TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents...... v Preface to the Second Edition...... xi Preface to the 1993 Edition...... xv Acknowledgments...... xvii Abbreviations...... xxi 1 Preliminary Considerations and Review of Previous Scholarship...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Method...... 3 The Primacy of the Ugaritic Information on Athirat ...... 4 Review of the State of Scholarship...... 7 M. B. Brink ...... 10 W. Louie...... 13 V. L. Piper...... 15 J. M. Hadley...... 16 M. S. Smith ...... 17 M. Dietrich and O. Loretz ...... 19 Iconography ...... 22 2 Athirat in the Elimelek Tablets of ...... 25 Keret ( KTU 1.14-1.16)...... 25 The Cycle (KTU 1.1-6)...... 33 Baal and ...... 34 The Palace of Baal...... 42 Baal and ...... 75 Conclusions ...... 83 3 Other Ugaritic Texts Referring to Athirat...... 85 Shachar and Shalim and Mythological Fragments ...... 86 Shachar and Shalim (KTU 1.23)...... 86 KTU 1.8...... 92 KTU 1.12...... 92 KTU 1.114...... 94 v vi A REASSESSMENT OF

RIH 78/20...... 96 Texts associated with Ritual...... 98 KTU 1.39...... 98 KTU 1.41 and 1.87 ...... 99 KTU 1.46 and 1.65 ...... 101 KTU 1.49...... 102 KTU 1.112...... 102 KTU 1.47, 1.118 and 1.148...... 103 Conclusions ...... 103 4 Old Testament Asherah ...... 105 Preliminary Considerations...... 105 The Pentateuch...... 113 Exodus 34.13...... 113 Deuteronomy 7.5...... 114 Deuteronomy 12.3 ...... 115 Deuteronomy 16.21 ...... 116 The Deuteronomistic History: Judges ...... 118 Judges 3.7...... 118 Judges 6. 25-30...... 118 The Deuteronomistic History: Kings...... 122 1 Kings 14.15 ...... 123 1 Kings 14.23 ...... 124 1 Kings 15.13 // 2 Chronicles 15.16...... 124 1 Kings 16.33 ...... 127 1 Kings 18.19 ...... 127 2 Kings 13.6...... 129 2 Kings 17.10 ...... 129 2 Kings 17.16 ...... 130 2 Kings 18.4...... 130 2 Kings 21.3...... 132 2 Kings 21.7...... 133 Josiah’s Reform: 2 Kings 23.4–15...... 134 Summary of the Deuteronomistic References...... 137 The Chronicler’s References...... 138 2 Chronicles 14.2 (Eng. 3)...... 139 2 Chronicles 15.16...... 140 2 Chronicles 17.6...... 140 2 Chronicles 19.3...... 141 2 Chronicles 24.18...... 141 2 Chronicles 31.1...... 141

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

2 Chronicles 33.3...... 142 2 Chronicles 33.19...... 142 2 Chronicles 34.3, 4 and 7...... 143 The Prophetic References...... 144 Isaiah 17.8...... 144 Isaiah 27.9...... 145 Jeremiah 17.2...... 146 Micah 5.13 (Eng. 14)...... 146 Rabbinic Sources ...... 148 Conclusions ...... 149 5 Mesopotamian, Hittite and South Arabian Evidence...... 151 Sumero-Akkadian Evidence ...... 152 Sumerian Votive Inscription...... 155 God Lists ...... 159 AN = Anum...... 159 The Weidner List...... 160 Nippur God List (CBS 13889) ...... 161 The Series Tintir = Bābilu...... 162 Cylinder Seals ...... 163 Ritual Texts...... 164 The Uruk Temple Ritual ...... 164 The Reisner Texts...... 165 Mystical Text (B.M. 34035)...... 166 Theophoric Names ...... 168 The Marriage of Martu ...... 169 The Taanach Letter...... 170 Conclusions from the Sumero-Akkadian Materials...... 171 The Hittite Evidence: The Myth of Elkunirsa...... 172 Epigraphic South Arabian Sources...... 175 RES 856 ...... 177 RES 2886...... 178 RES 3306...... 179 RES 3534 B and RES 3550 ...... 180 RES 3534 bis...... 181 RES 3689...... 181 RES 3691 and RES 3692 ...... 182 RES 3902, pl. xiii, fig. 5, 1...... 182 RES 4203...... 182 RES 4274...... 183 RES 4330...... 183

viii A REASSESSMENT OF ASHERAH

Jamme 852...... 183 Theophoric Names ...... 185 Conclusions from the Ancient South Arabian Evidence...... 186 Conclusions to the Chapter ...... 186 6 Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic Epigraphic Evidence ...... 189 Khirbet -Qôm ...... 190 Kuntillet ʿAjrûd...... 197 Tel Miqne...... 208 Arslan Tash (TSSI 3, no. 23 = KAI 27)...... 209 Phoenician Inscriptions Mentioning ʾšrt...... 212 Tema (TSSI 2, no. 30 = KAI 228) ...... 214 Sefire I,B ...... 215 Conclusions ...... 215 7 Conclusions ...... 217 Conclusions ...... 217 Etymology...... 221 8 The Myth of Asherah: Lion Lady and Serpent Goddess...... 223 History of the Associations...... 225 Qedeshet ...... 228 Tanit...... 233 Conclusions ...... 236 9 Of Asherahs and Trees: Some Methodological Questions...... 239 Introduction ...... 239 Biblical Asherahs ...... 243 Verbal Evidence...... 245 trk...... 245 (dg ...... 246 Pr#&, r(b, (+n and #$tn...... 247 Deut 16.21 ...... 248 Mic 5.13 (14)...... 250 Summary ...... 251 Nominal Evidence...... 251 Summary ...... 252 BiblicalTree Worship ...... 253 Isa 44.14-17 ...... 254 Ezek 20.32 ...... 256 Hab 2.19...... 257 Hos 4.12...... 257 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

Gen 12.6...... 259 Gen 21.33 ...... 260 Summary ...... 260 Extra-Biblical “Asherahs”...... 261 Iconography ...... 263 Summary ...... 268 Conclusions ...... 268 10 Book Reviews...... 271 Asherah Again: T. Binger’s Asherah and the State of Asherah Studies ...... 271 The Cult of Asherah in Ancient Israel and Judah: Evidence for a Hebrew Goddess ...... 278 Did God Have a Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel ...... 281 Figures...... 285 Bibliography ...... 291 Index...... 361