FILMING FEMINIST FRONTIERS/FRONTIER FEMINISMS 1979-1993 KATHLEEN CUMMINS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN WOMEN’S, FEMINIST AND GENDER STUDIES YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO November 2014 © Kathleen Cummins, 2014 ii ABSTRACT Filming Feminist Frontiers/Frontier Feminisms is a transnational qualitative study that examines ten landmark feature films directed by women that re-imagined the frontiers of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S through a feminist lens. As feminist feature films they countered Eurocentric and masculinist myths of white settlement and expansionism in the grand narrative tradition. Produced between 1979 and 1993, these films reflect many of the key debates that animated feminist scholarship between 1970 and 1990. Frontier spaces are re-imagined as places where feminist identities can be forged outside white settler patriarchal constructs, debunking frontier myths embedded in frontier historiography and the Western. A central way these filmmakers debunked frontier myths was to push the boundaries of what constitutes a frontier. Despite their common aim to demystify dominant frontier myths, these films do not collectively form a coherent or monolithic feminist revisionist frontier. Instead, this body of work reflects and is marked by difference, although not in regard to nation or time periods. Rather the differences that emerge across this body of work reflect the differences within feminism itself. As a means of understanding these differences, this study examines these films through four central themes that were at the centre of feminist debates during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. These are: female authorship, motherhood and the maternal, paid labour and the economy, and sexuality. The study examines whether these women’s frontier films were successful at pushing the feminist agenda forward. In order to answer this question, this study uses an interdisciplinary method of analysis deploying feminist theory, feminist historiography, frontier historiography, film theory, and genre theory. The films in this study are: Gillian Armstrong’s My Brilliant Career (1979), Tracey Moffatt’s Bedevil (1993), Sandy Wilson’s My American Cousin (1985), Anne Wheeler’s Loyalties (1986), Norma Bailey’s The Wake (1986), Merata Mita’s iii Mauri (1988), Jane Campion’s The Piano (1993), Julie Dash’s Daughters of the Dust (1991), Nancy Kelly’s Thousand Pieces of Gold (1991), and Maggie Greenwald’s The Ballad of Little Jo (1993). iv To my beautiful daughters, Louisa and Teresa. And to my mother, Betty Cummins (1926-2005), who was the first person to encourage my passion for movies. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the unwavering support and advice from a number of key people in my personal and professional life. Lou Mersereau, my partner, has proven a pillar of strength throughout this journey, even though it meant considerable compromises and challenges for him along the way. When I started my PhD studies in the Graduate Program in Women’s Studies I had a three-month old baby who was breastfeeding around the clock, as well as an active six year old. Lou altered his demanding work schedule so he could accompany me to York campus in order for me to nurse Louisa during classroom breaks. Throughout, Lou has always made the seemingly impossible possible, reading endless drafts, taking the kids on day trips so I could study or write, and holding down the fort while I participated in conferences far away from home. Lou shares my passion for film, and this extended onto this project. The second person I wish to acknowledge is my PhD supervisor, Dr. Kathryn McPherson. I first met Kate in 1994 while working on my MFA in the Film Department at York University. Kate agreed to oversee a directed reading course on 19th century Canadian women’s history, which was instrumental in helping shape the screenplay for my master’s thesis film The Seduction of Mary Day. In many ways that experience marked the beginning of my PhD odyssey, which would not actually begin for years to come. Throughout this challenging process Kate’s wisdom has been like an ever-shining guiding light, especially through difficult personal times. Like a great coach, Kate always found ways to push me beyond my perceived limits and has been instrumental in the development of my confidence as an academic. Most importantly, however, has been Kate’s passion for this project, rooted no doubt in her love of film. Her enthusiasm and belief in this project has been unwavering since day one, which enabled me to vi stay on course and give this project the attention and care it so deserves. It has been a great privilege to have Kate as my supervisor. I wish to acknowledge my other wonderful dissertation committee members, Dr. Bettina Bradbury and Dr. Scott Forsyth. Bettina Bradbury was the professor who structured her classroom breaks around my daughter’s feeding times, which meant more to me than she will ever know. Bettina’s support enabled me to complete my course work, as well as model to the other students, that mothers with small children can function in large institutions and work places when such small but necessary accommodations are made. Bettina has also proven invaluable in her detailed feedback and scrupulous readings of chapters and drafts. Scott Forsyth has been a great source of support during both my graduate and undergraduate studies. Scott was an invaluable member of my master’s thesis committee, and was one of my undergraduate film professors in the Department of Film at York. Scott is in fact the first professor to introduce me to feminist film theory, something that at the time both terrified and intrigued me. One of my first student films, shot in Super-8mm black and white, was inspired by Laura Mulvey’s seminal essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975), mandatory reading in Scott’s second year film theory course. I want to thank the dear friends and family members who cheered me on along the way, and especially those who helped with childcare. I particularly wish to thank my cousin, Sharon Eddie, who has been like a second mother to me, especially after my own mother passed away during my PhD process. I have vivid memories of writing my comprehensive exams in Sharon’s cozy little office, which was always made available to me when I needed a quiet space where I could focus without interruption. vii I wish to acknowledge the women filmmakers who are the subjects of this dissertation. When I was a young woman film student in a predominantly male department, I looked to these filmmakers for inspiration. They were, and remain, my role models. I remember where I was when I heard that Jane Campion had won the Palm D’Or in 1993 for The Piano, the first woman to ever do so. Without their films I may not have ever imagined myself a director. In many ways this dissertation is one long ode to these women and their films. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the support of my daughters, Louisa and Teresa. Throughout this long process they have grown and matured while this dissertation took shape over numerous years. Like all working mothers, I have struggled to maintain balance in my life and the life of the family. This PhD has often been placed aside temporarily to meet the needs of my family and community, as well as the demands and deadlines of a busy teaching schedule at Sheridan College. It is for my daughters, however, that I wanted and needed to finish. They are as much a part of this work as I am. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................. viii List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................................xii Introduction: Filming Feminist Frontiers/Frontier Feminisms (1979-1993)...........1 Why These Ten Films? .....................................................................................................2 Landmark Women’s Films............................................................................................ 3 SecondaryFemi Literaturenist Grand onNarratives Films.............................................................................................................................................................................. 114 National/Regional Cinema .........................................................................................11 Women’s Filmmaking...................................................................................................12 MethodologyColonialism...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1413 Chapter 1: Women’sFeminist Storytelling: Frontier Theses Narrative,................................ Genre and................................ Voice................................................................. 2517 Women’s Storytelling and Feminism......................................................................