental the political agenda and inspiring new movement, including those working local initiatives against food waste with the elderly, refugees, and youth (Feedback website). and children. Mapping winners and losers is an important step in any • The failure of the Copenhagen Climate campaign. Identifying those who Conference in 2009 and the hijacking stand to win from action on climate of the Warsaw Climate Conference in change, and lose from lack of action, 2013 by industry interests led to the helps to bring onboard new allies and formal setting up of a coalition of coalition partners. more than 130 organisations from civil society, labour unions, associations of • A coalition of around 30 Welsh international solidarity, faith groups, NGOs from different sectors worked NGOs defending human rights and the successfully over a three-year environment and social movements period to enact the groundbreaking (Coalition Climate 21 website). By Well-being of Future Generations Act. framing the issue as ‘climate justice’ This shows the value of larger NGOs, the movement took on wider ethical, who have the capacity and resources social and political issues, supported to develop and argue for innovative by a broader range of groups solutions, working with smaller NGOs concerned about environmental from different sectors who can lobby and social justice, poverty, equality, for change. The ultimate success of workers’ rights and historical the campaign, which was based on responsibilities for climate change. A a positive message, effective cross- central tenet of climate justice is that sector working and a high level of the most vulnerable people suffer the ambition, is a powerful source of worst impacts of climate change. hope. Many successful mass social • In 2015, a coalition of 21 leading movements have relied on a social basis environmental, transport and health for collective action. For example, the organisations combined to urge US civil rights movement was anchored political action on active travel in black churches while the labour (Sustrans, 2015). movement was heavily supported

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by trade unions. The trade union CASE STUDY: Sexual orientation movement with its historical mission to and emissions reduction ensure jobs, rights and social equality, coupled with effective mobilisation and US conservation organisation, organisational skills, makes them a Rare, organises environmental powerful force in the climate movement. pride campaigns around the world, With the tagline ‘There are no jobs on a informed by the LGBTQI movement dead planet’, the trade unions have been and private sector advertising instrumental in promoting climate jobs techniques. Tapping into the ‘power through their ‘One Million Climate Jobs’ of pride’ has become a marketing pamphlet (Campaign Against Climate opportunity; this has been used by Change, 2014), as well as organising the City of Detroit, which recognised marches and divestment campaigns and the regenerative impact of LGBTQI lobbying government. neighbourhoods in Chicago and Boston. Subsidies were offered Diversity in the movement to attract LGBTQI settlement in downtown locations. This tactic f the urgency of the zero carbon also drew on the rural-to-urban message is to be heard by all – migration, which is characteristic I let alone popularised – it must of LGBTQI people who are keen to seek to represent everyone across escape sparsely populated areas mainstream society, which means that in favour of cities boasting dense diversification is essential. Embracing pockets of like-minded communities diversity offers an opportunity to (Aldrich, 2006). The 2014 Gay Games identify and implement appropriate in Ohio was considered a pilot effective solutions to address the project in the alignment of sexual environmental challenges we face orientation and environmentalism, today. Reaching out to those who feel with a comprehensive sustainability alienated by society, and exploring how plan that highlighted environmental their lives could improve exponentially stewardship as one of three objectives. by embracing low carbon living, offers The volunteer-run organisation OUT huge potential to influence and create for Sustainability promotes LGBTQI political change. Seeking out human engagement with environmental diversity to attain the zero carbon goal issues. embraces more and different types of people to engage and collaborate, bringing new perspectives, experiences and ideas. It also means developing bespoke initiatives to engage with different groups, as shown in the case study, left.

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Lessons from history: Forge collective identity

There are lessons from past social with some adopting more militant tactics movements on how to mobilise people while others worked with the male and build successful coalitions whilst political establishment (Richardson, 2016). acknowledging differences. One However, they were all unified on the issue common element from the Indian that women should be able to vote and, Freedom struggle, the US Civil Rights as well as civil disobedience, used a wide movement and the Philippine People variety of methods including processions, Power Revolution was that they all helped pageantry, cartoons, theatre, literature forge a sense of collective identity and and petitioning to increase women’s ownership, so the movements became visibility and push their case (ibid). self-directing and provided a unifie The campaign for gay rights in the UK alternative to the status quo (Delina et al., in the early 1970s forged some productive 2014). coalitions, including those with the While the women’s suff age movement Trade Union Congress and striking in the late 19th and early 20th centuries miners (Delap, 2016). The AIDS crisis from is often thought of as a unified campai n 1984, and the hostility of the Thatcher to seek votes for women, there was a lot governments, brought lesbian women of dissent between the many different and gay men together in a credible lobby groups, with some suggesting moderate movement (ibid). Despite many setbacks, reform and others adopting more radical this lobbying, together with wider cultural positions (Richardson, 2016). Societies changes and grassroots campaigns, has were formed across the political spectrum, helped promote change (ibid).

Forging collective identity Thus, collective identity can happen even when there are t is important to note that most differences in worldview. Finding historical movements for change synergistic strategies that can inspire I were not unified campaigns with different worldviews around common agreed strategies but often a fractious action is important. For example, mixture of moderate and radical groups there is increasing unity from with different tactics (Childs, 2016). the different religions on climate Coalitions are difficult to organise and change, and many faith groups and maintain due to ideological differences, interfaith coalitions have expressed organisational competition and lack of their concern about the impacts and networks. However, forging a sense of issued statements and declarations collective identity and finding common in keeping with their theology values is important, as the box below (Interfaith Power and Light website). shows.

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Lessons from history: ‘Stop the Child Murder’

Despite being renowned as a cycle- about child safety, the first headline © Bert Verhoeff / Verhoeff © Bert bezoek aan Tweede de kindermoord brengt Stop 1976, Pressiegroep nefo, 4.0 BY CC of the Netherlands, , National Archives met spandoeken kinderen buiten, Kamer, friendly nation, the Netherlands had a ‘Stop de Kindermoord’ (Stop the Child fairly similar history of bike use as the Murder), suggesting children should be UK up to the 1970s, with bikes being taken to school by bus to protect them the predominant mode of transport in from road traffic. However, campaigners both countries before World War II then agreed that reducing road danger at falling into widespread decline during source was the best way to tackle the rise the 1950s and 1960s as the popularity of in road deaths and a powerful campaign the car increased. In the early 1970s the ‘Stop the Child Murder’ was launched. UK and Dutch transport policies diverged This highly emotive issue brought significa tly. mass support for change, with many In the Netherlands in the early 1970s, marches involving parents and children, deaths by motor vehicles reached record managed for maximum media exposure. levels, with around 3,300 people killed, This led to support for policies promoting of whom 450 were children in one year. people-friendly streets, shared space and This included the child of a respected home zones known as ‘woonerven’ journalist who wrote a series of articles (London Cycling Campaign website).

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Overcoming setbacks Many activists in social movements experience discouragement in the face vercoming public cynicism and of inevitable opposition and setbacks, disillusionment with politics and there is a danger of widespread O and political action is not easy, burnout. However, this is a typical particularly when governments ignore stage for all social movements and it or overrule popular opinion or local is suggested that activists can form concerns. Yet, all political and social political and personal support groups, movements face setbacks and require adopt nonviolence, adopt empowerment determination over many years to models of organisation and leadership, succeed. Even apparent failures have led and move from being protesters to to change: for example, the mass protests social change agents (Moyer, 1987). against the Iraq War in 2003 didn’t stop Successful social movements also the war but did eventually lead to the require different roles, including: Chilcot enquiry, and made politicians think much more carefully about military • Reformer or advocate – someone intervention. Even traditional methods of who lobbies for policy change. advocacy, such as petitions and responses to consultations, can be very effective. For • Citizen or helper – someone who example, half a million submissions to a takes practical steps or develops consultation for plans for national airport projects. expansion in 2003 with the message ‘don’t expand until you have got on top of • Change agent or organiser – climate change’ put policymakers under someone who organises other people. significant pressure, delaying plans for several years (Buhr, 2012). • Rebel – someone who agitates Yet, radical changes in society can for change (Lakey, 2016). occur within a few years as a result of political movements. As the box above It is suggested that any of these shows, an emotive mass social campaign roles can help or hinder, depending on focused on child safety was the catalyst whether the role is played positively or behind a major shift in Dutch attitudes, negatively (ibid). fostering political support for measures to improve road safety and promote cycling. More radical voices and direct action This has transformed the way the Dutch plan their transport infrastructure and t is argued by some that too towns and cities. In the UK over 2,000 much faith is placed in the children were killed or seriously injured I ability to influence policy from on the roads in 2014 (DfT, 2015g) but the inside and an outsider role can surprisingly this has not provoked the better highlight the problems with the same mass outrage. current process of decision-making

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and policy development (Bailey, 2016). than more radical protests (Bailey, 2014). There is some evidence that disruptive It is suggested that radical or innovative forms of protest can voices can help shift the ‘window of be more effective (in the context of political possibilities’ and make more welfare reform) than more institutional transformative policies acceptable or moderate forms of advocacy (Lyons, 2013). Possible strategies to (Bailey, 2014; Barry, 2016). This is shift the ‘window’ of debate include: because participants involved in more rebuilding the capacity for grassroots institutional forms of advocacy are more organising; cultivating ‘unusual likely to (reluctantly) accede to measures suspects’; framing positions differently; they oppose, and their activities are and organising those people who stand more easily ignored by policymakers to lose (ibid).

Lessons from history: The role of radical campaigners

‘Deeds not words’ was the motto of the we have not the means whereby citizens Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), may do such a thing; we have not a vote, one of the many groups fig ting for and so long as we have not votes, we must women’s suff age in the early 20th century, be disorderly.” (ibid) who adopted the well-known militant More radical campaigners, particularly in tactics of the suff agettes (Richardson, communities outside London and amongst 2016). An escalation in tactics saw dramatic women, were influe tial in pushing the protests including the death of Emily debate and uniting public opinion against Wilding Davidson in 1913, who ‘threw’ slavery. For example, Elizabeth Heyrick herself (or fell) under the King’s horse on campaigned in Leicester for a sugar Derby Day (Richardson, 2016). Increasingly boycott, attempting to galvanise support radical approaches were a response to the for immediate rather than gradual abolition state brutality waged against campaigners, (Huzzey, 2016). Her 1824 pamphlet said: but fi mly cemented the issue of suff age on “The West Indian planters have occupied the public and political agenda much too prominent a place in the (ibid). discussion of this great question…The However, this type of violent activity abolitionists have shown a great deal too polarised opinion even amongst suff agists much politeness and accommodation as well as the public. Less well known was towards these gentlemen…Why petition the non-violent civil disobedience inspired Parliament at all, to do that for us, which… by Ghandi, with women’s groups set-up we can do more speedily and effectually to boycott tax and a mass campaign to for ourselves?” (The Abolition Project, refuse to complete the 1911 census form undated). While the sugar boycott failed, (ibid). After her arrest, Christabel Pankhurst her campaigning, supported by women’s interrupted court proceedings to state: “We associations, helped shift the call to an cannot make any orderly protest because immediate ban.

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Drawing on 40 years of social For example, Reclaim the Power, a research, Radical Thinktank have grassroots organising network for direct identified effective mechanisms and action on environmental, economic and practical strategies to enhance political social justice issues, occupied EDF’s participation and mobilisation (Hallam, West Burton gas-fired power station for 2015): seven days in 2012 and have organised mass action camps against fracking at Conditional commitment: Where a Balcombe, Sussex and near Blackpool person commits to act on the basis that (Reclaim the Power, 2015). a critical mass of others do the same, A group of 13 people, ‘the Heathrow for example, joining a protest. 13’, also risked prison sentences for briefly occupying Heathrow to Personalisation: Using social networks protest at possible airport expansion or face–to-face canvassing to mobilise (McVeigh, 2016). While such actions people, as people are influenced by are controversial and deliberately others, especially friends and members provocative, there are good historical of their in-group. precedents, and it can be argued that such actions are reasonable, Political struggles: Non-violent proportionate and necessary to prevent mechanisms of effective political the much greater risks from climate confrontation. change (ibid). However, there are also dangers in Open space/deliberative mechanisms: disruptive direct actions in the way Used for recruitment and they are perceived by the public. Rebels empowerment. Mobilisation is rarely a can generate drama that motivates wholly conscious, rational process but the undecided to take the issue depends on emotion and social norms. more seriously and to side with the Open discussion groups that allow movement, but potentially can choose people to talk freely and interact with tactics that are so self-marginalising others can be more empowering than that the undecided lend their support providing information and traditional to the power-holders. Such actions top-down leadership. are usually negatively framed by the media, and while they may receive A number of grassroots campaign significant coverage, this can be groups are using these strategies to counter-productive by provoking hostile challenge the status quo and draw reactions (Gavin, 2010). attention to climate change. Some If the tactics are too extreme they groups also engage in non-violent direct could end up boosting support for the action or civil disobedience, which can opposition (Lakey, 2016). Protestors at involve personal risks, to expose actual the 2009 G20 Summit in the US learned or potential environmental destruction. ways to avoid being demonised by

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the press as had occurred at previous 2015) that the current Energy Company summits; they did this by engaging the Obligation Scheme, which runs until mainstream press and doing door-to- 2017, should be extended and focused door outreach to build local support and on reducing the average energy use of humanise the protestors (Staggenbourg, the energy supplier’s customers. This 2015). would provide finance for the most cost As with all social movements, the effective retrofit measures and would climate movement is a broad and have the additional benefit of making heterogeneous network of people and lower energy consumption households organisations. Lessons from history more attractive to energy suppliers. suggest coalitions of different groups Lower consumption households may with different tactics, some moderate then be rewarded with lower prices, in some more radical, are necessary for contrast to the current situation where change (Childs, 2015). these customers tend to pay more per unit of energy than high energy demand 7.6.5 New and strengthened customers. However, it could be argued legislation and policy to that the energy suppliers are not best address climate change placed to manage a subsidy scheme for domestic energy efficiency as it is not in he importance and value of their financial interest or organisational legislation to mitigate climate purpose to reduce energy use, and they T change needs to be properly are not highly trusted by the public. communicated to counter the prevailing anti-regulation discourse. Despite the Buildings: Analysis by the UK Green ideological shift away from regulatory Building Council confirms that it would controls and the practical constraints be entirely possible to deliver the Zero of developing new legislation, it Carbon Homes policy at scale and at is imperative that new legislation reasonable cost (UKGBC, 2015). Both is enacted and existing laws are the UK Green Building Council and the strengthened where necessary. Committee on Climate Change, along All sectors need new or strengthened with many others, are calling for the Zero legislation and policy to enable a Carbon Homes policy to be reinstated transition to a sustainable future, (Committee on Climate Change, undated). including: Building Regulations should make provision so the buildings are future- Energy: Continuous and ambitious proofed to allow the installation of ratcheting-up of mandatory efficiency such technologies in the future. The standards would drive the improved assessment and minimisation of life efficiency of appliances. cycle emissions should be incorporated It has been suggested by the Centre into mandatory Building Regulations for Sustainable Energy (Roberts, requirements.

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Steadily increasing minimum Transport: The Netherlands energy efficiency standards for all demonstrates greater levels of ambition buildings are needed (Boardman, – from 2025 all new buses will be zero 2012). This would act as an MOT test emissions and electricity used by the for buildings, normalising the concept new vehicles must be generated by that buildings, like vehicles, must meet renewable sources such as solar panels certain standards, met when a building or wind turbines (Government of the is rented, bought or sold, significantly Netherlands, 2016). UK cities could renovated, or otherwise after a certain emulate this approach, which could also amount of time has elapsed. This reduce air pollution and support a UK would allow major retrofits to be done electric vehicle industry. at appropriate times, such as when people move or renovate their homes, Food: The government has the ability minimising disruption. Loans on to impose regulatory sustainability preferential terms could be provided to guidelines for school meals and any allow costs to be spread over time. menus designed by caterers that it France has made a move in this contracts to deliver food in places direction by setting minimum such as hospitals and council offices requirements for all existing buildings (Cumberlege et al., 2015). It could also as part of the French Transition Plan introduce regulatory mechanisms on (MESDE, 2015). Under this system, all the food industry in order to make homes consuming annually more than reaching sustainability targets more of 330kWh per square metre of floor area a priority. must be retrofitted by 2025. From 2030, homes that have not been refurbished to a sufficient standard cannot be sold. Although the targets and dates of implementation are less ambitious, the application of the system to all buildings is groundbreaking.

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Stories for Change

Agamemnon Otero

Chief Executive Officer, Repowering London

We work with local authorities, national government, energy companies and developers – we exist within the broken system. Hopefully we get people to move from one system to the next so, instead of breaking the shell, we make the new shell while working in the old. It’s transformation.

Repowering London is a not-for-profit o ganisation that specialises in co-producing community energy programmes with community groups and local authorities. We support communities to deliver, own and manage renewable energy projects that provide benefits to the citizens that surround them. So far, Repowering London has installed 236 kWp1 of community owned renewable energy, with an approximate saving of 55 tonnes of carbon dioxide per annum.

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Repowering London

“Creating a co-operative empowers going to knock on doors? Are we people to have a say, doing it with going to holler from the rooftop?” some device like solar panels, or By asking those questions, you’re a wind turbine, or a waste plant saying: “Your voice means makes sense to them to invest in. something, your actions have an Include them in the ownership, impact”. At the end, we help them and the practical elements of how with soft skills and CVs, and placing to build it, and they have a more them in work. profound understanding of how it For the adults on the same works. programme there’ll be a mentoring Our training offers a forty-week, programme, which is unpaid, and London living wage programme that they become directors or supporters goes through how money works: and decide where the money goes, finance, the IT, technical, legal, and have a real sense of ownership. marketing, PR elements of setting Then there’s a programme for out up and owning a renewable energy of work engineers. So that’s the co-operative, and that’s for 14 to 24 offer to the people and it follows year olds. a pedagogy. The final stage is that When you say finance, you’re they go on the roof and install the providing understanding around panels. “How does money work in my You engage people and provide community?” Technical, you’re what they want – not what you saying: “What would it look like to think they want. People want to have solar panels on my roof? How be warm, to be safe, they want to does electricity work in my house?” invest in their family and friends When you say legal, you’re asking: and have something to believe in “What gives me the right to put it that provides opportunity and in the on my roof and how am I protected end well-being, because they don’t so I don’t lose it?” Marketing is: want a way out of their estate, they “What will be the representation of want a way into society.” our community? Let’s draw it, let’s vote on it.” And finally, “How are 1. kWp = kilowatt peak, a measure for we going to tell that story? Are we peak output under ideal conditions

http://www.repowering.org.uk

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Amend and tighten CCA and improve 2020 across buildings, transport and accountability for targets waste) (ibid). Policies could then be developed and monitoring undertaken he Climate Change Act (CCA) to ensure that the ambition is achieved. needs to be amended to enshrine This recommendation remains to T the net zero emissions target be implemented, but is even more in accordance with the Paris COP21 necessary four years on. agreement; this will mean tighter Targets need to be applied very carbon budgets, which are currently carefully as these can often be set at the ‘minimum’ necessary to unhelpful if they are arbitrary and not meet the existing 80% reduction target applied in the right way. While targets (Committee on Climate Change, 2016b). are unpopular amongst politicians, This represents a substantial increase local government actors agree that in ambition and will almost certainly meaningful targets focus attention and require radical emission cuts in sectors help politicians make the necessary such as aviation, agriculture and heat. difficult decisions (Bache et al., 2015). Existing loopholes in the CCA that However, any statutory duty on local allow some emissions to not be properly authorities to reduce carbon will need to accounted for also need to be closed. be accompanied by sufficient increases The contribution of emissions from in local authority budgets to support the ‘traded’ sectors, which includes implementation. the power sector, needs to be properly included in the CCA to cut carbon New legislation to comprehensively emissions in real terms rather than just protect the planet and future generations on paper. As well as changes to the CCA there t is proposed that a new generation needs to be improved accountability of environmental laws which at all levels for meeting the targets. I comprehensively protect the planet In 2012 the Committee on Climate and biodiversity is needed because even Change warned: “There is currently a if all the current environmental laws at significant risk that local authorities international, national and local level will not develop and implement were enforced, this would still not stop sufficiently ambitious low-carbon climate change or biodiversity loss plans, following the removal of (Thornton, 2015). the national indicator framework.” There are calls to have ecocide (Committee on Climate Change, 2012) (‘causing or permitting harm to the In its place the CCC called for the natural environment on a massive introduction of a statutory duty on local scale’) recognised internationally as a authorities to draw up low carbon plans crime (Higgins et al., 2013). In 2010, a with ambitious emission reduction proposal for an International Law of goals (for example, 20% reduction by Ecocide was submitted to the UN, via

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an amendment to the Rome Statute The Welsh Well-being of Future providing the ‘missing fifth crime Generations Act provides a ‘visionary against peace’ (ibid), the Statute having and holistic approach’ to tackling established four core international climate change (Corbyn, 2016). The crimes in 2002 that could be taken to Act requires public bodies in Wales the International Criminal Court (ICC): to put the long-term well-being of genocide, crimes against humanity, war people, nature and future generations crimes, and the crime of aggression. at the centre of decision-making (see In the proposal, ecocide was case study below). Resulting from a defined as “the extensive damage to, three-year campaign by a coalition of destruction of or loss of ecosystem(s) 30 non-profit organisations, the then of a given territory, whether by human Welsh Natural Resources Minister Carl agency or by other causes, to such an Sargeant described the bill as a “game extent that peaceful enjoyment by the changer”, saying that Wales was the inhabitants of that territory has been first country to introduce legislation severely diminished” (ibid). of this kind (Shankleman, 2015). While Thus, a Law of Ecocide (whether the Act has shortfalls, for example, the committed during or outside of targets cover only public bodies, it is wartime) is recognised as a crime of nonetheless a significant achievement. strict liability (without intent) and There is no legal reason why a creates a legal duty of care for nations similar Act cannot be introduced in to act before damage occurs, as well Scotland, Northern Ireland or for the as to provide assistance to countries UK as a whole, and the NGO coalitions at risk (ibid). During times of war it is would likely be similarly supportive. In already a crime to cause environmental some ways it may be easier elsewhere damage where the impact is severe as there were genuine legal problems (ibid). However, during peacetime mass in making the case in Wales due to the destruction or loss of ecosytems is not limited nature of its devolved powers a crime; “our world has normalised the (Meikle, 2016). The effectiveness of daily ecocide caused by the practices the Act in holding the government that drive economies as they currently to account on decisions that could function” (ibid). There is an active increase emissions and impact future campaign to help make ecocide a crime generations has still to be proven. (Eradicating Ecocide website).

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CASE STUDY: Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act

(Meikle, Pers. Comm. 2016) their surprise there was support for the Bill across a wide diversity of groups, What is the Well-being of Future and a coalition of the willing was formed Generations Act? (Sustainable Development Alliance This is a groundbreaking piece of website). This Alliance of 20-30 groups legislation passed by the Welsh from across all sectors, worked tirelessly Government in 2015 concerned with over four years to get the Bill into law. improving the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being What were the barriers? of Wales. The Act places a duty on public Political and legal barriers: When it was bodies to act in accordance with a first proposed it was expected to take a sustainable development principle and year to get the Act passed. In the end, make sure that any decisions take into it took four years as Ministers realised account the possible impact on people the far-reaching significance of the Bill. in Wales in the future. The Act establishes This is thought to be one of the first laws a statutory Future Generations of this type that sets duties on public Commissioner (whose role is to support bodies both taking into account the the sustainable development principle international impact and national impact in the Act), and Public Service Board of decisions on future generations. The for each local authority area to work Bill raised many legal questions and collaboratively to improve the well- challenges. There were several setbacks being of their areas (Welsh Government for the Alliance when key parts of the website). Bill were removed or watered down, but they refused to compromise. How and why was it introduced? Logistical barriers: The Alliance, The idea for the Bill originally chaired by WWF, was a large and diverse came from Welsh Minister for the group of organisations, many of whom Environment, Jane Davidson, in had never worked together and had response to separate criticisms from diverse objectives and capacities. Over WWF and the Wales National Audit the four years, four different Ministers Office that the Welsh Government had led on the Bill, adding to the difficulties failed to make adequate progress on for the Alliance but providing new sustainable development. The Bill was a opportunities for change also. commitment in the Labour Manifesto for the 2011 elections. WWF, who were keen How were they overcome? to see the Bill become law, convened a Effective campaigning and lobbying: meeting of the third sector in 2011. To The Alliance was very good at agreeing

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key objectives and red lines at meetings also hired top barristers to develop but then organising themselves into the case to put to government. When core groups and working parties for the the government argued something detailed tasks. There was a high level wasn’t legally possible, the Alliance’s of commitment to the process from legal team were able to find evidence, all of the members and even if some solutions and examples from other of the smaller groups lacked capacity, parts of the world to counter those they all contributed in their own ways. arguments. Government feedback to the Alliance was that the cross-sectoral support had What have the results been? been very important in getting the Act The Act only came into effect on 1 April passed. 2016 and it is being phased in so it is Positive messaging: The feedback still too early to see any results on the from politicians over what made ground. Symbolically, however, the the campaign so effective was that Act is a huge step for Wales, marking it was a positive, consistent and a high level of ambition. The Alliance coherent campaign over four years. recognises that it is a process involving The Alliance deliberately went for massive cultural change, and it will positive messaging, for example ‘Wales take time for the impacts to be felt. can be the best in the world’, which However, the Act does have some real encouraged politicians to be ambitious. teeth. The Commissioner has a very In turn, the politicians liked working on influential role and the Wales Audit something positive for a change. Office will also audit all public bodies, Hard legal work: With Friends of the leaving any public body whose actions Earth and WWF providing legal support threaten to increase the likelihood of that other groups lacked, the Alliance climate change open to Judicial Review.

7.6.6 Improve citizen access collectives suing their governments for to legal remedies environmental negligence in order to force necessary change at an adequate espite nearly three decades’ pace. worth of international treaties It is expected that over time, as the D and other legal instruments, physical and social impacts of climate there is a large gulf between the stated change manifest themselves, there aims of countries to reduce emissions will be more litigation and regulation and their practical action on the on climate change, though perhaps ground. This inertia of implementation not expressly about it (for example, a has led to a number of grassroots case on flooding may not necessarily

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mention climate change even if that called on the US Department of is the root cause) (Ruhl, 2015). Legal Justice to launch a RICO (Racketeer scholars and practitioners agree that Influenced and Corrupt Organizations climate change is increasingly an issue Act) investigation into fossil fuel for the courts to deal with and cannot corporations, citing as precedent be left solely to intergovernmental the long legal war against tobacco negotiation or executive action companies (Whitehouse, 2015; Shukla (Hadjiyianni and Minas, 2015). et al., 2015). “Courts can force countries to adopt In November 2015, the New effective climate policies. Court cases York Attorney General announced are perhaps the only way to break an investigation into ExxonMobil through the political apathy about focused on whether statements climate change…. It is just a matter of made to investors about climate risk applying existing law…. Judges with were consistent with the company’s the courage to give a ruling on this will own research and how big a role one day be applauded, whereas those the company played in directing who don’t will eventually be tarred campaigns of denial (Gillis and and feathered.” Jaap Spier, Advocate- Krauss, 2015). A total of 17 US Attorney General to the Dutch Supreme Court, 8 Generals are now investigating April 2015, in Dutch newspaper Trouw whether fossil fuel companies misled (Urgenda website). investors on climate change risks In March 2015, the Oslo Principles (Volcovici and Lynch, 2016). A separate of Climate Change Obligation were enquiry into the world’s biggest private launched by an international Expert sector coal producer, Peabody Energy, Group on Global Climate Obligations. resulted in an agreement that the The principles state that, “While all company would make more robust people, individually and through all disclosures to its investors about the the varieties of associations that they financial risks it faces from climate form, share the moral duty to avert change (Krauss, 2015). Less than six climate change, the primary legal months later, the company filed for responsibility rests with States and bankruptcy. enterprises.” (Oslo Principles, 2015) There have also been several There is a very real possibility in landmark legal cases where citizens the US of class action lawsuits, similar and organisations have taken their to those taken against the asbestos governments to court on climate and tobacco industries, against change, many of them using human companies that have deliberately rights legislation to push for greater distorted information about climate action: risks (Nuticelli, 2015; Evans 2015b). A US Senator, Sheldon Whitehouse, • In June 2015, campaign group supported by climate scientists, Urgenda Foundation and 886

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co-plaintiffs in the Netherlands won a • In another high profile case a farmer landmark case against the Dutch state from Pakistan successfully sued the (Urgenda, 2015). For the first time in national government for failing to history, human rights law was used to implement its own climate change compel a national government to take policy. In September 2015, the Lahore precautionary steps to combat climate High Court cited constitutional and change. The previous commitment international principles in a ruling to reduce emissions by up to 17% that created a Climate Change by 2020, compared to 1990 levels, Commission of named individuals was declared illegal, based on the from various Ministries, NGOs and Dutch constitution and international technical experts and set out the treaties, and replaced with a target timetable for their recommendations of 25%. Practical implications of to be published (Wentz, 2015 and the ruling are that the Netherlands Thornton, 2015). must accelerate measures that are already in place, such as expanding • The Commission on Human Rights renewable energy systems, reducing of the Philippines is currently gas extraction, and closing coal examining the role of the world’s mines. Urgenda coined the term 50 biggest fossil fuel companies in ‘crowdpleading’ to describe the power contributing to climate change, and of class action. While the Dutch subsequent human rights violations. government is appealing the decision, The investigation was prompted it does not dispute the importance by petitioning from a group of of mitigating climate change and entities, including local typhoon is reviewing the effectiveness of its survivors, Amnesty International, policies (De Graaf and Jans, 2015). The Greenpeace Southeast Asia and the case is inspiring other environmental Union of Concerned Scientists. The NGOs in Norway, Belgium and other petition stated that, “climate change parts of the world to bring similar interferes with our fundamental claims (ibid). rights as human beings, hence, we demand accountability of those • In Belgium, 9,000 plaintiffs have contributing to climate change.” signed up to Klimaatzaak (literally, (Sabillo, 2015) ‘climate case’), calling on the Belgian government to achieve a • In April 2016, in a landmark class 40% reduction in greenhouse gas action case, it was ruled that the emissions by 2020 – a proportion Oregon-based plaintiffs (21 children which was proposed but rejected in aged 8 to 19 years old), had the legal the Dutch Urgenda case. The case is right to sue the US government for expected to be heard towards the end environmental negligence (Alec of 2016 (Darby, 2015). L. v. McCarthy, 2011). The federal

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climate lawsuit – known as ‘Kids workplace by reason of any religion v. Global Warming’ – was filed or belief. Significantly, the term in partnership with WildEarth ‘belief’ is defined as ‘any religious or Guardians and Our Children’s Trust. philosophical belief’. The central premise of the case was based on the ancient Roman The Urgenda case has parallels with Public Trust Doctrine (popularised a successful Judicial Review case in in England through Magna Carta in which the UK Supreme Court ordered 1215), requiring state protection and the UK government to comply with the maintenance of survival resources nitrogen dioxide limits (an air pollutant for future generations. Citing the but also an indirect greenhouse gas) fifth and ninth amendments to the provided for in the EU Air Quality US constitution, the accusation is Directive (Warnock, 2015). There is of “violating their constitutional potential for similar legal action (by the rights to life, liberty and property, same appellant, the charity ClientEarth) and their right to essential public under the UK’s 2008 Climate Change Act trust resources, by permitting, if the government fails to get back on encouraging, and otherwise enabling course to meet its targets to cut carbon continued exploitation, production, emissions by 80% by 2050 (Le Page, and combustion of fossil fuels”. 2015). The District Court Judge heard oral The UK needs to improve the ability arguments on the 13th of September of citizens to go to court to enforce the 2016 and the case is expected to be law as a way of holding governments under review until mid-November and corporations to account. The 2016. Similar litigation is underway high cost and difficulties of NGOs in Massachusetts, Washington and and citizens in the UK to bring legal New Mexico, with numerous other cases through Judicial Review and cases pending (Our Children’s Trust other means discussed in section 6.6.5 website). contrasts with many other countries. There needs to be further reform of • In a landmark case of 2010, Grainger costs to make Judicial Review less plc v. Nicholson, the UK Employment prohibitive for claimants, and of the Tribunal held that an individual’s right to sue polluting companies, beliefs about climate change were similar to that which already exists in capable of being a ‘belief’ for the the USA, China, and other EU countries purposes of the legislation governing (Thornton, 2015). discrimination on grounds of religion or belief. This law came into force in December 2003 and prohibits discrimination or harassment in the

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Chapter 8:

Conclusions

Changing worldviews and values ...... 263

Communication ...... 263

Psychology and behaviour ...... 264

Overcoming carbon lock-in ...... 264

Economics and finance ...... 265

Politics and governance ...... 266

Final thoughts ...... 267

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8. Conclusions

limate change is a complex and report identifies specific actions, challenging problem. The global examples and stories that demonstrate C consensus of science clearly how these barriers can be overcome, to shows that we need to get to net zero provide a positive vision for the future. carbon, and a wide range of detailed It doesn’t claim to be comprehensive scenarios and real life practical projects or provide all the answers; there is a demonstrate that we already have the clear need for more detailed work from tools and technologies we need to get much better resourced organisations. there. But we cannot and will not solve Many of the solutions are it with technical solutions alone. interlinked and the report highlights More than anything, the barriers their commonalities and synergies. It is to change are psychological, social, not a blueprint for action but we hope it economic and political. Overcoming provides a useful overview of the issues them will require multiple perspectives to stimulate discussion about what and approaches from different sectors, needs to be done. Equally importantly, organisations and disciplines, working we hope the examples of action on the together where possible. Despite the ground will inspire others to act. many seemingly intractable barriers, A great many of the barriers to there are equally many reasons for change are common to all sectors and optimism. Our research has uncovered need to be tackled at a broader societal dozens of innovative and inspiring level. ideas from around the world. This

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Changing worldviews • Many people are now looking to and values spiritual practice outside organised religion to provide depth, meaning • At the root of the problem of climate and connection in their lives. For change is a belief we are separate example, meditation and mindfulness from nature and from each other. can foster greater compassion, while Increasing exposure to nature helps spiritual activism can support social increase a sense of connection and political change. and concern for nature. This in turn can foster more sustainable • Arts and culture are also a catalyst behaviour as well as improving for change, using the imagination well-being. Fostering worldviews to bring to life different futures and that are based on concerns for other to challenge the status quo. They humans, other species and future can engage people collectively to generations is part of the necessary shift values towards community and transformation. collaboration.

• Values like honesty, responsibility, Communication social justice and helpfulness need to be promoted to strengthen public • There is a need to rethink and regulate commitment for action on climate the kinds of advertising that fuel change, rather than values based desire for ever more consumption and on wealth, status and power, which promote values counter to acting on weaken it. climate change.

• Excessive and disposable • The creativity of the marketing consumerism can be countered industry can be harnessed in ways that through reducing the working week are helpful. For example, promoting as well as promoting the sharing action on climate change or products economy and the circular economy. and services that make people’s lives This helps address the ecological better. limits of our consumer society and increases happiness and well-being. • The prevailing silence on climate change in the media and public life • Faith groups play a major role in can be broken through the use of shifting worldviews. The main stories and images that offer hope and global religions show increasing solutions. Fear appeals showing the unity on climate change, promoting real world impacts of climate change ecological stewardship and climate should be used sparingly as action justice. is better promoted by showing the positive benefits of mitigation.

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• A lack of media coverage can be • The power of social influence can be addressed by the use of alternative harnessed in approaches that use peer and social media, using humour pressure to make helpful, zero carbon or shocking facts for maximum behaviours the norm. impact. Undue corporate influence on the media and misinformation or • Climate change can be made greenwash can also be countered by psychologically closer and more clever alternative communications. urgent by emphasising local as well as distant impacts. Use of positive • Significant media bias, for example, emotions, such as hope and pride, can equal balance given to climate also be motivating. sceptics, needs to be challenged head on by regulators, climate scientists, • Habitual behaviour can be more easily activists and the public. addressed during transition moments, such as changing jobs or moving • Concentration of media power, giving house. media owners a disproportionate influence over public information • While individual behaviour change and opinion, needs to be addressed is important, it should not be seen through regulation. in isolation from the changes that are needed at social, industrial and Psychology and behaviour governmental levels. Behaviour change programmes can be better nsights from psychology and other targeted to influence co-operative disciplines can be used to promote behaviour and social action and tackle I helpful behaviour changes in diets, more damaging behaviours. the way we travel, how we heat and power our homes and action generally Overcoming carbon lock-in on climate change. • The stability of the fossil fuel system, • Positive stories of collective action known as carbon lock-in, can be can create solidarity and connection, challenged by practical, positive and countering feelings of helplessness innovative solutions, particularly and encouraging and empowering at a local level where there is more people. flexibility to experiment.

• Information that highlights the links • While many of these local projects between specific actions and their are relatively small, they normalise effects is most effective in motivating sustainable behaviours, empower change. people and help expand the range of political choices.

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• Small groups often lack the skills Economics and finance and resources to scale up or spread their innovative ideas, making the • There needs to be a reversal of the role of intermediaries very important. prevailing and demonstrably failed Government support for low carbon economic model of neo-liberalism communities is needed, with a stable with its emphasis on supposedly free long-term strategy and resources to markets. In its place a co-operative, support replication and scaling up. fair, enriching, resilient and sustainable economic vision should • There is a need to make zero carbon be developed, encouraging business alternatives as attractive and and ownership models that prioritise convenient as possible, for example, environmental and social benefits as by making walking and cycling much as economic returns. safe or combining energy works with general home repairs and • Removing the massive subsidies improvements. currently given to fossil fuels and making fossil fuel and high carbon • Effective planning support is essential alternatives pay the full societal to develop zero carbon communities, or external costs through taxation with good planning policies helping will help level the playing field for to reduce car dependency and zero carbon alternatives. This could promote renewable energy and green be delivered through a carbon tax, buildings. Planning control needs to congestion charging and workplace be given back to communities, and parking schemes, and taxes on planning authorities allowed to push unhealthy foods and frequent flyers. for higher standards. • There needs to be a move away from • Local government are important a narrow focus on growth and GDP, drivers of a zero carbon future which are partial and inappropriate through delivery of housing, measures of determining success. transport, energy and waste. Despite severe funding cuts, many local • Financing is also needed for many councils and cities have developed zero carbon measures, including innovative policies and projects, such investment in renewable energy, as setting up their own energy supply retrofit measures in buildings and companies, large-scale zero carbon or investment in sustainable transport climate-positive developments, and infrastructure and services. This can sustainable food systems.

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be facilitated by local and municipal campaigns which cause reputational banks and a growth in citizen damage and avoid financial risks for finance. Low and zero interest pay‘ investors. This money can then be as you save’ loans could be provided beneficially reinvested. for energy efficiency measures using successful examples from around the • Climate change needs cross-party world to remodel the failed Green political support, which can be Deal. built by framing communications appropriately or using trusted • There is enormous scope for more communicators. Submissions to community ownership, particularly of parliamentary Select Committees or energy supply and distribution, which direct communication with MPs and has been achieved through law in local councillors can help to build Denmark. support.

• Taking key assets like the railways • Stronger political action requires or national grid back into public increasing the visibility of climate ownership can ensure the necessary change amongst voters, showing that transition takes place and profits more people are concerned. Providing are reinvested for the public good clear evidence that workable solutions rather than being distributed to do exist gives politicians no place to shareholders. hide.

Politics and governance • Mass social movements, based on coalitions of a broad range of • The transition from a fossil groups, are needed to build political fuel-based energy system is a support. The intersection with social political struggle. issues such as health, poverty and inequality and reaching out to those • The undue influence of powerful who feel alienated by society creates vested interests on the regulatory opportunities for building coalitions. process needs to end. The current law Forging a sense of collective identity on transparency of lobbying is not and finding common values is fit for purpose and needs to satisfy important, as well as overcoming international principles. The rules inevitable setbacks. Disruptive forms to prevent the problem of ‘revolving of protest are also needed to shift the doors’ also need to be tightened. window of political possibility and challenge the status quo. • The influence of fossil fuel companies can be challenged through • New and strengthened legislation shareholder action and divestment and policy are needed. For

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example, reintroducing legislation Final thoughts for zero carbon homes as well as mandatory minimum energy etting to zero carbon will standards for all existing buildings. require radical system change. Despite government preference for G Our hesitation to believe that deregulation or self-regulation, most this is possible is, in itself, one of the voluntary approaches have performed key barriers to achieving that shift. poorly. Yet, history shows that radical social and technological changes within a few • The Climate Change Act needs to be years are possible. This should not be amended to enshrine the net zero seen as burdensome or a return to the emissions target and to close existing past, but as one of the most exciting loopholes that exclude emissions from opportunities in human history. the power sector. There also needs to Isolated, stressful, consumer-focused be a better system of accountability lifestyles can be replaced by a sense at all levels otherwise even the of connection with community and existing and inadequate 80% by 2050 nature, delivering enormous benefits reduction target may not be met. in physical health and psychological well-being. • Comprehensive new laws to protect Our ‘postcards from the future’ paint the planet and future generations, a picture of life in the UK that is not such as an international law on unrecognisable from today: we still live ecocide, are needed. in the same communities, many of us in the same houses as today but these are • Legal access for NGOs and citizens more comfortable with no draughts; we needs to be improved. Proposals to eat significantly less meat and dairy but make Judicial Review, an important are healthier for it; and we walk, cycle check on public powers, more and use electric cars or public transport expensive and difficult need to be so our neighbourhoods are cleaner dropped. There could be a right to sue and quieter. We buy and consume less polluting companies, similar to that ‘stuff’ but things are built to last and which already exists in many other we share more. We spend more time in countries. the natural world or with friends and family and are happier.

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The overarching headline is that we need to do this together. We must join up research and action across disciplines, borders and scales and link research to real life projects. It will take many of us pulling in the same direction to enable change to happen, and each and every one of our actions can contribute to making a zero carbon future happen.

We need to engage in whatever actions appeal to us. There is no act too small, no act too bold. The history of social change is the history of millions of actions, small and large, coming together at certain points in history and creating a power which governments cannot suppress.

Zinn (2003)

Zero Carbon Britai 269 Index

Index

A Biofuel 56, 60 Abundance Investment 212 Biogas 200, 228 Active travel 34, 35, 61, 182, 207, 243 Biomass 49, 52, 64, 193, 231 Adaptation 22, 29, 31, 34, 35, 93 Blake, Chris 14 Advertising BP 31, 123 restrict 164 Bread Matters iv, 14, 58–59 Agriculture 25–26, 38–39, 85, 120, 137, Brexit 128 218, 254 Bristol Solar City 200 All Party Parliamentary Climate Buddhism 155 Change Group (APPCCG) 238 Buen Vivir 218 All Party Parliamentary Group on Buildings 2, 3, 7, 10, 15, 18, 25, 38, 42, Limits to Growth 239 49–50, 55, 61–64, 67, 82, 89–90, 94, 97, Anaerobic digestion 198 131–134, 132, 133, 136–138, 175–177, 183, 185, An Alternative Energy Strategy 12, 13 193, 196–197, 203, 215, 250–251, 254, 265, 267 Arts, The 5, 69, 142, 157, 159–163 Burke, Veronica 14, 58–59 Atmosphere 21–23, 35, 103 Business as usual 95, 101, 231 Aviation 44, 48, 84, 98, 123, 205, 254 Businesses 27, 42, 53, 79, 95, 131 emissions 45 international 25, 27, 44 C Aviva 235 Campaign Against Climate Change 242 Car B use 46–49, 82–85, 168–173, 172, 207 Banks Carbon community 212 budget 4, 25, 127, 137, 254 infrastructure investment 102 capture 13, 55, 137 local, municipal 7, 211, 212, 266 dioxide (CO2) 22, 21–31, 98, 103, low and zero interest 213 122–123, 137–138, 183, 193, 201, 205, pay-as-you-save 215 210, 252 Barilla Food Pyramid 41 emissions vi, 1, 13, 24, 35, 63, 118, Battery 231 128, 131–132, 137–138 Behaviour change 3, 6, 61, 81, 84–85, 85, intensity 118–119, 137 167–169, 174, 180, 180–181, 183–186, 199– lock-in 85, 87–89, 101 200, 204, 264 neutral 7, 131, 183, 198, 201 Biodiversity 57, 138, 148 price 134, 137, 209–211 loss 39, 103, 254 store 57 270 Index

tax 7, 19, 209–210, 265 Climate Visuals 168 trading 210 Coal 157, 209, 235, 258–259 zero 141–142, 154–155, 164, 173, 180, Committee on Climate Change (CCC) 188, 193–194, 202–203, 211, 213–214, 24–25, 49–50, 57, 137, 203, 210 220, 232–233, 239, 244, 250 Community energy 1, 6–7, 51–52, 64, Carbon Brief 23, 172, 216 86, 88, 102, 177, 183, 186–187, 203, 212, 221, Carbon Trust 133 230–231 Centre for Alternative Technology vi, Community Energy England 187 11, 144, 161 Community Energy Scotland 187 Christianity 155 Community Energy Wales 221 Circular economy 5, 152, 263 Congestion charging 7, 200, 206, 241, Cities 265 role of 201 Consumerism 70–71, 141, 150–153, 165, Citizen finance 7 , 211–212, 266 216 Climate Action Plan 198 COP21. See Paris Agreement Climate Action Tracker 23 Cornwall Council 200 Climate change Corporate interests 124 agriculture 57, 207 Crompton, Tom 145 communications 2, 71–72, 74–78, Cycling 2, 6, 17, 34, 46, 60, 87, 89–90, 92, 166–172 98, 172, 177, 180, 189–190, 194–196, 247 economics 100, 104, 214 faith 154–158 D impact 2, 26, 29–31 Dairy products 43, 56, 175, 204 perceived and actual contribution Decarbonisation vi, 101, 122, 126, 136, 180 42–43 Degrowth 216–218 planning 93, 201 Department of Energy and Climate politics and governance 4, Change (DECC) 125, 128, 138 121–122, 124, 126, 128, 129, 138, 177, Deregulation Act 131, 197 232–245, 250 Diet 2, 13, 16–17, 38–43, 56–57, 76, 82, 85, poverty 32–36 87, 173–175, 188, 240, 264 psychology and behaviour 3, Disability 28–29 80–83, 173–174, 178–182, 188 Disability Essex 182–183 transport 47–48, 61 Global Partnership for Disability UK’s budget 25 28 values 2, 67–68, 70, 142, 143, 149, District heating 193, 227, 241 152 Divestment 7, 234–235, 244, 266 Climate Change Act (CCA) 1, 8, 24–25, Drought 28 137, 254 Climate Local 198 271 Index

E Municipally Owned Energy Ecological worldviews 152–154 Service Companies (MO-ESCOs) Ecology 153–154 228 Ecology Building Society 214 storage 62–63, 90, 99 Economic growth 7, 103–104, 138, 150, supply 7, 13, 26, 50, 52, 63, 86, 102, 166, 214, 216–217, 219, 239 120, 133, 202, 212, 221, 225, 228–229, Economics 3, 4, 7, 10, 75, 95, 104–112, 128, 265–266 154, 203, 219, 265 use 18, 49, 62, 84, 131–132, 176–177, The Economics of Climate 179, 193, 215, 216, 250 Change. See Stern Review Energy Local 221 The New Economics Foundation Energy Saving Trust, The 133 219, 232 Environmental Audit Committee 47, The sharing economy 5, 151, 263 239 Ecosystem 4, 22, 68, 103, 107, 153, 216, 255 Environmental limits 218 Education vii, 4, 11, 16, 73, 87, 89, 103, 121, European Union (EU) 51, 119 128, 147, 198, 204, 219, 230 Electricity F generation 25, 27, 51, 137, 209, 211, Farming vi, 16, 55, 56, 175 221 Feed-in Tariffs (FITs) 133, 224 storage 62, 99 Fertiliser 39, 87, 207 Electric vehicles 1, 3, 47, 98, 173, 177, 190, Finance 200, 206 access to 101, 211–212 Employment 217 citizen 211–212 renewable energy 13, 55, 212, 241 green mortgages 214 The UK Employment Tribunal local and municipal banks 7, 212, 260 266 Energiesprong 14, 135–136, 192, 215 low and zero interest loans 213 Energiewende 230–231 Flooding 2, 28–30, 33–34, 149, 178, 257 Energy Flower Pod 14, 182–185 crops 19, 207 Flying 44–45, 48–49, 60–61, 70, 74, 83, 87, demand 2, 12–13, 49, 61–64, 73, 99, 181, 205 127, 211, 250 Food efficiency 175–177, 191, 200, junk food tax 120 202–203, 212–214, 235, 250–251 production 39, 120, 207 energy efficiency loan schemes 215 Fossil fuel subsidies 99, 101, 207, 209 Home Energy Efficiency Programme, Fracking 119, 122, 137, 249 Scotland 213 Fuel poverty 1, 35, 50, 63–64, 97, 199, Local Authority Energy Finance (LAEF) 226–228 scheme 213 272 Index

G K Gender 28 KfW Bank 215 Genocide 31, 255 Knox, Katharine 32 Geothermal energy 200, 203 Kyoto Protocol 216 Global average temperature 23 Green Deal 7, 131–132, 199, 213, 266 L Greenhouse gas (GHG) 10, 13, 21–27, Lambeth Council 200 38–45, 41–45, 49–50, 55–56, 84, 87–88, Lancashire County Pension Fund 200 120–122, 173, 183, 198, 202–207, 210, 216, Levy Control Framework 133 259–260 LGBTQI 244 Green Open Homes 177 Liquefied natural gas (LNG) 31, 119 Green Valleys Community Interest Lobbying 4, 8, 120, 122–126, 171, 233–234, Company 14, 223–224 236–237, 244–245, 256, 266 Greenwash 5, 79, 166, 264 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 4, 7, 63, M 99, 103–104, 107, 150, 203, 210, 214, 216, 218, Media 220, 265 alternative 169–170 Gross National Happiness 219 bias 2, 72, 76, 78–80, 170, 264 non-traditional 169 H social 6, 71, 76, 169–171, 264 Hinduism 156 Mental health 29–30, 71, 92 How$mart 215 Merton Rule 196 Human Development Index (HDI) 219 Million Miles project 182

I N Inequality 2, 26, 30, 43–45, 48, 50, 52, 152, National Determined Contributions 203, 219, 242, 266 (NDCs) 23 Influence National Planning Policy Framework corporate 4, 119, 264 (NPPF) 93 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate National Well-being Index 219 Change (IPCC) 21–23, 28, 78, 170–171 Natural gas 49–50, 119, 122 Islam 156 Neal, Lucy 161 Neo-liberalism 3, 7, 95, 96, 104–115, 118, J 150, 216, 265 Joyce, Anna iv, 14, 184 reversing 220 Judaism 156 New Economics Foundation (NEF) 219, 232 273 Index

Nitrogen 87, 103, 111, 260 Revolving doors 4, 8, 123, 125, 236, 266 Nuclear power 12, 67, 100–101 Robin Hood Energy 199, 227

O S Obesity 1, 16, 17, 40, 73, 87, 120, 189, 204 Samso 241 Oil 12, 31, 79, 95, 100–101, 116, 119, 123, 125 Schmickler, Arno iv, xi, 14, 135 Okun’s Law 217 Simms, Andrew iv, 104, 114 Otero, Agamemnon iv, xi, 14, 252 Smart meter 62–63, 132, 227 Solar photovoltaics (PV) 52–53, 133, 200, P 211, 213, 228, 241 PACE (Property Assessed Clean Solar thermal 18, 49 Energy) 215 Spirituality 152, 154, 157 Paris Agreement 23–26 Stop the Child Murder 246 Conference of the Parties (COP) Super Homes network 193 23, 95, 128, 155, 165, 254 Parliamentary Renewable and T Sustainable Energy Group (PRASEG) Tar sands 122, 157 239 Thamesway Energy 200 Passivhaus (passive house) 49, 50, 62, Tidal 52, 226 82, 97, 175, 182, 193 Transatlantic Trade and Investment Pay as you save 7, 213, 215, 266 Partnership (TTIP) 118–119 Piggott, Sheridan 14, 91 Transition Political manifestos 126–127 movement 158 Poverty 23, 32–36, 127, 154, 181, 186, 217, Network 183, 186, 220 242–243, 266 Town 161, 182–183 Psychological barriers vii, 1, 3, 80–81, Wilmslow community energy 141 scheme 177 Public ownership 7, 226, 229, 266 Transition Community Café, The 182 Pure Leapfrog 212 Transport system 45, 87, 195

R U Religion 5, 112, 152–156, 177, 245, 260, 263 UK Government’s Community Energy Renewable energy schemes 7, 86, 93, Strategy 230 200, 226 UN Sustainable Development Goals Repowering London 14, 200, 252, 253 (SDGs) 220 Retrofit 2 –3, 7, 18, 62, 84, 90, 97, 132, 136, Urgenda Foundation 258–260 176, 180, 190–193, 215, 250–251, 265 for the future 193 274 Index

V Values matter 145

W Walking 17, 29, 34, 46, 59, 60, 98, 177, 189–190, 194–196 Well-being National Well-being Index 219 Well-being of Future Generations Act 203, 243, 255–256 Welsh Assembly 12 West Papua 31 Wind offshore 19, 52, 64, 102, 127, 211, 226, 228, 231 onshore 26, 52, 93, 101, 127, 210–212, 228 World Economic Forum 217 World Health Organisation (WHO) 40

Y York Bike Belles 91–92

Z Zero Carbon Homes policy 131, 250