The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Conferences, Workshops, Lectures and Discussion Fora

Session 2002-2003

Hearing , Deafness and Social Inclusion ...... 2

Funding Opportunities Through The 6th Framework Programme ...... 3

Tissue and Vascular Remodelling ...... 5

GM Gene Flow: Scale and Consequences for Agriculture and the Environment ...... 9

What Research Would Benefit The Practice of Primary Dental Care? ...... 11

Quark and Gluon Physics ...... 13

The Future of Retailing: Prospects for Town Centres ...... 14

The Cormack Bequest Astronomy Meeting 2003 ...... 19

The Value of the Post-Mortem Examination ...... 21

Human Rights: Roles and Responsibilities ...... 28

Scotland’s Drug Problem ...... 38

England and Scotland in Union from 1603: Anglo-Scottish Relations - Past, Present and Future ...... 40

Infection and the Threat to the Food Chain ...... 42

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome ...... 47

Stem Cell Research: Opportunities and Challenges ...... 49 CONFERENCES, WORKSHOPS, SEMINARS AND DISCUSSION FORA Conference Hearing , Deafness and Social Inclusion 13 November 2002

On 13 November the Society held Allan, Donaldson’s College for the a one-day conference looking at Deaf, Professor Bamford, Ms the personal, social, educational Lillian Lawson, Scottish Council on and professional consequences of Deafness, Mr David Breen, Public hearing impairments and deaf- Health Medicine Consultant, ness in both adults and children. Dumfries and Galloway Health Speakers included Professor John Board and Mr Andrew McLeod, Bamford, University of Manches- Head of Health Planning and ter, on Epidemiology of hearing Quality Division for the Scottish loss in adults and children; Executive. Professor Quentin Summerfield, More than 80 “deafness” The University of Nottingham, on professionals and Deaf and Deafened Children: the service-providers attended the Impact of Cochlear Implantation; Conference which was organised Ms Heather Fisken, RNID, on The with the help of representatives of Transition from Education to the RNID, Donaldson’s College for the Workplace and Professor Phil Deaf and the MRC Institute of Hanlon and Dr Sheila Beck, Public Hearing Research. Health Institute for Scotland, on The Conference was supported by Hearing Impairment in the Elderly. the William Demant Foundation The event closed with a panel and A & M Hearing Limited. discussion featuring Mrs Janet Conferences, Workshops, Seminars and Discussion Fora

Seminar Funding Opportunities Through The 6th Framework Programme 12 December 2002

To support Scotland’s research European Adviser, UKRO, Brussels, and SME sector interests in the Peter Walker, European Funding European Commission 6th Adviser, Innovation Relay Centres Framework Programme (launched Scotland, and Catherine Holt, on 11-13 November 2002) the European Research Funding Society, in partnership with the Officer, Beta Technology Ltd, it United Kingdom Research Office provided an overview of the (UKRO) and the European Com- programme and specifically, mission Office in Scotland, held information on funding opportu- an information seminar and nities through its “Structuring the network reception on funding European Research Area” theme. opportunities through the The event also provided an Framework Programme. The opportunity for participants to seminar was attended by around seek individually focused advice 50 people from across the from the presenters, which a research and SME sectors. It was number of those attending chaired by Elizabeth Holt, Head of sought. And, it served as a the European Commission Office platform for networking between in Scotland, and through presen- individuals and the research and tations by Dr Clair Watts, SME sectors.”

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Wellcome Research Workshop Event-related potential studies of memory and attention: How does Neuroimaging increase understanding of human cognition? 13 January 2003 The meeting was a great success; about best practice. Questions 35 people from laboratories all asked by the attendees were used over Scotland and England came to stimulate open discussion, for a day of talks and discussions ranging from practical issues about the “state-of-the-art“ about how to “do” our science, scientific investigation of the to theoretical concerns about the electrophysiological basis of analysis and interpretation of our memory and attention . The data. Further, several speakers, attendance list was designed to including junior scientists, be inclusive, and included provided excellent up-to-the- undergraduates, post-graduates, minute reviews of work in the post-doctoral fellows, lecturers field. This really was an excellent and professors, representing learning experience for all some of the most highly regarded concerned, challenging our own laboratories in Britain. In addition, assumptions and hearing a guest speaker was invited from alternative views and approaches the Rotman Research Institute in – things that are difficult to Toronto, Canada, giving the achieve within a single laboratory, meeting an international flavour. but are essential if our science is Feedback from those attending to thrive. indicated that the event was One sign of the success of the considered worthwhile and meeting is that one of the productive – in essence it was an attendees has begun to set up a extremely enjoyable and web-based discussion forum, with educational day. the aim of facilitating on-going A series of presentations were debate and sharing of knowledge made over the course of the day, between laboratories. The interspersed with open discussion meeting has lead to an interesting sessions. Several of the talks and fruitful collaborative research briefly introduced important project with Drs Richard Schillcock methodological and technical and Scott Macdonald at questions that are faced by Edinburgh University. everyone in the field, allowing Organised by Dr David Donaldson, extremely useful airing of views, University of Stirling. sharing of knowledge, and debate

4 Conferences, Workshops, Seminars and Discussion Fora

Wellcome ResearchWorkshop Tissue and Vascular Remodelling 24 January 2003

On 24 January 2003, the Royal this would lead to new opportuni- Society of Edinburgh was host to ties for research collaboration and a highly successful workshop greater integration of reproduc- entitled Tissue and Vascular tive research throughout Scotland. Remodelling in the Female Forty participants enjoyed 17 Reproductive Tract. The workshop short talks by experts in specific was funded by the Wellcome Trust areas, as well as three briefings by in collaboration with the Royal international authorities in the Society of Edinburgh and support- field. The first session identified ed by the Munro Kerr Society. current research questions in Tissue remodelling and angiogen- tissues of the female reproductive esis are pivotal cellular processes tract. Dr Richard Anderson from in the female reproductive tract. The MRC Human Reproductive This is a dynamic area of research Sciences Unit described how the particularly within Scotland. The life-span of the ovary was set in disparate groups studying these fetal life and how mcl-1 and processes tend to be organ- and neurotrophins may be key to tissue-specific. It is, however, very oogonial turnover. Dr Norah clear that many of the key ques- Spears from the University of tions, therapeutic targets and Edinburgh demonstrated the cellular processes involved are ovarian remodelling during generic in nature and cross the follicular growth and migration boundaries between tissues and with elegant in vitro models organs. In addition, novel tech- designed for its study. Professor niques utilised by some groups Steve Hillier from the University of have particular relevance to other Edinburgh then provided one of groups and experimental models. the many meeting highlights by The workshop’s aims were to describing his studies on ovarian bring these disparate groups of surface epithelial cells and how researchers from across Scotland their metabolism and inflammato- together to discuss the main ry environment during ovulation issues in their respective areas, may sow the seeds for malignancy. common cellular processes and Dr Colin Duncan from the Univer- novel investigative techniques and sity of Edinburgh demonstrated their development. We felt that how regulation of paracrine cell-

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cell communication was funda- Andrew Calder from Edinburgh, mental in tissue and vascular who chaired the session, then led remodelling using the corpus a round-table discussion looking luteum paradigm. at key areas where further synthe- The focus them moved from the sis of therapeutic targets and ovary to the uterus. Dr Steve strategies could be obtained. Campbell from the University of The second session focused on Glasgow described the complex generic cellular processes at vascular remodelling during reproductive tissue sites. Professor endometrial growth and develop- Hilary Critchley from the University ment. Dr David Howe, also from of Edinburgh started the session the University of Glasgow, used with some exciting data revealing clinical paradigms to highlight for the first time that uterine current understanding of placen- natural killer cells have steroid tation and remodelling of the hormone receptors, linking fetal membranes in pre-term expertly the hormonal and labour and pre-eclampsia. The immune systems in the en- session was completed by another dometrium. Dr Henry Jabbour participant from the University of from the MRC Human Reproduc- Glasgow, Dr Jane Norman, who tive Sciences Unit looked at described studies investigating second messenger systems as a the role of leukocytes, cytokines, therapeutic target with particular and nitric oxide in the tissue regard to prostaglandin action. Dr remodelling of the cervix as labour Simon Riley from the University of is initiated. Edinburgh has published widely Professor Steven Smith from the on matrix metalloproteinases University of Cambridge, an (MMPs) in tissue remodelling international expert in vascular during pregnancy and delivery. He remodelling in the female repro- gave an authoritative update on ductive tract, gave the first of the MMPs, their specific inhibitors expert briefings. He described his and methods of detection. This experience studying human was followed by a talk by Dr endometriotic implants using Richard Lea of the Rowett Re- mice models and how angiogen- search Institute in Aberdeen on esis is stimulated. In addition he immune cells, focusing on uterine highlighted a multifaceted natural killer cells and the lessons approach to problem solving with from knock-out studies of mice. the use of array technology, He also provided clear insights computer modelling, therapeutic into the relationship between intervention, animal models and nutrition and the immune system. clinical collaborations. Professor

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The session ended with the extraction of RNA from specific second expert briefing. Professor cell populations in tissue sections Carlos Simon from Valencia, and reduces the dilution effect of Spain, gave, arguably, the best talk other cell types when the cell of the workshop. Descriptions of population is small. It is a difficult his studies on human blastocyst- technique but she has had endometrial and epitheliam particular success in studying interaction demonstrated how gonocytes in the testis. much critical information could be Professor Rodney Kelly gave an obtained when using novel, illuminating account of the highly characterised, co-culture principles behind quantitative RT- models. The audience was clearly PCR using the light cycler and the enthused and this formed the Taqman machines. It is clear that basis of the next round-table these techniques will be increas- discussion chaired by Dr Des ingly fundamental to reductionist Gilmore from the University of medical research in the future. Glasgow, which looked at com- Professor John Mullins from the mon approaches to the University of Edinburgh had to physiology and pathology of the pull out at the last minute with a female reproductive tract. medical problem. Luckily his The third session concentrated on deputy, Dr Matthew Sharpe, was advances in investigative tech- available to talk about the niques. Dr Paul Fowler from the creation, techniques used, uses University of Aberdeen described and potentials of transgenic the technique of proteomics and animals and knock out models. used his studies on endometriosis Dr Shabaz Hamid from the to highlight its usefulness. University of Glasgow then Professor Peter Ghazal from the described a simple technique for University of Edinburgh gave a studying whole blood vessels in very clear account of chip array tissues. This technique generated technology and the increasing great interest and provided some application of this modality. The incredibly detailed pictures of the GTI unit that he heads collabo- endometrial vasculature. rates widely and the delegates The final expert briefing was given were informed about how such by Dr Hamish Fraser of the MRC collaborations could lead to Human Reproductive Sciences crucial discoveries. Dr Phillipa Unit. He is an international Saunders from the MRC Human authority on the inhibition of Reproductive Sciences Unit physiological angiogenesis. He examined the laser capture described how inhibition of technique. This allows the vascular endothelial growth factor

7 2002-2003

can inhibit follicular growth, luteal the meeting and several new development and possibly collaborations were being endometrial development. The discussed. delegates were left in no doubt In summing up, Professor Hilary that they had heard, at first hand, Critchley reported that the of some of the most significant meeting had succeeded in all its recent breakthroughs in the primary objectives. Oral input manipulation of tissue and from half of the delegates had vascular remodelling. The third ensured a healthy involvement round-table was chaired by and an excellent balance of senior Professor Alan McNeilly of the and more junior researchers. MRC Human Reproductive However it had been a very full Sciences Unit. It focused on a day and one lesson learnt was framework for advancement and that the talks gave fodder for collaboration. It was evident discussion that could have easily during the formal and informal gone on into a second day. Maybe discussions that everyone had next time the meeting should be derived some new insight from over two days.

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Discussion Forum GM Gene Flow: Scale and Consequences for Agriculture and the Environment 27 January 2003

As part of the UK GM science Affairs, Professor Howard Dalton, review, the RSE hosted a debate FRS, and scientists from the on gene flow and detection on 27 Scottish Agricultural College; January 2003 to identify the Scottish Crop Research Institute; extent of current scientific knowl- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh; edge in this area. Speakers were : Roslin Institute; Scottish Agricul- · Dr Geoff Squire (Scottish Crop tural Science Agency; the Research Institute) reviewing Macaulay Institute; Scottish research into gene flow via Natural Heritage; and the Universi- pollen and seed from GM crops ties of Aberdeen, Abertay, to non-GM crops Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow and St. Andrews. Delegates also · Dr Mike Wilkinson (University of attended from BBSRC-Rotham- Reading) reviewing research stead and the Universities of into gene flow via pollen and Reading and East Anglia. seed from GM crops to other plant species There was a lively discussion, ably chaired by RSE General Secretary, · Professor Tony Trewavas, FRS, Professor Andrew Miller, CBE, FRSE (University of Edinburgh): FRSE. The UK GM Science Review reviewing research into how Panel was represented by Dr Brian gene flow can be prevented/ Johnson, Terrestrial Wildlife Team, minimised (including the English Nature; Professor Michael implications for detecting GM Wilson FRSE, Chief Executive, genes in non-GM supply Horticulture Research Institute chains), and and Professor Philip Dale, John · Dr Riccarda Steinbrecher Innes Centre. One general point (Econexus) reviewing research of agreement was that gene flow into Horizontal GM gene flow to nearby crops and into wild from GM crops, via the break- relatives would happen, albeit at a down and direct transfer of GM low level, with a 99% crop purity DNA rate being achievable, but with difficulty. Where there was Over 100 delegates attended, disagreement was the significance including the Chief Scientific to the environment of the gene Adviser for the Department for flow into the wild relatives, with Environment, Food and Rural

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recognition that there was a need ble on the RSE and OST websites for more research into agricultural (www.royalsoced.org.uk; ecosystems. www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk) The speakers’ papers and a and are feeding into the UK GM transcript of the event are availa- science review process.

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Oral Health Workshop What Research Would Benefit The Practice of Primary Dental Care? 31 January 2003

Consideration of the questions Dr Fay Crawford discussed the “why is evidence-based dentistry need for valid information about important for primary dental diagnosis, therapy and prevention care?” and “what research would and the challenge that the high benefit the practice of primary volume of literature presents. The dental care?” are timely from a importance of research being of number of different perspectives. clinical and topical relevance to Professor Nigel Pitts outlined the gain the support of policy makers, aim of the day’s conference as a practitioners and funding bodies debate of issues including lessons was demonstrated by Professors learned from elsewhere in primary Frank Sullivan and Christine Bond, care, the systems currently in place who reiterated the need for for conducting research in primary teamworking across health care dental care in Scotland and policy professionals. considerations for the future. The Systems in place in Scotland to meeting was organised by the promote evidence-based practice Royal Society of Edinburgh and include the Scottish Consortium. members of the Dental Health Services Research Unit. Dr Jan Clarkson and Professor Richard Ibbetson presented The day began with an overview current activity, which includes the of what evidence-based practice is Scottish Dental Practice-Based and how at national and interna- Research Network to facilitate the tional levels modernisation in conduct of high quality research dentistry is pursuing different and dissemination of research models. Embedding research in evidence. The role of the the service could help to identify Scottish School of Primary Care in the best way forward for primary supporting dental research was dental care. The future of described by Dr Sally Wyke, evidence-based practice was reinforcing the key principles of considered by disaggregating it partnership and collaboration. into three essential components: research and its synthesis, dissem- A clinical device with potential for ination of evidence and caries prevention is a slow fluoride implementation. release bead and Professor Richard Welbury presented the

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current evidence with a proposal The role of the NHS Scotland’s for a multicentre trial in Scotland. new clinical effectiveness agenda In an example of capacity building was described by Professor Karen for research dental primary care, Facey, in a presentation that Chris Southwick presented the outlined how the new organisa- experience of a general dental tion will take forward the quality practitioner taking an idea improvement agenda. through to a funded CSO fellow- The meeting then split into four ship. working groups. The scene for How research evidence can lead to the workshops was set by Anna improvements in the quality of McGowan describing the Glas- dental services was considered by gow Research Initiative in Dental the Deputy Chief Dental Officer Primary Care (GRID) and Dr Jimmy Mary McCann. In a modern Steele presenting an idea for a Scotland, robust research should trial based upon a pilot project inform health policy; however, conducted by general dental there is awareness that effective practitioners. communication is necessary. The The report back from these impact of payment systems on workshops has been compiled dental services was considered by into an agenda for future action Dr Colin Tilley, who presented with recommendations for evidence of differences between changes to systems of service and the intensity of treatment deliv- education to improve the conduct ered according to the dentists’ of research in primary care and the remuneration method. How implementation of evidence. education might influence the quality of service was presented by Dr Tony Anderson.

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Workshop Quark and Gluon Physics 8th Particle Physics Workshop 6 February 2003

The eighth Particle Physics putting the theory of high-energy Workshop was held again in interactions into systematic cooperation with the Durham comparison with data. Finally, Institute for Particle Physics Professor Guido Altarelli (CERN, Phenomenology and with addi- Geneva and Rome) gave a critical tional support from the Italian review of the measurement of the Embassy. Eighty-three research strong coupling constant by a workers heard three authoritative wide range of techniques. reviews from world-leading Four shorter talks presented work experts in the theory and experi- done close to home. Professor C T mental aspects of Quantum H Davis (Glasgow) showed how Chromodynamics, the strong the precision of lattice gauge force that binds the quarks and calculations is dramatically gluons that together make up improved by the inclusion of 99.95% of the mass of the dynamical quarks. Dr V Kartvelish- observed Universe. vili (Lancaster) presented the Dr A M Cooper-Sarkar (Oxford) phenomenology of the search for worked from first principles up to states containing hidden super- the most modern challenges in symmetry. Dr T Binoth (Edinburgh) the measurement of the internal described calculations of the structure of the proton, conclud- backgrounds to light Higgs boson ing with the question of searches at the Large Hadron understanding the evolution of Collider, and Dr G Zanderighi gluons in very high-density (Durham) described newly-studied regimes. Professor E W N Glover effects in jet physics. (Durham) described progress in

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Conference The Future of Retailing: Prospects for Town Centres 27 February 2003

The fourth in the series of meet- need for an additional 12 million ings sponsored by Archibald sq. m. of shopping centre space Campbell & Harley WS was held being needed in the UK by 2020. on 27 February 2003 with the Given it can take well over 5 years theme of Prospects for Town for a centre to move from initial Centres. In most cities and large concept to opening, these long towns there has been a steady term views are integral to under- shift in the location of new standing the potential changes in investment in retailing away from Town Centres. The emerging town centres and towards out-of- trends are for shopping centre town and edge-of-town locations. schemes to be ever bigger and Town centres have attracted new more multi-use, containing a investment and new shopping variety of commercial, social and developments but the balance cultural space. In order to develop between the centre and the these new centres, there is a periphery has been changing greater need for partnership inexorably over the last 40 years. between the private sector This feature of urban develop- developer and the public sector ment is not limited to Scottish agencies charged with planning cities and towns but is part of a and managing urban areas. With much wider shift in the structure the long-term project, both of cities across the European- groups of partners have to American culture realms. The recognise the risks and rewards Conference addressed some of for all parties at each stage of the the issues and implication of this project. These issues and the shift, considering Scottish chang- possibility of successful partner- es in the context of the wider ship were illustrated with patterns apparent in the UK as a reference to Grosvenor’s develop- whole. ment of the Paradise Street area in Mr John Bullough, Retail Director Liverpool. A total of approximately of Grosvenor Limited, explained 25,000 sq. m. of retail, residential, the market background against civic, leisure, hotels and offices are which shopping centre develop- being developed comprehensively ment takes place. A number of in a 16 ha. site in the centre of economic forecasts point to the Liverpool.

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Mr David Millburn, the Scottish become available, but that the Regional Director of Sainsbury’s, large stores will not be acting as presented Mr Ian Coull’s paper on anchors to development schemes the history and development of in town and city centres. supermarkets in the last 50 years. Mr Peter Cummings, Director of Particular reference was made to Integrated Finance at Bank of the innovations undertaken by Scotland, explained how a Sainsbury’s, first in developing the financier looked at shopping concept of the supermarket and centre investments and the risks later in the moves to locate these associated with these schemes. stores in different types of Retail property continues to locations, both edge-of-town and attract significant investment in city centres. From the perspec- despite a recent slowdown in tive of the large food retailer there rental growth, with planning is not a perceived conflict between constraints ensuring that there is the development of stores in town not over-supply. The Bank of centres and at edge-of-town Scotland operates an integrated locations. The types of supermar- approach to retail investment, kets now being developed in the often through a joint venture different locations serve different arrangement. It has 22 joint needs of consumers and so are venture partners associated with operated in different ways. The 21 shopping centre projects. In realisation by the food retailers of searching out a suitable invest- the presence of a market in city ment the key elements are the centres was somewhat slow in presence of market leaders in the appearing after the widely-held scheme, a viable location for the view of the 1970s and 1980s that scheme, a high quality scheme new stores should be at the edge with a diverse offering of uses and of towns. Nonetheless, when it tenants, and an experienced was appreciated that workers and management team. residents in city and town centres required locally-available super- Mr David Stathers, Policy Advisor markets, development followed on Property and Planning to Boots quickly. Tesco and Sainsbury’s, Property Plc, emphasised the role through the 1990s, have devel- of planners in shaping the relative oped a number of different types importance of different locations of smaller supermarket located within cities and towns and also within and adjacent to town amongst them. The early applica- centres. The current view is that tion in planning of the concept more of these smaller supermar- urban hierarchy, over 40 years kets will continue to be provided ago, led to a very rigid and over- in city centres as suitable sites simplified approach to planning

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for retailing. It is only in the last A picture of the future consumer decade that this rigidity started to was drawn that suggests a very be relaxed, although the changes fragmented structure to demand, in retailing have been enormous with time-pressured ageing over the last 40 years. The mis- consumers confused by a surfeit match between planning policy of choices, but more discerning and retailers requirements has and demanding in their purchases been considerable. The location and more concerned about policy of Boots derives from a wellbeing. Retailers will need to need to address the demand side respond in a variety of ways to issues, for example the growth of provide for this plethora of home ownership and increased consumer needs. Shopping wealth, and the supply side of the behaviour for groceries for changes in the operations of example shows several different retailers. The evaluations of behaviour patterns with, into the customer travel patterns and the future, less large-volume planned catchment of a store become even purchasing, more immediate more important as new forms of convenience orientated purchas- retiling enter the network of retail ing and more specialist expert provision. With the changes in shopping. Retailers then need demand and supply, it is now different types of store for these necessary for planning policy to different shopping occasions. The become more flexible and accom- implications for property will modate plans for the decline and reflect these different consumer even phasing out of existing requirements, with shopping underperforming town centres developments geared to these that can not compete as viable different behaviours. Town centres nucleations of retail activity. Whilst still have much to offer, and are improving the vitality of town likely to respond to the more centres is important, there are leisure-orientated aspects of cases where such improvements behaviour. are not possible and policy Although the conference explored approaches have to be sought both generic and UK issues on the that identify which town centres changes in town centres, there can and which cannot be im- was much that was relevant to proved. developments in Scotland. The The final speaker was Ms Mau- increasing levels of personal reen Johnson, Chief Executive of mobility, both physically and in The Store, a consultant and peoples’ minds, means that advisory group that is deeply Central Scotland’s town centres involved in forecasting future will increasingly compete with patterns of retailing development. each other. Inevitably some will

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grow more quickly than others challenge for the property sector and some may even decline. All is to react on a similar timescale to the speakers stressed the dyna- the retailers and provide Scottish mism that is present in the ways town centres with a property base that retail firms innovate and that attracts retail investment. respond to consumers – the

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Conference 2020 Science Education 5-7 March 2003

The RSE was invited by the Education & Scottish Earth Science Scottish Executive to administer a Education Forum joint nomina- Science in the Community Award tion) were invited to an awards as part of the 2020 Science dinner on 6th March at the Education conference held in Sheraton Hotel, Edinburgh, where Edinburgh from 5-7 March 2003. Iain Gray, MSP, announced NESciE This award recognised organisa- & SESEF as the winners, with the tions or groups who take science runner up being Glasgow Science education out to the community Centre. The Careers Scotland and, in so doing, promote the Business Awards were also public understanding of science. announced and presented at this Representatives of the short-listed event. organisations - STEM Strategy The trophies were designed by from Sensation Dundee, the Jonathan Crawford, a final year art Glasgow Science Centre, The SCI student from Edinburgh College Fun Scottish Science Technology of Art, winner of a design compe- Roadshow and NESciE & SESEF tition run by the RSE in all the (Natural Environmental Science Scottish Art Schools.

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The Cormack Bequest Astronomy Meeting 2003 31 March 2003

This annual one-day meeting was them, allied with stellar theory, held this year, and for the first could be used to calculate some time, in the University of Aber- of their properties. Dr Reid’s talk, deen, taking place in one of the Stars from the North East, took us, large lecture theatres in The Fraser in a very informative way, through Noble Building. the contributions to astronomy There were 60 attendees (20 from made by scientists from the North the University of St Andrews, 25 East of Scotland. Perhaps of from the University of Edinburgh, particular interest was that part of six from the University of Glasgow his lecture devoted to the remark- and nine from the University of able Gregory family and, in Aberdeen) and the lunch and particular, James Gregory who, refreshments were funded by the apart from his mathematical University of Aberdeen which also achievements, invented the provided the room and the reflecting telescope. facilities used. In addition to these plenary The main speakers were Professor invited talks, a number of shorter Keith Horne of the University of St research talks on a variety of Andrews and Dr John Reid of the topics were given by younger University of Aberdeen. Professor astronomers. These were: Horne’s most interesting talk, The Observations of Rotating Sun- Search for Extra-Solar Planets, spots by Daniel Brown (St gave us an update on the recent Andrews Solar group), and important topic of the Oscillations in Solar Coronal Loop existence of planets in orbit by Ineke De Moortel (St Andrews around stars (“suns”) other than Solar group), our own. Flux Cancellation in Prominence Since they were first discovered Formation by Paul Wood (St some eight years ago, about a Andrews Solar group), hundred such planets have been discovered and Professor Horne Starspots on a Contact Binary Star explained the methods used to by John Barnes (St Andrews find them, and how the observa- Astronomy group), tional information available on

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PLANET Microlensing Probes of awarding of the Cormack Under- Stellar Atmospheres by Martin graduate Prize (this year shared) to Dominik (St Andrews Astronomy Nina Hatch (University of Edin- group), burgh) and to Jennifer Toher The Structure of Circumstellar (University of Glasgow) and the Disks around Brown Dwarfs by Cormack Postgraduate Prize to Christina Walker (St Andrews Susan Scott (University of Edin- astronomy group), burgh). All three prize winners presented posters describing their The Quiescence of Dwarf Novae by work at the meeting. Finally, the Mike Truss (St Andrews Astrono- Cormack Vacation Prizes for my group), vacation work this summer were Luminous Quasers and their awarded to: Hosts: Accretion at the Limit by Nicola Armstrong (University of St Dave Floyd (IFA Edinburgh), Andrews), The AGN content of MS1054 by Nicola Bate (University of Edin- Olivia Johnson (IFA Edinburgh), burgh), Chaotic Dynamics of Particles Gavin Nicholson (University of Accelerated by Collisionless Glasgow), Reconnection in Solar Flares by Iain Hannah (Glasgow). Vimal Simha (University of Glas- gow), Sixteen other attendees presented posters at the meeting. Isla Simpson (University of St Andrews), Professor Graham Hall presented the Cormack awards at the Fiona Speirits (University of meeting. This involved the Glasgow).

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Conference The Value of the Post-Mortem Examination 10 April 2003 All interest in disease and death is only another expression of interest in life. Thomas Mann, German novelist.

The post-mortem examination is, in many cases, the only means of determining why a death occurred. It can also increase understanding and knowledge about human disease that can be used to develop better treatments and strategies for reducing or preventing illness in the future. Despite this important role, the number of post-mortems being carried out in the UK is falling and scientific research is suffering. The reason for this is the concern arising from cases where organs were removed from individuals, mostly children, without the knowledge or permission of their relatives. Confidence in the system has been badly shaken, with the result that many relatives are now refusing to give their permission for post- mortem examinations to be conducted. It was against this background that the Royal Society of Edinburgh decided to organise a one-day conference to examine the issues surrounding post- mortem examinations and to try to identify how public confidence can be restored. This report summarises the main presentations and the conclusions of the conference.

The Purpose of the Post- to indicate the incidence of new Mortem Examination diseases, including variant CJD. The first session dealt with the Around 30% of death certificates importance of post-mortems (do issued in England and Wales are we accept this “abbreviation”) in either wrong or incomplete and diagnosis, research and in matters post-mortems perform an of justice and public health. important role in medical audit in Professor Sebastian Lucas of the “keeping our colleagues on our Department of Histopathology at toes”, as Professor Lucas put it. Guy’s, King’s and St Thomas They can help to demonstrate the School of Medicine in London avoidable factors in a death and examined the potential for using post-mortem results are used for the diagnostic information teaching purposes in hospitals to obtained from post-mortems in a highlight problems that may have positive manner, such as helping contributed to hospital-related

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deaths. In this way they help to process. “But they do not want drive up clinical standards. any mess and fuss and that may In the past, the conduct of post- be difficult to reconcile.” mortems had been largely left to Professor Robert Hume of the pathologists and coroners, with Tayside Institute of Child Health at little external surveillance. There the University of Dundee has seen had also been a lack of quality work on vital research projects standards and of appropriate come to an almost complete stop accountability. Now there is because of the difficulty in getting increasing concern about what parental consent for the public, the Government and post-mortems in children. other professions want from post- Although information can be mortems. However, the blame obtained from cell cultures and directed at pathologists as a result animal studies, it is essential that of the organ-retention problems, tests take place on appropriate and in cases of people wrongly human tissue before any conclu- convicted because of inaccurate sions can be reached. That tissue evidence, was not justified. is only available from post- Pathologists have been forced to mortems. work in less than ideal circum- Professor Hume’s research is stances because of various factors, aimed towards preventing including insufficient clinical developmental problems in support, an outdated medico- premature, low-birth-weight legal system and without babies. An insufficiency in thyroid standardised and agreed perform- hormone, or immature glucose ance protocols. This is now metabolism in such babies can changing and Professor Lucas was lead to impaired brain develop- confident that the outcome of ment. The Tayside Institute is these changes would be positive. involved in a European-wide study Nonetheless, he acknowledged to try to understand more about that many people are upset at the these problems but its involve- very idea of a post-mortem being ment has been affected by the conducted on a loved one, and so reduction in post-mortems. He pathologists are now investigat- had hoped to be able to get 100 ing the potential of samples from Scotland to contrib- minimally-invasive techniques to ute to the study but has obtained reduce the disturbance to the only eight. “We have come to a body. He concluded his presenta- point in time where human infant tion by noting that the public research based on post-mortem wants quality and the right tissue has almost halted,” said answers from the post-mortem Professor Hume.

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He used to be able to get permis- provide a source of information sion from 95% of parents to carry that cannot be obtained in other out a post-mortem but that has ways. The bereaved have a right to dropped to 10%. Professor Hume be informed and legal officials attends all the post-mortems he and pathologists have to establish organises and reassures parents an honest and transparent that everything will be done in the partnership with the bereaved to correct manner and nothing will allow this to continue. be retained without their permis- Legal and Ethical aspects of sion. He said that even these Post-Mortem Examination assurances have not managed to convince parents. This is a real The legal position was outlined by public confidence issue. Sheila McLean, Professor of Law and Ethics in Medicine at the Professor Anthony Busuttil of the University of Glasgow, who University of Edinburgh’s Depart- chaired the Independent Review ment of Forensic Medicine Group on the Retention of attributed a series of positive Organs at Post-Mortem in health benefits to information Scotland. Professor McLean said obtained from post-mortems. that Scotland did not have These include seat belts in cars, a problems on the same scale of better understanding of cot those at Bristol or Alder Hey and, death, knowledge about the risk consequently, the inquiry had a of side-effects from commonly better atmosphere in which to prescribed drugs and identifica- work. She acknowledged the tion of fatal genetic diseases that enormous contribution made pose a risk to other family mem- both by families and the medical bers. He said the public profession to the work of the perception of post-mortem is inquiry. positive; the problem lies in communication. The Review Group concluded that although post-mortem examina- People differ in what they want to tions have been conducted under know about how their child or the authorisation of the Anatomy relative died and information had Act and the Human Tissue Act, the to be tailored to their individiual law as it stands does not take requirements. The public have to account of the diagnostic purpose be reassured that the investiga- of the post-mortem and needs to tion will be done with dignity with be changed. The review team’s a due duty of care and of confi- work found that hospital post- dentiality in terms of the findings. mortems were accompanied by a Post-mortems are acceptable to signed consent form, but it was the public in the right context and

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not clear what information had Parliament. Everyone would like a been given to the relatives to gain UK solution but, in the long run, their consent. One of the principal our report is better and we should changes recommended by the go it alone if we have to,” she review team is a move away from added. the concept of consent to one of The distinguished philosopher authorisation of a post-mortem. Baroness Warnock emphasised Parents can give consent only to that post-mortems can be of what is in the best interests of enormous value for teaching and their child. A post-mortem may be medical research. There is a moral in the interests of others but it duty to use these as a tool for the cannot be said to be in the advancement of science and interests of the dead child. understanding for the common Professor McLean believed the good of all citizens. “It would be move to authorisation would be my hope that we should be much more significant than many moving towards a position where people currently realised. The post-mortem examination and the review group has drafted an retention of organs are the norm information leaflet on post- and only an opt-out clause would mortems and an authorisation be required. We are a very long form to provide people with the way from that at the present information they need to make time.” the right decision for them. The changes include giving adults and There are perfectly rational mature children the right to objections to post-mortem authorise a post-mortem in examination which have been advance of their death if they prompted by the problems at choose to. Alder Hey and Bristol, but, at the same time, there are “irrational The Review Group also recom- and sometimes hysterical” mends that consideration should reactions which make genuinely be given to creating research informed consent difficult to ethics committees on a statutory obtain. Refusal to accept death basis with clear powers to monitor has become a common cultural the conduct of research projects. phenomenon, coupled with an Professor McLean said that it increasing sentimentality about would be best if the law could be death which she described as the amended on a UK basis but Princess Diana phenomenon. Scotland has the right to intro- duce its own legislation if it so People have to be persuaded that chooses. “This could be a very giving permission for post- interesting test of the Scottish mortem would be an

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enhancement and not a diminu- were seen as trying to cover up tion of the dead. In death they what had happened. would be doing good to others. The Human Organs Inquiry “If we want this to become Report, published in Northern increasingly possible, we have to Ireland in 2002, highlighted the concern ourselves not just with need for clarity of communication the legal position but with the with relatives as well as training private morality and the moral for staff to ensure appropriate sensibility of the people we are support to relatives. Mrs Jaffa trying to communicate with. In said: “If we are to restore confi- this way sentimentality may be dence in hospital clinicians and in turned into something more post-mortems we need to treat positive.” the relatives on an equal footing. The distress experienced by The use of non-clinical language relatives of children whose organs is essential. Medical terminology had been removed and retained creates a barrier and causes without permission was described suspicion. Above all, we need to by Mrs Pip Jaffa, who chairs the act openly and transparently – say Relatives’ Reference Group in what you know, tell it like it is.” Northern Ireland. It was estab- The Future lished in 2001 to help families get information about their children’s NHS Quality Improvement Scot- post-mortems. She said the core land has published a set of of the problem was that relatives standards on post-mortem had little or no idea of what was practice and organ-retention in involved in a post-mortem and felt Scotland. The organisation’s chief guilty when they became aware of executive, Dr David Steel, hoped the extent of what they had the process of monitoring the consented to. performance of hospitals in Scotland against the standards These problems were compound- would address many of the ed by the difficulties experienced problems raised by previous in their subsequent search for speakers. information. Mrs Jaffa said relatives were given misleading, These standards had been drawn incomplete and contradictory up by a group which included information. Medical terminology representatives of parents and the used to explain what happened public. They cover a number of gave offence and indicated a lack areas including pathology of sensitivity. Relatives lost practice, authorisation and confidence in hospitals, which information, storage and disposal, record-keeping and education.

25 2002-2003

They reflect a number of common like a victim as a result of the way themes such as communication his profession had been pilloried and openness, respect for the over the organ-retention prob- individual, use of clear language lems. He questioned the need to and accuracy of information. make the post-mortem process The aims of the standards are to subject to an Act of Parliament ensure consultation, build and bound by statutory penalties. confidence and improve knowl- This, he feared, would affect edge and awareness of the future recruitment to the profes- importance of post-mortems. sion and would impact adversely “One of the very strong messages on the practice of laboratory has been the failure of the health medicine and the wellbeing of service to consult, inform and patients. Baroness Warnock obtain consent.” suggested that the problem is one of trust which would not be An open discussion then followed solved by legislation. The public which sought to examine the best does not trust the establishment way forward. Professor Lucas to set up systems to protect them. expressed the view that progress “What would reassure the public would be difficult until the would be individual day by day organ-retention issue was closed communication between patients and added that the legal profes- and doctors.“ Dr Aileen Keel, sion had a vested interest in deputy chief medical officer at the ensuring it was not resolved. Mrs Scottish Executive pointed out Hazel Brooke, chief executive of that the review of legislation is the Scottish Cot Death Trust and a not aimed at punishing patholo- member of the conference gists but in creating the correct organising committee, stressed legal framework for the authorisa- that restoring public confidence in tion of post-mortems. The work post-mortems also had to include being carried out by NHS Quality those ordered by procurators Improvement Scotland is designed fiscal or coroners, which make up to improve clinical practice. the majority. In these cases, families have no rights to refuse Clear evidence was presented at because criminality has to be ruled the conference of changes taking out. These parents should be place in response to the problems treated with the same respect and of recent years. Over time these gentleness as other parents. should help to restore public confidence in the post-mortem Professor David Graham, a process. However there is a much neuropathologist who chaired the more immediate issue that needs organising committee, said he felt to be addressed, namely the

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urgent requirement to increase organs for transplantation to help the number of post-mortems to others. As Baroness Warnock said, help in vital research. A number of something positive could come speakers suggested that this may out of the problems of recent be best achieved through a public years if post-mortem was present- education or publicity campaign. ed as an act of altruism that People in the UK are used to the honoured rather than damaged idea of giving blood and donating the dead.

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Joint Conference The Royal Society of Edinburgh and The Royal Scandinavian Academies Human Rights: Roles and Responsibilities Friday 25 - Saturday 26 April 2003 Abstracts

Human Rights and Their Limits. · “human rights” as rights that Judge David A O Edward CMG, belong to every human being QC, FRSE. Judge, EC Court of independent of cultural, social, Justice economic or political circum- stances, and Definition and Classification of Human Rights · other “fundamental rights” The European Charter of Rights whose recognition depends on includes: the circumstances of a particular state or society? - rights enumerated in the European Convention on If so, what should be the criteria Human Rights, for recognising a right as “funda- mental”? - social and economic rights recognised by the EC treaties The Limits of Human Rights and enjoyed by Existing Human Rights Conven- § nationals of Member States, tions recognise that some rights are absolute (e.g. the right not to § spouses of nationals and be tortured), while others (e.g. other family members, freedom of expression) may be § third country nationals limited (e.g. for reasons of public resident in Member States, safety). § refugees and stateless What should be the criteria for persons, limiting human rights? Who should determine whether those - political rights enjoyed by criteria have been met? citizens of the Member States. Do human rights entail responsi- How should we distinguish bilities? For example, to what between these different kinds of extent, if at all, does a terrorist rights? forfeit protection of his/her Which of them should be recog- human rights? nised as “human” rights? Should we distinguish between:

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To what extent should states be as a whole? Does an individual entitled to invoke moral scruples have a “right” to expensive as a reason for refusing to treatment even if that involves recognise rights recognised by depriving others of treatment? To other states (e.g. the right to what extent should the provider abortion)? of treatment be entitled to refuse it for reasons of personal or moral Protection and Enforcement of conviction? Human Rights How should human rights be Does the enforcement of rights by protected and enforced? Does it judicial process concentrate make sense to talk about human excessively on the rights of the “rights” unless they are enforcea- individual? How should a judge ble? be informed of relevant social, economic or other practical Is it essential that human rights be considerations? enforceable in a court of law? Are other methods of monitoring and Are There Universal Human enforcement (e.g. human rights Rights? Professor Dagfinn committees) more effective? Føllesdal, Chair of The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Is there a legal or moral responsi- Human Rights Committee; Former bility on states to ensure respect President of The Norwegian of human rights by other states? Academy of Science and Letters If so, to what extent must they take account of differing cultural Are there universal human rights, and other traditions? rights that every human being has? If so, what are they? Or are Balancing Rights and Resources relativists right that there are no Some social and economic rights universal human rights, that our involve the expenditure of limited judgments concerning human financial and other resources – rights are merely subjective e.g. the right to social security, the opinions? Does reason play any right to health protection or the role in deciding such issues, and if right to legal aid. The provision of so, what role does it play? medical care depends, not only on Especially here in Scotland, the adequate finance, but also on the home of David Hume and so many availability of trained medical and other important moral philoso- nursing practitioners. phers, these are appropriate questions to ask. How should the balance be struck between the rights of the individ- Do some people have more ual and the rational allocation of extensive rights than others? Do, resources for the benefit of society for example, citizens of a country

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have rights that others, for contribution is to get beyond that example asylum seekers, do not debate and to show how the have? What about economic quest for universality is not rights, are they universal? In opposed to the respect for particular, is freedom of expres- cultural diversity, but also that sion an absolute human right? Or ‘culture’ cannot trump human is it situation-dependent? rights. Human Rights: Between The Tension Between Human Universality and Diversity. Rights and Responsibilities. Professor Kirsten Hastrup, Profes- Professor Emeritus Stig Ström- sor of Social Anthropology, holm, Former Vice-Chancellor of University of Copenhagen; Former Uppsala University; Former Director of Research of The Danish President of the Royal Swedish Centre for Human Rights. Academy of Letters, History and For half a century the world has Antiquities, and of The Academia lived with the Universal Declara- Europaea, London. tion of Human Rights, proclaimed Starting with the UN Declaration as a ‘common standard of on Human Rights of 1948, the achievement for all peoples and author gives a brief outline of the all nations’. Yet the achievement historic development of the of a common standard seems far concept of human rights, which away in actual practice, even has deep roots in Occidental though ever since 1948 a number political and legal thinking but of conventions, treaties, charters which had its heyday in the 18th and declarations have been issued century and which found its in the attempt to redress this consecration in the American situation. A complicating factor is Declaration of 1776 and the the professed respect for cultural French Déclaration des droits de diversity, as expressed globally in l´homme et du citoyen from 1789. for instance the Vienna Declara- However, the habit of describing tion of 1993 and with a more the contents of a vast body of narrow focus in the Declaration legal rules in the form of rights on the Rights of Minorities of (with or without formulating 1992. corresponding duties) was not In general, the international exclusively based on ideology; it human rights aspirations have was also a technique used by legal evolved within an area of tension writers and legislators in order to between universal claims and local give an orderly structure to that reservations often resulting in a body. Even in periods in which the futile debate between universal- recognition and affirmation of ism and relativism. The aim of this human rights has found particu-

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larly strong support, criticism has individual against the community, been directed both against the as distinct from “positive” rights, very concept of rights, which has (e.g. a right to work, to education, been described as intellectually to an unpolluted environment, unacceptable - as no more than etc.) was attacked. In its turn, this the expression of a subjective “inflation of rights” has been evaluation, as “nonsense” severely criticised from various (Bentham) or as “metaphysical” quarters. Another line of attack (the Scandinavian 20th century has been criticism of the absence, “realists”) and against the Liberal in the individualistic Liberal view of the relationship individual concept of human rights, of any v. community, which was held to reference to such counterbalanc- overlook the values of solidarity ing principles as solidarity, and responsibility (Burke, the responsibility and obligations. German “Historic School”). These objections have been It seems fair to state, although it voiced, in particular, by spokes- is a great simplification, that such men of the Third World and of objections were swept away religious communities outside the under the influence of the Christian tradition and also found collective experience of the expression, e.g. in international horrors of the Second World War: charters and national constitu- a strong need was felt to express tions. The present discussion is commitment to a number of characterised by the meeting of all fundamental values in a solemn these ideas and tends to coincide, form and in a way which was as grosso modo, with the interna- legally binding as politically tional line of debate North-South, possible. In the historic situation and in the various national in which the General Assembly of versions of what may be sweep- the new World Organization ingly called the undertook this work, the only Conservative-Liberal-Socialist available sources of inspiration discourse. were the liberal and individualistic The Charter on Human Rights – “classical” declarations. In the A Philosophical Analysis with following fifty years, in particular Special Regard to the Question in the 1960´s and 1970´s, there of Rationalism versus Relativ- was an intense development of ism. Professor David Favrholdt, claims, many of which found Professor of Philosophy, University expression in new “human of Odense. rights”. In particular, the prevail- In discussing the status of the ing Liberal principle of Charter on Human Rights we recognising only “negative” inevitably run into a number of rights, i.e. such as protect the

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philosophical problems. First of would be far too ambitious - but I all, one may ask what should be intend to clarify what the condi- understood by some of the key tions are in order to establish a concepts such as ‘freedom’, justification or at least discuss this ‘equality’, and ‘democracy’; - the problem. Through a clarification literature about these items is very of these conditions we may large. Next one may ask just how counter many of the objections the Charter on Human Rights which have been forwarded should be enforced. In some of against the Charter. the many nations that have signed In this connection I go against the and accepted it, it is not observed general cultural relativism to be in its entirety. The Charter is in found in the Charter and attempt conflict with a great amount of to achieve a higher level of standards and norms in many rationality in the discussion of communities and it will take some cultural differences. I find it wrong generations before things are to list religion and political smoothened. In my opinion we opinion together with “race, should take these difficulties into colour, sex, language” etc. in the account and face the fact that we Charter’s article 2. Most religious are dealing with a project which it views are tied up with a practice of will take very long time to fulfil. some sort and often with a One should not try to speed up practice going against other things by allowing exceptions articles in the Charter. The same such as positive separate rights for applies to political opinions. women over an indefinite period. We must be patient and further- Asylum Seekers and Immigra- more we must be prepared to tion. The Right Hon Lord Hope of revise the Charter over and over Craighead PC FRSE, Lord of again for many years to come. Appeal in Ordinary; Chancellor, University of Strathclyde. Last but not least, the Charter on Human Rights is in need of some Three concepts are involved in this sort of justification. It is intro- title: (1) asylum, where there is a duced as an agreement and treaty obligation to permit entry countries that are members of the and human rights protection is United Nations may sign or not obligatory; (2) immigration, which sign, but it presents itself as the is a voluntary process but may also right or true political philosophy engage human rights; and (3) and the correct ethical stance. subsidiary protection, where a person does not qualify for It is this last problem I intend to refugee status but is nevertheless deal with. I am not aiming at a in need of international protec- justification of the Charter - which tion and human rights protection.

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These concepts all focus on the to those who are genuinely in rights of the individual. But it is need of it. As so often where hard to imagine a subject where human rights are in issue, there is the rights of the individual are a balance to be struck. Are we more likely to come into conflict striking the balance in the right with the collective rights of society place? in the country where protection is The Rights of Children. Professor sought. To set the scene for its Kenneth McK. Norrie FRSE, examination an outline will be Professor of Law, University of provided of the various interna- Strathclyde, Glasgow. tional instruments which provide the background to the difficult Children are as entitled to be situation that confronts us and shown respect for their human which is increasingly being rights as adults, but there are dominated by politics. To com- some rights that are especially plete the background mention important for children such as the will also be made of develop- right to education, to a name and ments within the EU which are identity, to family life, and to aimed at establishing a common protection. This is because policy on asylum and immigration children are weak and vulnerable in the Member States. and so susceptible to harm, inexperienced and so susceptible At the heart of the problem lie the to exploitation, lack political opportunities for abuse of the power and so susceptible to social asylum system. An increase in the and political exclusion. number of asylum seekers is to be expected in a troubled world, and The difficulty with children’s rights the right to seek asylum is a is not so much identifying and fundamental right. The imposi- justifying, but applying them. tion of penalties on asylum When children’s rights clash with seekers is prohibited, and all adults it is adults’ right that those who seek asylum are invariably win; when adults seek entitled to the protection of the to enforce children’s rights they European Convention on Human are doing so to further their own Rights even if their claim fails. But interests. This can be seen in all there is a social and financial cost the rights of children mentioned attached to these benefits, and above. there is a widespread belief that Education law is all about parents’ the fact they are on offer encour- choices, as is the education ages illegal immigrants. Measures provisions in the European to combat abuse risk undermining Convention on Human Rights. the protection that must be given Education of children is important

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not because children have a right individual function of religious to be educated but because this is tradition as part of one’s cognitive a means by which parents mould universe, as a palliative, and as and influence and control their entertainment, is less dependent own children. Disputes over a than previously on religious child’s name and identity are in authorities, and thus less bound fact disputes between adults, by theological verbalised defini- fighting over their own interests, tions; an actual privatisation of and the fact that they have to religion. argue from the child’s perspective But still, there are profane hides but does not subvert this functions of religious affiliation: point. The right to family life, as as a tribal, ethnic, or national perceived by the European Court marker, as a network for social of Human Rights is a right that and economical security, as permits parents to bring their legitimisation of power, and children up the way they think fit expression of opposition. There is without state interference. Even too the function of religious rules the right of protection is not as a part of the legal system of a unqualified and it interferes with state, especially in the field of other rights of children. personal law. This has as a Religious Affiliation as a Prob- consequence, for instance, that lem for Human Rights. Professor several states (in the Muslim world Jan Hjärpe, Professor of Islamolo- in particular) have made reserva- gy, Lund University; Member of tions as to the UN Declaration of The Royal Swedish Academy of Human Rights, Articles 16 and 18, Letters, History and Antiquities. and there are difficulties with the A characteristic of modernity is a Articles 2, 5 and 19, as well as differentiation of belongings, with some of the later conven- roles, and functions of the tions. individual. Family, clan, neighbour- The religious traditions, however, hood, professional belonging and can be used to legitimise changes. religious affiliation are not as We can see today a considerable interconnected as was the case in number of ideologists, reinter- the pre-modern society. Religious preting the authoritative religious affiliation thus tends to be distinct sources, declaring that the from the individual’s other traditional interpretations are identities. By new communication mistaken. We can perhaps techniques the group belonging connect this common trend, in is not bound to a local neighbour- different religions, with a kind of hood; a religious community is “generative theology” (as a not necessarily a local one. The parallel to Noam Chomsky’s idea

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of “generative grammer”). A within healthcare or to resolve number of international confer- tensions when individual or ences of “World Religions” have collective interests collide. Atten- argued for a search of a common tion to human rights in healthcare basis for Human Rights in the in fact seems to postulate in- religions (for instance the princi- creased problems for those who ple of reciprocity). But we can see deliver and receive healthcare; in these attempts, perhaps first of who receives or should receive all, that the religious authorities treatment?; what should be are struggling not to lose their funded by a state-run service?; relevance in the ongoing global what challenges are posed by processes including the actual medical advance, for example in privatisation of religion. assisted reproduction and Ethics in Medicine – Overview. genetics?; to what extent can Professor Sheila A M McLean human rights be defined in the FRSE, Director, Institute of Law and healthcare context, and whose Ethics in Medicine, University of human rights should predomi- Glasgow. nate? These are but a few of the issues confronting participants in The significance of human rights healthcare in the developed discourse in medicine became world. Many more problems arise acutely clear in the aftermath of if we widen our horizons to the the Nuremberg Trials, which rest of the world which is not exposed – amongst other atroci- immune from the pressures ties – the unethical practices of driving healthcare delivery in the some Nazi doctors. Medicine had rich world, such as, for example, previously relied on internal the power of multi-national codes, such as the Hippocratic companies. Oath, for its guidance on ‘ethical’ matters, but was for the first time In all, it must be asked whether to become subject to external there is a special need to focus on ethical criteria which emphasised human rights in medicine, given the rights of patients rather than the power, which it already has the interests of doctors. This shift over individuals and communities. in emphasis moved medicine away Human Genetic Databases and from the Hippocratic tradition and Liberty. Mr Ragnar Aðalsteins- into the mainstream human rights son, Advocate to the Supreme discourse, which dominated the Court, Iceland. 20th century. The Icelandic Health Sector However, mere familiarity with the Database Act of 1998 authorises language of human rights is the exclusive licensee under the inadequate either to identify them Act to establish three different

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databases and interconnect these access to the genetic data of a under certain conditions. These population or should the profit contain a) health records of the motive be the sole deciding population: b) genealogical data influence? That is, should the and c) genetic data. Participation interest of the shareholders of the in the genetic database is based companies prevail over the on consent, but as it difficult to interest of underprivileged groups define for what purposes the most in need of new methods or genetic data is collected the medicine to alleviate their situa- consent can hardly be said to be tion due to incurable diseases? Or informed. As to health records is the invisible hand of the market database living patients have the the only competent decision- opportunity to opt out. The maker? Finally will the legislation and how it was proliferation of databases con- presented by the Government to taining sensitive personal data the Althingi and the general such as human genetic data limit public raises various questions our personal liberty? about democratic parliamentary Human Rights from an Interna- procedures, community consulta- tional and Finnish Point of View. tion, autonomy, privacy, Professor Tore Modeen, The professional confidence, control Finnish Academy of Science and of health data in hospitals, Letters; Former Professor of Law, business relationships between University of Helsinki. medical doctors and biotechnolo- gy corporations. The question Today there are plenty of interna- must be asked in whose interest tional conventions on human such sensitive data is handed over rights. Most states have joined to for profit corporations and them. One may ask whether the whether it is within the authority existence of these conventions has of the legislature to authorise substantially improved the politically appointed boards of governments’ observation of health institutes to transfer such these rights? The answer is that data without the direct informed their effect in many cases has consent of the patient and been doubtful. The states take a without the relevant physicians very different attitude towards having a say. Does experience their obligations under such teach us to entrust private treaties. We must also be aware companies with sensitive personal of the ambiguity of their provi- data? Should the Government be sions. It is always necessary that involved in the research policy the domestic legislation of the making of the biotechnology states, bound by the conventions, companies that have been given

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be in harmony with those conven- was the case even during the war tions. and the difficult after war period, Finland is a part of Scandinavia although some restrictions then with its old traditions upholding had to be made. the rule of law and respecting When Finland concluded its peace their inhabitants’ liberties. After treaty in 1947 it became also its liberation from Russian rule internationally committed to Finland became a constitutional respect human rights. The more republic. The inhabitants (also the detailed provisions of the interna- women) have enjoyed democratic tional conventions Finland later rights since 1907. Provisions joined as a member of the United concerning the citizens’ funda- Nations and of the Council of mental rights and liberties were Europe resulted in some minor included in the independent changes of the Constitution Act Finland’s first Constitution Act of and other legislation but have 1919. These provisions were never caused any problems. Some quite well respected by the recent cases of the European authorities and the courts of law Court of Human Rights concern- under the supervision of the ing Finland show Finland’s good Chancellor of Justice and the standards in this respect. Parliamentary Ombudsman. This

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Conference Scotland’s Drug Problem Tuesday 27 May 2003

Modern society is engaged in leaves too many drug users what is often seen as being a war without help or support, creates against illegal drugs. It is a war havoc in our communities, drains that has created many casualties. resources and powers a crime Drugs can destroy the lives of wave that profits only the crimi- those who take them, they nals who have caused it. There are devastate communities where powerful arguments in favour of drug taking is rife, they create a considering some alternatives. But wave of crime across the country what alternatives? There appears and are a drain on public services to be no relationship between and on the public purse. policy interventions and preva- It is also a war that some believe lence. There is a clear need for can never be won. People who more evaluation to gather firm take this view believe that change evidence about what works. is essential to help minimise the What should be done in the misery caused by drug taking. But meantime? Chief Constable what sort of change is needed? Richard Brunstrom believes Britain Does the answer lie in greater may be ready to have a mature liberalisation of illegal drugs? debate on what it should do What evidence exists of effective about drugs. Professor Neil interventions? What obstacles lie McKeganey, in his summing up of in the path of progress? the day’s proceedings, echoed The Royal Society of Edinburgh that view. He also said there needs brought together a group of to be a greater willingness to experts from the UK and overseas experiment. The importance of to examine how best to respond treatment was emphasised to the drug problem and to throughout the conference, but identify the best way forward. Professor McKeganey said that has to mean more than metha- The conference expressed clear done. It should include a trial in dissatisfaction with and frustra- Scotland of heroin prescription tion at the current position, which and other initiatives such as the has left society paying a heavy establishment of safe injecting price for its decision to declare rooms. He said recovery from drug certain substances to be illegal. It addiction is not impossible.

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“There is a way out of drug than the one we have at the addiction. We must do all we can moment. The best choice for the to help people find that way out.” future may be greater regulation. That may also be true for society We need our politicians to be at large. The conference was clear brave enough to examine the that there must be a better way options. That can start with an open and honest debate.

The Society has published a full report of the Conference (ISBN 0 902 198 73 4), which is available from the Society or on the RSE website.

Topics covered by the Conference are shown below.

The Scottish Scene Mr Hugh Henry MSP, Deputy Minister for Justice, Scottish Executive Professor Neil McKeganey, Director, Centre for Drug Misuse Research, Glasgow A Choice of Evils: Policy Options in the Illicit Drug Market Professor Alan Maynard, University of York The Dutch Experiment Mr Robert Keizer, Head of Addiction Policy Division, Dutch Ministry of Health and Welfare. An International Perspective on Drugs Policy Dr Peter Reuter, Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Universi- ty of Maryland USA The Role of the Police Mr Richard Brunstrom, Chief Constable, North Wales Police The European Scene Mr Richard Hartnoll, European Drug Consultant Demonising Drugs – The Attitude of the Media Dr Magnus Linklater FRSE

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Conference (In Association with the British Academy) England and Scotland in Union from 1603: Anglo-Scottish Relations - Past, Present and Future 17-18 September 2003 at the British Academy, London

The meeting in London in Sep- passionate engagement on the tember concentrated on the first first day to which the rooms of the three centuries after 1603, British Academy are not altogeth- following up on Dr Jenny Wor- er accustomed. After dinner the mald’s very successful lecture in speakers and commentators, as March on the anniversary of guests of the President, were Queen Elizabeth’s death, the event encouraged to continue the which ensured the Union of the exchange, ultimately perhaps Crowns of Scotland and England generating more light than heat. in the person of James VI and I. The second day began with a look Keith Brown of St Andrews and at the law of the sea in the two John Morrill of Cambridge set us countries, from John Ford of off with stimulating lectures Cambridge, and an investigation emphasising the sense of expecta- into how Scots were received in tion with which the Union began, eighteenth-century England by with more foreboding on the Paul Langford of Oxford – not English side than the Scottish: as well. Bob Harris of Dundee the nations slid into Civil War, emphasised the close link be- Cromwell emerged as final victor tween the radicals of Scotland and and imposed an incorporating England in the French Revolution- union by force, but it could not ary period (a sense of cooperative last. Clare Jackson of Cambridge endeavour for democracy rather and Chris Whatley of Dundee than of nationalism). Colin Kidd followed with the darker side of of Glasgow discussed how the the seventeenth century, the first literati of the Enlightenment describing the use of judicial regarded Union: fascinatingly, torture in Scotland and the they looked upon the Union of second the failure of the Union of Crowns as a disaster for liberty, the Crowns to deliver economic and Cromwell’s failed experiment benefits in the long run, due to as a step in the right direction. the inherent contradictions and The afternoon saw Rosemary instability in the constitutional Ashton of London explore the arrangement. Debate and Carlyles at home in Cheyne Walk comment reached a pitch of and found them regarded as

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exceedingly Scottish as well as sustainable. It eventually became totally British, and Tom Devine of the framework in which the elite, Aberdeen gave an account of in the Empire and at home, could how, after 1707, the British find success, and in which the Empire first became the stamping- economy more widely was able at ground of ambitious Scots. Iain last to flourish. The Victorian Hutchison of Stirling explained period saw the two sides rubbing the nature and limitations of along well enough, the Scots Victorian Britishness at the proud to be Imperial and the political level. English content to be tourists, but We were left with a rich meal to there was never an amalgamation, digest. Anglo-Scottish relations never an Incorporating Union in have ridden many bumps. The the sense of the larger swallowing Union of Crowns began with the up the less as Henry VII of England great hopes of the king in 1603, once predicted. The Union followed a hundred hears later by worked, at least up to 1900, to the total despair of the Scottish the mutual satisfaction of most, people, faced with becoming an but the question of Anglo- economic basket-case and a Scottish relations was always political laughing stock. The much more important to the Scots Union of the Parliaments began than to the English. It still is, but with unpopularity on all sides, but that takes us on to the next as a political arrangement it was seminar in November.

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CRF International Conference Supported by the Food Standards Agency Infection and the Threat to the Food Chain Wednesday 24-Friday 26 September 2003

The Conference opened with (using facts to make decisions); Lessons Learned and two constantly revisiting decisions speakers who considered foot and (because they are the new facts), mouth disease, in particular the and by using the media. It was 2001 outbreak. Professor Sir crucial in his words to “believe Brian Follett (University of Oxford) that any disease can be controlled chaired the Royal Society’s inquiry at a price because it has no soul for the Government and he and no mind”. discussed its primary recommen- Two classic Scottish outbreaks dation, that mass vaccination were covered by Professor T H should be employed in future as a Pennington (University of Aber- control measure. He said that this deen) (the 1996 Central Scotland would be neither simple or E.coli O157 outbreak, 500 cases straightforward. Vaccine supply with 17 deaths) and Dr David and manufacture was complex Smith (University of Aberdeen) and uncertain. Rapid outbreak (the 1964 Aberdeen typhoid control might still need slaughter, outbreak). The Aberdeen out- dependent on circumstances. break hospitalised over 500 And there were uncertainties people and was caused by corned about the acceptability of meat beef contaminated by unchlorin- and milk from vaccinated animals. ated cooling water during Brigadier Alex Birtwistle consid- manufacture in Argentina. The ered crisis management and infection spread to other meats at disease control. When drafted in a supermarket through imple- to Cumbria on 22 March he was ments, surfaces and hands. The faced with the disposal of Ministry of Health and MAFF were 100,000 carcases, 100,000 aware that suspect meat was in animals awaiting slaughter, and circulation. Dr Smith argued that 750,000 likely to follow. He the ineffectiveness of the action described how an order of on canning hygiene before 1964, magnitude improvement in the and on general hygiene after interval between diagnosis and 1964 stemmed from a civil service destruction was achieved by culture which allowed economic setting up the right management and political factors to take structures at all levels, by identify- priority over health risks. Profes- ing, owning, and managing risks

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sor Pennington pointed out that vector research. The session the Aberdeen failings (most cases closed with a presentation on arose from cross-contamination) “The Threat of a Biological were replicated in Wishaw in Terrorist Attack on the Food 1996. Lessons had not been Supply : The CDC Perspective” by learned – or if they had, remem- Dr Jeremy Sobel (CDC Atlanta). bered. E.coli O157 and other Deliberate contamination of food VTEC remained a threat – the with biological agents has incidence of infection in Scotland happened already in the USA. The while low in absolute terms, was start of an outbreak caused this still the highest in the world. The way could either be slow and “Lessons Learned” sessions initially unremarkable, or explo- concluded with a vigorous sive. Preparedness requires the discussion led by Professor augmentation of the traditional Michael Lean (University of public health infrastructure to Glasgow) on possible relation- enhance disease surveillance, ships between nutrition and accelerate laboratory detection infection in Scotland. No clear capacity, and rapidly investigate links emerged. and control outbreaks, as well as developing capacity for respond- New Threats and Old Ones opened with an account by Dr ing to mass-casualty disasters. John Wood (NIBSC, Potters Bar) of Where Are We Now opened recent experiences with new with Campylobacter. Dr John influenza viruses. H5NI (1997 and Cowden (SCIEH, Glasgow) 2003) was highly pathogenic for pointed out that although a chickens and caused human common cause of gastrointestinal fatalities; traditional vaccine disease, its source was almost production methods were found always unknown, despite much wanting but reverse genetics epidemiological and microbiologi- provided a way forward. Clinical cal research. A reliable and evaluations are still in progress. generally available typing scheme Professor Jennifer Mordue Luntz remains elusive, hindering this (University of Aberdeen) discussed work. Dr L J Allison (Western the recent northward extension of General Hospital, Edinburgh) infections with the ruminant virus, considered Verocytotoxin-produc- bluetongue, and its Culicoides ing E.coli, and emphasized that vector C.imicola, together with the although the food-borne route results of taxonomic research was important, so was contact showing the occurrence in the UK with animals and their faeces. of possible vectors related to New serogroups other than O157 C.obsoletus and C.pulicans. She were being detected in Scotland; emphasised the importance of

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O26, O103, O113, O118, O162 The session concluded with a and O19. Professor Tom Hum- lively discussion led by Professor phrey (University of Bristol) Peter Borriello (HPA, Colindale) completed coverage of the who provoked by proposing that currently active triumvirate of in general, lessons were not zoonotic food-borne pathogens learned from history. The impor- by emphasizing the phenotypic tance of a robust public health and genotypic adaptability of infrastructure and regular reviews Salmonella. of policy were emphasized by Professor Peter Smith (London several discussants. School of Hygiene and Tropical Professor Mark Pallen (University Diseases) considered the current of Birmingham) opened the status of the epidemics of BSE and session “Techniques/Ways vCJD. The Food Standards Agency Forward” by illustrating the routes has assessed that the current from genome sequence to control measures in the UK have a consequence. About a dozen cost which is now disproportion- genome sequences for E.coli and ate to their benefit and some Salmonella enteritica have been or relaxation of controls is under are close to completion, with two consideration. Less than 150 for Campylobacter jejuni; much persons, globally, have been more sequencing and analysis will diagnosed with variant Creut- be needed to answer the many zfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), but outstanding questions concerning there are many uncertainties gene function and virulence. about the future course of the Professor Gordon Dougan epidemic because of the long and (Imperial College, London) variable incubation period. Food considered vaccines. Many cases risks of BSE infection should now of food poisoning are never be very low but better control defined in microbiological terms. measures are necessary to guard Thus, market drivers for many against the possibility of iatrogen- potential vaccines designed to ic transmission, through blood protect the human consumer are transfusion or contaminated often not attractive for commercial surgical instruments. These will development. Consequently require sensitive diagnostic tests human vaccines against Salmonel- and improved decontamination la gastroenteritis, Campylobacter methods. Professor James and other food-associated agents Ironside (University of Edinburgh) are not under active development, concluded coverage of this other than as travellers vaccines or subject. He reviewed the control as components for general of routes of transmission of TSEs. diarrhoeal vaccine targeting third

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world populations. Potentially the Scrapie Sheep and Wasted Deer more attractive target is the and Elk.” The session concluded consumed animal although even with a presentation by Nick here some of the commercial Higham, Arts and Media Corre- drivers motivating vaccine devel- spondent of the BBC. He used opment are complicated and familiar stories to illustrate good sometimes disputed if the agent practice and pitfalls, reviewed the (such as E.coli O157) does not progress of the Food Standards cause a serious disease in the Agency towards getting the right animal reservoir we may have to balance between simply respond- be inventive in how we encourage ing to food scares and actively vaccine uptake on the supply promoting good nutrition and farms. Professor Mark Woolhouse hygiene (good progress to date), (University of Edinburgh) gave and emphasized the importance four reasons why a wider under- of improving communication standing and acceptance of between the media, scientists and mathematical modelling was policy makers. important in his presentation Professor Geoff Sim (SAC, Edin- “Computer Models in the Real burgh) moved the emphasis from World”. First, the more those pathogen to host in his presenta- with relevant expertise contribute tion “Selective Breeding”. After a to the model-building process the general review he focused on the better the models will be. Second, National Scrapie Plan. He con- the process of model develop- cluded that while selection for the ment often indicates which crucial desired genotype looks simple at data are missing. Third, the better first sight; there remain important the general understanding of unanswered questions including models the more likely they will be the impact on other traits of used wisely by policy makers. economic importance, the impact Finally, there is no real alternative on genetic variability, and optimal if we aspire to the evidence-based approaches to breeding for design of disease control pro- resistance in populations of grammes; major disease different size and with different outbreaks are singular events and PrP allele frequencies. experience and intuition alone will often be poor guides to decision- Two general presentations came making. Dr Michael Klass (Illinois) at the end of the Conference, illustrated recent applications of “From Control to Commitment” an ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno- by Dr Patrick Wall (Member, sorbent Assay) format to TSE European Food Safety Authority), testing in his presentation and a final overview by Professor “Testing for TSE : Mad Cows, Douglas Georgala (Chair, ACMSF).

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Dr Wall said that food safety is not challenge is to bring the HACCP rocket science but improving the approach to smaller operations, to safety of food can only been catering and fast food outlets, achieved when all the stakehold- and to the farming sector. There ers play their part. The solution is was general agreement with his simple, sequential incremental risk final words “that there is no real reduction along the food chain alternative.” with communication of any Eighty delegates attended the unavoidable residual risk to Conference. Discussions were consumers with clear instructions vigorous and high quality. The on how to manage it. While intention of the organisers pathogen specific control pro- (Professor Hugh Pennington and grams are required and more Sir John Arbuthnott) was to bring research and surveillance needed together a very broad range of to understand the epidemiology experts to categorise old and new of the different agents, simply threats to the food chain and increasing hygiene standards propose new solutions and assess across the food chain will have the the success – or otherwise – of old effect of reducing food-borne ones. They did not disappoint. At disease. the Discussion Supper “Trust and Professor Georgala concluded the the Public Health” Baroness Conference. He said that public Onora O’Neill put these topics health authorities have a key role into philosophical context. In her in maintaining and improving view the current audit culture surveillance systems to monitor distorts accountability and trends, and to ensure that the marginalises professionalism. emergence of a ‘new’ food Medical ethics has swung the pathogen is detected early. Local balance very much towards enforcement needs to be effective individual patients and individual and consistent. Training of all practitioners. There is now a need food handlers needs much greater to anchor public health ethics in attention. Larger food companies political philosophy – issues of have been successful in adopting truth and justice. the full HACCP approach. The

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Wellcome Research Workshop Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 3 October 2003

This one-day workshop titled New sity of Brussels, Brussels) with very developments in the biology of different backgrounds were the Chronic Fatigue Syndrome- invited speakers. emphasis on the anti-viral path- After a welcome, from Dr Gwen way and oxidative stress and how Kennedy, Dr Vance Spence, these impact on the vascular University of Dundee, gave an endothelium took place in the overview on CFS. He highlighted West Park Conference Centre at the difficulties with difficulties the University of Dundee on 3rd surrounding the illness especially October 2003. for those who were coming to the Thirty-five researchers with topic from other scientific areas medical and/ or basic science and specialties outside of CFS. backgrounds from all over The workshop was then divided Scotland participated in the into two main sections, dealing workshop. The main aim was to with vascular and biochemical bring together researchers with aspects of CFS. Professor Belch different areas of expertise to described the vascular abnormali- discuss biomedical developments ties in CFS patients that we have and potential areas for future found in Dundee. The talk investigation in chronic fatigue concluded with the message that syndrome (CFS). We believe that it patients with CFS appear to have was the first of its kind to be held abnormalities in some of their in Scotland. vascular beds, which may indicate Four eminent Professors (Professor areas for therapeutic interven- Jill J.F. Belch, Professor of Vascular tions. However, the fact that these Medicine, University of Dundee; abnormalities are not uniformly Professor Julian Stewart, Depart- observed in all vascular beds in ment of Paediatrics, New York CFS, led to emphasis being given Medical College, New York; to make sure that caution is taken Professor Grahame Hardie, as treating one area may worsen Division of Molecular Physiology, another. Wellcome Trust Bio-Centre, Professor Julian Stewart continued University of Dundee; Professor the vascular theme by describing Kenny De Meirleir, Professor of orthostatic intolerance, which may Physiology and Medicine, Univer- be a substantial problem in CFS

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patients. After this first session (AMPK) system and its role in the floor was open to all partici- cellular energy. He concluded that pants and many discussions took although it was to early to place. Everyone was given a postulate a direct role for AMPK chance to have their say and the dysregulation in the pathogenesis discussion carried on over the of CFS, it might be a contributing lunch break. factor in muscle fatigue. In the afternoon session Professor After a second open discussion De Meileir started by saying his session Professor Belch chaired group of researchers consider CFS the last workshop and asked, to be a disorder of the innate “where do we go from here?” immune system, and would like The main areas on future CFS the disorder to be renamed research, as indicated from the chronic immune innate dysfunc- workshop participants, should be; tion disease (CIID). DeMeirleir’s epidemiological studies, investi- group in Belgium specialise in gating the macrovascular and antiviral pathways. However they microvascular system in CFS; do not believe, that every case of cellular involvement (AMPK CFS has a viral origin. Even though system) and therapeutic interven- a large proportion of patients tions. with CFS report an infectious The conclusion from the work- episode at the onset of their shop was that everyone was illness. No single agent has been enlightened as to the nature of conclusively associated with the the disease and its current disease, although several candi- research. In the workshop discus- dates have been proposed. sion sections the vast range of The talk was concluded that an research areas covered by the understanding of these abnormal- participant’s was beneficial as it ities at the molecular level, and lead to very stimulating discus- sub-stratification of patients is sions. The workshop should be essential for the development and deemed to be a success as future identification of effective thera- collaborations and grant propos- peutic strategies and the Belgium als arising from this workshop are group believe that immunothera- in progress to further CFS re- py, immunomodulation, and search. antibiotic and antiviral therapy will Organised by Dr Gwen Kennedy, have important future roles in Vascular Diseases Research Unit, such strategies in CFS. Division of Medicine & Therapeu- The final speaker was Professor tics, Ninewells Hospital & Medical Grahame Hardie, who discussed School, Dundee. the AMP-activated protein kinase

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Discussion Forum Stem Cell Research: Opportunities and Challenges 15 October 2003

This Discussion Forum was and ethics was presented by a organised by The Royal Society of delegation representing the field Edinburgh (RSE), Scottish Stem from Scotland, Sweden and Spain. Cell Network and Scotland Europa The potential benefits arising as a follow-on event to the from human embryonic stem cell meetings organised by the RSE, research were outlined from a the Royal Swedish Academy of clinical perspective. Additionally, Sciences and the Karolinska it was acknowledged that this Institute during the Scotland in would provide insight into disease Sweden programme in 2002. mechanisms generally and how This event brought European adult stem cells could be used. scientists and other experts in the A broader use of stem cells was field of stem cell research together highlighted; therapeutic applica- with officials of European Institu- tions in the treatment of cancer tions and Member States and their use in drug discovery governments. The Discussion were discussed. Forum was held in the light of current discussions in Europe, Suggestions were made for namely on the proposed “Tissue formulating the regulatory Directive” (‘Medicine: standards of framework for stem cell research quality and safety of human based on a forward-looking tissues and cells’) and on guide- model considering the require- lines for the future EU funding of ments of future stringent testing stem cell research under FP6. In for therapeutic approval. the summer of 2002, the Europe- The need for a constructive an Commission published the engagement with public opinion special programme: ‘Detailed FP6 was emphasised. The role of the implementing provisions concern- media across Europe will be ing research activities involving important in this and clear lessons the use of human embryos and can be learnt from the GM crop human embryonic stem cells’, to debate. be finalised by the end of 2003. It was suggested that the objec- The current state of stem cell tive of the European Directives in research from the perspectives of stem cell research should be to science, clinical application, law reduce variability across countries

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and to provide a consistent system and identified as a key area in the of accreditation and licensing. In future development of the field. this way an enabling framework A full report of the forum has for stem cell research to move into been published by the Society therapeutic benefit could be (ISBN ...... ) . realised. Copies are available from the The role of industry and commer- International Office, or can be cial ownership of stem cell downloaded from the RSE Web technology was briefly addressed site.

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