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Navete Aero-Spatiale (46) Scris de valentin.vasilescu pe 26 aprilie 2011, 11:30 Navete aero-spatiale (46) Incepand din al 2-lea razboi mondial, a existat preocuparea realizarii unor vehicule cu echipaj la bord, capabile sa evolueze in statosfera si chiar sa iasa din atmosfera terestra. Majoritatea acestor aparate avand caracter militar, informatiile legate de testarea lor sunt in continuare secrete. In cele ce urmeaza, ne propunem sa urmarim pas cu pas evolutia acestor aparate, pana la naveta autonoma X-37B din zilele noastre si un pic mai departe. Syncom 2 Satelitii comerciali Compania de telecomunicatii americana AT&T a incheiat o intelegere multinationala cu Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA si ministerele Telecomunicatiilor din Anglia si Franta cu scopul de a realiza satelitul experimental de telecomunicatii Telstar utilizabil peste oceanul Atlantic. Pentru infrastructura transmisiilor prin satelit, firma Bell a construit o statie la Andover, in statul Maine, BBC a realizat o statie similara la Goonhilly Downs in sud-vestul Angliei. Iar specialistii francezi o alta statie la Pleumeur-Bodou in nord-vestul Frantei. Satelitul Telstar a fost proiectat de un colectiv constituit din John Robinson Pierce, Rudy Kompfner si James Early de la Bell Telephone Laboratories. Acesta avea forma unui cilindru cu lungimea de 0,87 m si greutatea de 77 kg. Pe suprafata acestuia au fost montate panouri solare care constituiau sursa sa electrica, cu o putere de 14 watti. Elementul cheie al satelitului il constituia un transponder cu rol de radio-releu pentru transisiile Tv si circuitele telefonice multiplex. O mica antena omnidirectionala receptiona semnalul modulat, emis de statiile de la sol in frecventa 6 GHz. Transponderul de la bordul satelitului il convertea in frecventa de 4 GHz, il amplifica si il retransmitea spre sol. Primii doi sateliti Telstar au fost identici si avut un rol experimental, ei fiind lansati, primul pe 10 iulie 1962 si al 2-lea pe 7 mai 1963. Lansarea satelitilor Telstar-1 si 2 a fost facuta de NASA, cu o racheta Delta, de la centrul spatial de la Cape Canaveral. Treapta 1 a rachetei Delta B era ea insasi o racheta balistica Thor cu raza intermediara de actiune, propulsata de motorul MB-3, functionand cu oxigen lichid si kerosen si care dezvolta 69.000 kgf. Treapta a 2-a Able cantarea 1.884 kg, avand lungimea de 5,6 m si diametrul de 0,8 m. Pe ea era montat motorul AJ-10-118 produs de Aerojet, cantarind 98 kg, functionand cu dimetil hidrazina si acid azotic, timp 212 secunde si dezvoltand 4.300 kgf. A 3-a treapta Altair, cantarea 230 kg si era propulsata de motorul cu combustibil solid X-248, care dezvolta 1.200 kgf, functionand 28 de secunde. Racheta Delta a plasat satelitii Telstar pe o orbita eliptica cu parametrii: 1.000-6.000 km, perioada 2 ore si 37 de minute, inclinatia 45 de grade fata de Ecuator. Din cele peste 2 ore ale fiecarei orbite, satelitii Telstar erau limitati la 20 de minute de transmisie deasupra nordului Oceanului Atlantic. Intrucat puterea de emisie era mica, antenele celor 3 statii de la sol aveau diametrul de 54 m, suprafata de 330 m patrati si cantareau 380 t. Satelitii Telstar 1 si 2 si-au incheiat prematur activitatea, dupa 5 luni de la lansare, ca urmare a iradierii tranzistorilor de la bord ca urmare a testelor de detonare de bombe nucleare in cosmos (operatiunea Starfish Prime), realizate de SUA. Satelitul Relay 1, cantarind 170 kg, a fost lansat de o racheta Delta B pe 13 decembrie 1962, pe o orbita de medie altitudine cu parametrii: 1322 - 7439 km, perioada 185 minute, inclinatia 47,5 grade. El a fost produs de compania RCA (Radio Corporation of America) cea care in 1953 a inceput transmisia Tv color in SUA, introducand tehnologia standard NTSC (National Television System Committee). Relay 1 a fost primul satelit care a transmis o emisiune Tv din SUA in Japonia, la 22 noiembrie 1963 intre orele 13:27- 13:48, pe timpul celei de-a 2677- a orbite. Emisiunea anunta poporului japonez despre asasinarea presedintelui John F. Kennedy. In urmatoarele 3 zile dupa asasinarea presedintelui Kennedy Relay-1 a realizat 11 astfel de transmisii: 8 catre Europa si 3 catre Japonia. Satelitul Relay 2 a fost lansat de o racheta Delta B pe 21 ianuarie 1964 pentru a-l inlocui pe Relay 1. Unul din cele 2 transpondere de la bord a functionat pana in noiembrie 1966. Incepand din aprilie 1965, sovieticii au plasat pe o orbita eliptica alungita, cu perigeul situat la 600 km inaltime si apogeul la 39.700 km (in emisfera nordica), inclinarea 63 de grade si perioada de 718 minute, satelitii Molniya, cantarind 1.800 kg. Satelitul era prezent aproapre 12 ore pe zi deasupra emisferei nordice. Din octombrie 1967, reteaua de satelitii Molniya a fost utilizata si pentru transmiterea emisiunilor retelei nationale de televiziune Orbita. Orbita heliosincrona ofera satelitului avantajul de a trece zilnic la verticala unei localitati la aceeasi ora, toate constructiile de pe sol fiind luminate de soare sub acelasi unghi, creand umbre pe aceasi directie, permitand astfel aparaturii de bord sa sesizeze schimbarile care s-au petrecut intre timp. Acest tip de orbita este utilizata cu precadere de satelitii meteo. Primul satelit meteo plasat pe o astfel de orbita a fost Nimbus-1, lansat cu o racheta Thor-Agena B, la 28 august 1964, de la centrul spatial Vandemberg din California. Datorita unei erori, el a intrat pe o orbita heliosincrona eliptica si nu circulara, cu apogeul la 1.100 km si unul din panourile solare a ramas depliat, motiv pentru care a fost operational doar pana pe 23 septembrie 1964, timp in care a transmis 27.000 imagini catre 60 de statii meteorologice terestre. Satelitul care avea lungimea de 3 m, diametrul de1,44 m cantarea 550 kg si era compus din 2 sectiuni, in cea inferioara erau dispusi senzorii meteo, iar in cea superioara echipamentele de control al zborului si panourile solare. Senzorii meteorologici constau in 3 camere foto si un radiometru in infrarosu de inalta rezolutie IRIS, functionand in gama 3,4-4,2 microni, care masura cantitatea de vapori si nivelul ozonului in atmosfera. Impreuna, senzorii meteo permiteau transmiterea la statiile de pe Pamant a imaginilor continand formatiunile noroase, repartitia temperaturii in atmosfera, atat ziua, cat si noaptea. Doua panouri solare continand 10.500 de celule fotoelectrice asigurau incarcarea bateriilor si 2 scanere in infrarosu pozitioate dupa Soare stabileau orizontului natural, manevrele de corectie fiind realizate cu jeturi de freon. Nimbus-3 a fost plasat pe o orbita heliosincrona la 1.232 km altitudine, avand o perioada de 107 minute si o inclinatie polara (99 de grade), la 13 aprilie 1969, cu o racheta Thorad-Agena D, pentru a-l inlocui pe Nimbus-1. Nimbus 3 a fost operational pana pe 22 ianuarie 1972. Legea a 3-a a lui Kepler afirma ca perioada de rotatie a unui satelit, aflat pe o orbita circulara, se mareste odata cu cresterea inaltimii lui. Sputnik-ul lansat de sovietici pe o orbita joasa de cateva sute de km, executa 15 orbite pe zi, in timp ce Luna, satelitul natural al Pamantului aflat la 384.400 km executa o orbita completa in 27 de zile si 7 ore. Intre cele 2 extreme, exista o altitudine optima de 35.786 km, calculata de matematicianul Herman Potocnik Noordung in anul 1920, unde perioada de rotatie a satelitului este de 23 de ore si 56 de minute, corespunzand zilei siderale. In acest caz, satelitul se roteste cu aceasi viteza cu Pamantul pe o orbita numita geosincrona. Daca orbita satelitului nu este inclinata fata de Ecuator, el va ramane fixat deasupra verticalei unui punct geografic predeterminat de pe glob, aceasta orbita fiind numita grostationara. In cazul satelitilor geostationari antenele statiilor de la sol sunt mai ieftine si raman fixate permanent pe coordonatele acestora. Odata cu aparitia lor, satelitii geostationari au revolutionat comunicatiile, transmisiile Tv la mare distanta, previziunile meteo si au constituit suportul pentru multe aplicatii militare. Principalul dezavantaj al satelitilor geostationari se manifesta in reteaua de telefonie, unde apare o intarziere a semanlului de 1 secunda. Parintele satelitilor geosincroni a fost Harold Rosen, inginer la compania Hughes Aircraft, cel care a proiectat familia de sateliti Syncom. Primul satelit, Syncom-1 a fost lansat cu o racheta Delta B, pe 14 februarie 1963, dar n-a functionat. A urmat Syncom-2, lansat pe 26 iulie 1963, care a realizat prima legatura telefonica experimentala via satelit, in august 1963, intre presedintele american John Kennedy si premierul nigerian Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, aflat la bordul distrugatorului american Kingsport, ancorat in portul Lagos. Pe 29 septembrie 1963, Syncom 2 a realizat prima retranslatie a unei emisiuni Tv, transmise de la baza militara Fort Dix si receptionata de statia Andover din statul Maine. Aceasta a fost de slaba calitate si fara sonor. Pe 19 august 1964, o racheta Delta D a lansat pe orbita geostationara satelitul Syncom 3, devenit primul satelit geostationar utilizat in scopuri comerciale. El a permis transmisia televizata peste oceanul Pacific a olimpiadei de la Tokio, din 1964. Pe 20 august 1964 s-a creat consortiul interguvernamental pentru operarea retelelor de sateliti de comunicatii INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization) cu participarea a 11 state. In 1973, reteaua deservea 600 de statii de pe Pamant si furniza servicii de comunicatii pentru 149 de tari. La 6 aprilie 1965, a fost lansat pe o orbita geosincrona satelitul Intelsat I (denumit Early Bird), primul din reteaua Intelsat. In iunie 2007, un investitor privat a preluat operarea celor 52 de sateliti, achizitionat 76 % din actiunile Intelsat cu 3,75 de miliarde euro. 1 Navete aero-spatiale (45) ADRESA: http://crct.ro/nfdK Incepand din al 2-lea razboi mondial, a existat preocuparea realizarii unor vehicule cu echipaj la bord, capabile sa evolueze in statosfera si chiar sa iasa din atmosfera terestra.
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