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University of Southampton Research Repository Eprints Soton University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF HUMANITIES History Hermits, Recluses and Anchorites: A Study of Eremitism in England and France c. 1050 - c. 1250 by Jacqueline F. G. Duff, M.A. Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2011 University of Southampton ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES History Doctor of Philosophy HERMITS, RECLUSES AND ANCHORITES: A STUDY OF EREMITISM IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE c. 1050-c. 1250 by Jacqueline Frances Duff Eremitism is a broad movement and took many different forms during the course of the middle ages. This thesis is a comparative study of the eremitic life in England and France during the period when it had, arguably, reached the height of its popularity. While eremitism in both countries shared many common characteristics, there were also differing interpretations of how this ideal should be achieved. That is most noticeable in the way eremitic communities were structured and in the activities with which they engaged. Inevitably, modem perceptions of medieval eremitism are shaped by the sources available, notably the writings of the hagiographers, all of whom had their own objectives when choosing to write the Life of a particular hermit. Modem historians, therefore, view medieval eremitic practices through the words of these hagiographers rather than through the actions of the hermits themselves. Using extant Vitae and other relevant texts, this study begins with an assessment of the primary sources, and how the language they use has affected both medieval and modem perceptions of the hermit. The terminology adopted for differentiating between a hermit, recluse and anchorite, if indeed, this is necessary, is significant to this debate and is discussed in the first two chapters. The following three chapters (3-5) examine how hermits lived, the support stmctures they created and how these differed in England and France. While hermits established their own networks, they were still reliant on sponsorship from both the Church and society, which helped them to lead lives in accordance with their high ideals. The final three chapters (6-8) offer an analysis of the broad range of activities which hermits undertook, both spiritual and temporal, and explores how they interacted with the Church and society through these activities. It was due to such interaction that they were seen as channels for divine power and regarded by contemporaries as 'living saints'. Contents Page Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 9 Abbreviations 11 Preface 13 Section 1: The Sources and Language of Eremitism Chapter 1: Introduction and Sources 19 Chapter 2: The Language and Perceptions of Eremitism 39 Section 2: Hermit Structures Introduction; Formal and Informal Structures 53 Chapter 3: Hermit Networks 65 Chapter 4: Hermits and their Relationships with the Church 85 Chapter 5: Hermits and their Relationships with Society 109 Section 3: Hermit Activities Introduction: The Active Hermit 131 Chapter 7: The Religious Hermit 143 Chapter 8: The Social Hermit 157 Chapter 9: Miracles, Visions and Prophecies 171 Conclusion 199 Appendices 203 Bibliography 213 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Any project of this nature and scale would be so much more difficult to complete without the support and encouragement of numerous friends and colleagues. I am wholly indebted to Dr. Brian Golding for his guidance and patience, for his generosity with time, leading to supervisions overrunning on more than one occasion, and for sharing my enthusiasm for hermits in all their guises. My gratitude also goes in equal measure to Dr. Peter Clarke for agreeing to supervise me through my final year. His unyielding encouragement and dedication kept me focussed and I thank him for this many times over. I should like to thank all my colleagues in the History Department at the University of Southampton, the staff at Hartley Library and especially those in the Inter-Library Loan department for their assistance in tracking down items difficult to locate. For helping to bring my Latin up to scratch, I owe many thanks to Tom Olding and Dr. Lena Wahlgren-Smith and for assistance with the production of the two maps, I am extremely grateful to Karen Tillyer. A tremendous debt of gratitude must go to my dear friend, Brenda Blackburn, who very kindly agreed to take on the role of proof- reader, and for her unstinting support and encouragement during the difficult times. I dedicate this thesis to my late parents, for my father who shared my passion for history and for my mother who so wished to live long enough to see its completion. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Trevor, for having faith in me and willingly taking on the role of head chef and entertaining the grandchildren. Without him I would never have achieved my ambition. 10 ABBREVIATIONS AASS Acta Sanctorum, ed. J. Holland, 67 vols (Antwerp and Brussels, 1643-) BEC Bibliotheque de I 'Ecole des Chartes CCCM Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio medievalis (Tumhout, 1966-) CCSL Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina (Tumhout, 1953- ) EETS Early English Text Society MGHSS Monumenta Germaniae historica: Scriptores (Hanover, 1862-) OMT Oxford Medieval Texts (London and Edinburgh, 1949- ) PL Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne, 221 vols (Paris, 1844-64) RB Revue Benedictine RS Rolls Series (London, 1858-96) SCH Studies in Church History VCH Victoria County History (London, 1900- ) 11 12 Preface I questioned the boy under the pine trees, 'My master went to gather herbs, He is still somewhere on the mountainside So deep in the clouds I know not where.' Jia Dao, 'On Looking in Vain for the Hermit'' Eremitism is a generic term covering a multiplicity of ways in which people in the Middle Ages led periods of their lives removed from the secular world in order to experience spirituality by dedicating themselves to the service of God. They did this in many ways: some achieved their goal through the more conventional means of the cloister while others preferred the independence and greater isolation of a private cell. Even among the latter, so many variations in the mode of living and the level of isolation can be found that it becomes difficult to write about them all as one combined group. Some were strictly enclosed and vowed never to enter the wider world again. Then there were those who did go beyond the walls of their cells to cultivate gardens and tend animals or to attend a nearby church. There were also small groups of three or four sharing common facilities, while at the other extreme were the large eremitic communities, often under the authority of a magister, encompassing a number of scattered cells of two or three hermits. Finally, there were those who wandered freely, either moving from one hermitage to another or, as in the case of the hermit- preachers, roaming the countryside on preaching missions. At different times during the middle ages, eremitism became institutionalised, with new monastic orders declaring their dedication to a similar asceticism, each claiming to be more austere than the next, beginning with the Cistercians and then in quick succession those monastic houses emerging from the forests of north-west France and the Limousin, too numerous to list here, but including Savigny, Premontre and Grandmont. ' Isabel Colegate, A Pelican in the Wilderness: Hermits, Solitaries and Recluses (London: Harper Collins, 2002), p. 3. 13 It was the Carthusians, however, who skilfully succeeded in combining the eremus with the cloister. These orders were all eremitic in origin, whereas other religious groups were eremitic in inspiration. The Canons Regular, for example, claimed to lead a cloistered eremitic life while combining it with their pastoral role in societyand, from the thirteenth century onwards, the mendicant orders, through their pursuit of the vita apostolica and extreme poverty, shared many of the characteristics of those hermit-preachers of a century earlier. Eremitism, therefore, took on many guises, and while each is significant as a contribution to the evolution of this form of religious life, it is too vast to treat as one subject. This thesis, therefore, is limited to one aspect, that of the lives of hermits who were active at a time when, it could be argued, eremitism reached the peak of its popularity - the late eleventh century to the early thirteenth century. While the title of this study embraces the three popular terms used in this subject - hermits, recluses and anchorites - Chapter 2 considers the current debates on how these words were used by contemporary writers as well as the confusion in modem historical works over which terms should apply to individual ascetics. As contemporaries used the three words interchangeably, even within one document referring to one person, this study has taken the word 'hermit' to cover all those leading an eremitic life except when referring to a text or modem study where the author has shown a reason for applying a particular term. Furthermore, this study concentrates more on those independent ascetics who were free to leave their hermitages should they choose, and modem scholarship tends to label these as hermits.
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