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A Sketch of the Anthropology of . Author(s): V. Giuffrida-Ruggeri Source: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 48 (Jan. - Jun., 1918), pp. 80-102 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2843504 Accessed: 12-01-2016 12:43 UTC

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A SKETCH OF THE ANTHROPOLOGYOF ITALY.,'

By V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI,PROFESSOR OF ANTHROPOLOGYIN THE UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES.

I.-ANTHROPOLOGICALDATA OF MODERNITALIAN POPULATIONS.

PROFESSORGIUSTINIANO NIcoLuCCI, who held the Chair of Anthropologyin the Universityof Naples with so muchbrilliancy, was the firstto undertakea complete study of Italian Anthropology,2which appeared thirtyyears ago. It is a weighty work,which is still useful to consult,because, as the author was extraordinarily erudite,we findused there all the preceding literature on the subject. Two parts are more amply discussed: the prehistoricpart, whichincludes the , the Umbrians,the Oscians, the Pelasgi, the Japiges-Messapi,the Euganeans, with the Veneti, the Etruscans, the people of so-called GreaterGreece, the Phoenicians and the or : and the part which deals with barbarian invasions and foreigncolonies in Italy. The least developedpart is that on present-dayanthro- pology,entitled " The ModernItalians ": it sufficesto say that theLigures, who had givenso muchmaterial for prehistoric enquiries to the author,do not even appear in the tables of the various regionsof Italy. In any case little or nothingwhich is satisfactoryto modernscientific needs can be got fromthe tables compiled by Nicolucci; the author does not specifywhich series he studied or used, and resulta which have been obtained since do not at all confirmthe figureshe gives. Eleven years after the appearance of Nicolucci's treatise another scholar, a specialistin glottology,Professor F. L. Pulle, published his " Profiloantropologicca dell' Italia,"3 in which the mostimportant place is given to linguisticfacts and the smallestto somaticdata: forthese last are used those alreadyobtained by Livi, who elaborated the anthropometricmaterial gatheredat the levies for the army,4but not taken by him in person as has been erroneouslybelieved. Finally, this same

1 This articleis presentedby the authorfor the purposeof expressinghis thanksfor his electionas Hon. Fellow of the Royal AnthropologicalInstitute of GreatBritain and Ireland on, 11thDecember, 1917. 2 Nicolucci,G., " Antropologiadell' Italia nell' evo anticoe nel moderno,"Atti B. Accad.sce fis. mat.,voL ii, serie 2A, Napoli, 1888. This same workpublished as a reprintbears the date 1887,as it was reallypresented to the Academyat the meetingof July10th, 1886. a Pulle, F. L., " Profiloantropologico dell' Italia," Arch.per 1' Antrop.e 1' Etnol., xxviii, 1898,fasc. 1. Beforethis Pulle had publisheda long chapterin vol. iv of Marinelli'sLa Terra, called " Le linguee le gentid' Italia " (pp. 467-508), in whichhe speciallyillustrates the pre- historicpeoples of Italy,always basing himself on literaryand linguistictexts. 4 Livi, R., Antropometriamilitare, Parte i, Roma, 1896. Part ii was publishedin 1905.

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Livi wrote in 1907 a brief summary called "Geografia antropologica dell' Italia."' * * * * * Height.-Nicolucci calculated the average height of to be 1636 mm., adding10 mm.to theaverage of conscripts measured between 1874-84, i.e., 1626 mm., whichis onlya littlehigher than that whichLivil obtainedfor the 1855-59 classes, i.e., 1624, on a total of 1,350,799measured. Livi gave previously5the average heightof the incorporatedsoldiers or recruitsof the 1859-63 classes, that is of 299,355individuals: thisaverage height was 1645mm. and is mentionedby Deniker.4 But it is evidentthat this heightcannot be preferredto the other,which is that of all individualsat 20 years of age, and Livi hirmself,in fact,in his ethnologicalcom- parisons,only uses the figuresrelating to conscriptsinstead of those higher,which relateto recruitsincorporated in the army. It seems that Deniker thoughthe mightconsider as the average heightof the whole male population,either the average + 10 mm. obtainedfrom the conscripts, or the genuineaverage obtained fromrecruits, believing that the two figuresYnust be the same " a un demi-centimetrepres,"S but it is easy to see that the difference is greaterthan 5 mm. In fact the differencebetween 1634 mm. (i.e., 1624 + 10 mm.)and 1645 is 11 mm.,and this differenceis constantlypositive, as I have been able to verifyin all the sixteen departmentsof the kingdom.6 On the otherhand, it is certainthat in two years' time the average growthof soldiersis 9 8 mm.,7therefore, ifwe add 10 mm.to theaverage height of the conscripts at 20 years of age, we have the heightof the whole male populationat 22 years of age and the ulteriorgrowth (from - to 1 cm.) can be neglected,as such growthis compensatedlater in the mass of the population by the decrease in height (from 1 to 1 cm.) after50 years of age. Accordingto this reasoningthe averageheight of thewhole male populationin Italy is 1634 mm.,and we may concludethat Nicolucci's figurewas fairlyexact.8

1 It is part of a volume by Livi, R., " Antropometrianei suoi rapporticon la Medicina sociale,"from the Trattatodi MedicinaSociale, Sanit2 Psichica, edited by Fr. Vallardi. 2 Livi, R., " Sulla Staturadegli Italiani," Arch.per l'Antrop.e l'Etnol.,1883, p. 376. 3 Op. cit.,Part i, p. 32. 4Deniker, J.,Les raceset lespeuples de la terre,Paris, 1900, p. 662. Thisaverage is erroneously givento be for344,371 individuals. The average 164.00 cm.,is givenby Martin,R., Lehrbuch derAnthropologie, Jena, 1914,p. 214, withou'tgiving the numberof measured,and it is one of the veryfew data whichMartin gives on Italy in his tables. 5 Deniker,J., " Les six races composantla populationactuelle de l',"Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1904,pp. 194-195. 6 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " Differenzadi staturafra coscrittie reclutenelle diverseregioni d' Italia," Rit. geogr.Ital., xii, 1905,fasc. ix. 7 Livi, R., op. cit.,Part ii. 8In hislarge memoir ("Les Races de I'Europe. I.-la Taille en Europe," Ass.fran9. pour l'avancementdes sciences,Congres de Lyon, 1906. Paris, 1908,p. 27), publishedlater, Deniker assertsthat the average height of Italians is 1647mm., from figures given by De' Rossi. He holds VOL. XLVIII. G

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The femaleheight in Italy is, according to the data given by Raseri,' on an average 9 cm. lowerthan the male; there is, in fact,a differenceof 8 cm. between males and femalesin and 10 cm. betweenmales and fenales in NorthernItaly. Colouring.-Consideringtwo pure types of pigmentation,that withblack hair and black or dark eyes and that withfair hair and blue or light-colouredeyes, the first,generally called the " brown,"is foundon a generalaverage2 of 25 4 per cent., the second of 3 per cent. Othertwo types,which may be called the mixed brown and the mixed blond, are also found,the firston an average of 50 1 per cent., the second of 9*3 per cent. A rosycolouring of the skin seems to be representedby 38 59 per cent. Shape of thehair.-Curly hair is only foundin 3*3 per cent.,wavy in 13'5 per cent.,straight in 83 2 per cent.; but this last categoryis uncertain,as properlyto observeit the hair shouldbe fairlylong and not as it is wornby men at 20 years of 'age; it is probable that many classifiedas straight-hairedshould reallybe classed as wavy-haired. Much betterdata could be obtainedfrom females. Cephalicindex.-The cephalic or cephalometricindex taken on 294,271Italians gives an average of 82 M7,3but reallythis is an average withoutsignificance: only two provinces,those of and Salerno, give such an index. From this index, taken on the living,it is necessaryfor technicalreasons to subtract-accordingto Livi-not less than three units to get the cephalic index of the skull. Roughly we can say that a littleless than halfthe Italians are brachycephals. Nasal index.-This index was measured on 2696 Italian soldiersfrom all the districts4and gives an average of 68 54. We know also the proportionper cent. of the " naso arricciato,"which Livi believes to representthe concave nose,6but mightalso include the nose with a wavy bridge (a variety of the aquiline bridge), which has nothingto do with the concave nose, and naturallywe cannot be sure that all the doctorswho compiledthe tables ofindividual characteristics understood also (pp. 6-7) thatfor low heightsit is necessaryto add 20 mm.instead of 10 mm.to the height of the conscriptsat 20 yearsof age; but I do not believethat shortmen who belongto a short race grow20 mm.in twoyears, as mayhappen to thoseunder-developed of a tall race. As to the figure1632 givenby De' Rossi forthe last levies consideredby him,it mayrepre- sent the tendencyto reach the definiteheight more precociously: thereis thereforeeven less reasonto add other15 mm.as does Denikerto get theheight 1647 mm. I Raseri,E., Materialiper la EtnologiaItaliana. Roma, 1879. 2 Livi, R., op. cit.,part i, p. 60. 3 Deniker,J. (op. cit.,p. 673), givesthe same indexfor 294,160: this figureis not correct; see Livi, R., op. cit.,part i, p. 257. 4 Mori,A., " Alcunidati statisticisull' indicenasale degli Italiani," Arch.per l'Antrop.e 1' Etnol.,xxvii, 1897, p. 219. This seriesis not foundin Appendixiii of the above-mentioned manualby Deniker,nor in the op. cit.of Martin. The latterdoes not even givethe nasal index of the Italian skeletalseries, only making an exception(on p. 835) forthe Pomlpeiansmeasured by E. Schmidt. 6 Livi, R., op. cit.,Part i, pp. 105-106.

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions V. G1UFFRIDA-RUGGERI.-A Sketchof the Anthropologyof Italy.,, 83 well Livi's idea. To confirmsuch a doubt,there is the factthat forsingle districts, Mori's data prove a very differentbearing of the nasal index fromthat which one should have on a basis of the so-called " naso arricciato"; contraryto what Livi would conclude,it has not yet been demonstratedthat NorthernItaly is more leptorrhinethan SouthernItaly. It seems that the brown dolichocephalof the peninsulais more leptorrhinethan the brachycephal,but certainlyother inquiries are necessary.' Cranial capacity.-The general average of the capacity of 212 Italian skulls measured with shot by Mantegazza is 1390 c.c., or 1484 c.c. for the men and 1316 c.c. forthe women,2 the absolute differencebetween the two sexesbeing 158 c.c. If the male capacity be consideredas 100, the female would be 89 2: almost the sante proportionis obtained by uniting many series measuredby divers anthro- pologistsin all the districtsof Italy.3 Weightof the brain.-The averagegiven by Calorifor the weight of male Italians' brainsis 1308 gr.,but it is an average whichis awaiting confirmation,as, according to Topinard,it does not give all the requiredguarantees,4 as it deals with weights obtained by differentobservers and for other reasons. Leaving aside individuals below 20 and over 60 years of age, male brachycephalsgive 1314 gr. and dolicho- mesaticephals 1287 gr.; on the contrary,for females the dolicho-mesaticephals give 1183 gr. and the brachycephals1162 gr. These are statistical contingencies whichhave no definitesignificance, in factthey rather demonstrate that the difference in weightbetween the narrowand the broad is negligible,contrary to the opinion of Calori and Martin,who also take no account of the differencein stature. If one accepts an average brain-weightof 1308 gr. and an average cranial capacity of 1474 c.c., the relationbetween the two is 88 7/100. The figure88-7 is very close to the coefficient87 foundby Manouvrierin the Frenchseries and can be used to obtain the probablebrain weightsof the various districtsof Italy. Leaving aside otherdata concerningthe totalityof Italians, we will pass on to the single districts. * * * * * .-The Piedmontese,says Nicolucci,is of a mediumstature, arms and legs strongand muscular. His colouris morebrown than white,hair oftenchestnut, rarelyfair; eyes generallygrey-green, large and open, the foreheadhigh, straight 1 This is demonstratedfor the femalesex : cf.Montessori, M., " Caratterifisici delle giovani donnedel ." Atti.Soc. Rom.Antrop., xii, 1906,fasc. 1, p. 94. A greaterskeletal platyr- rhinyseems to be foundin theislands. 2 Figuresgiven by Amadei, G., " La capacitl del cranioengli alienati," Arch. per 1'Antrop. e 1' Etnol.,1882, p. 187. 3 GiufTrida-Ruggeri,V., " La capacithdel cranionelle diversepopulazioni italiane antiche e moderne,"Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., x, 1904,p 262. 4Topinard, P., Elments d'anthropologiegenerale, Paris, 1885, p. 570. Calori, L., "Del cervellonei due tipi brachicefaloe dolicocefaloitaliani," Mem. dell' Accacl.delle Sc. di , Serieii, Tom. x, 1870. See also Nicolucci,G., II peso del cervellodell' uomo, Napoli, 1881. G 2

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and wide,the nose somewhatfleshy, lips generallynarrow and the face nearerto the square than to the round or oval. The average heightof Piedmonteseconscripts of the 1855-59 classes is 1627 mm.,by adding 10 mm. to whichwe obtain the average heightof the whole adult male Piedmontesepopulation = 1637 mm. The height of soldiers (" enrolled" as distinctfrom " conscripts,"who are all the males of 20 years ofage) is 1649 mm.; we findit referredto by Deniker, i.e., 22 mm. higherthan that of the conscripts, and forthe above-mentionedreasons it cannotbe adopted. For the pigmentation,using Table No. 15 of Livi's work,already mentioned, we have this percentage: forthe pure blond type 4-8, for the mixed 13'0, forthe pure brown 17 4, forthe mixed 41, 5. The average cephalicindex we take fromTable No. 24 of the same work,which gives forPiedmont 85 9, the highestcephalic index of all the provinces. The nasal index of 310 Piedmontesemeasured by Mori gives an average of 67 29. On 100'Piedmonteseskulls the maximumof frequencyof the nasal index was foundat 48, accordingto a table published by ProfessorSergi.' In anothertable, publishedby the samneanthropologist, are listed 60 nasal indices of Piedmontese skulls, withoutindication of sex, fromwhich I have obtained an average nasal index of 46-95. For the cranial capacity we can take the male to be 1500 c.c.2 and the female 1375, witha difterencebetween the two sexes of 125 c.c. Thus, multiplyingthese figuresby the coefficient88 7, we obtain the average brain-weightsof 1330 gr. for the males, and 1219-6 gr. forthe females. .-The Ligurian is markedlydifferent from the Piedmontese: as noted by Lvi, the head is moredolichocephalic, the hair and eyes much morebrown, the height generallygreater. The average heightof Ligurian conscriptsof the above-mentionedclasses was 1636 mm., which,with the addition of 10 mm.,gives the generalaverage heightof male Ligurians as 1646 mm. For thepigmentation we have thesepercentages: for the pureblond type3*5, forthe mixed 10 5, forthe pure brown21 1, forthe mixed 47'6. The average cephalic index is 82 3. The average nasal index of fortyLigurians measured by Mori was 65'37, the minimumfor all Italians.

1 Sergi,G., "Liguri e Celtinella valle del ," Arch.per I' Antrop.e 1' Etnol.,xiii, 1883,faso. 20,tab. xi, p. 172. 2 See Sergi,G., " Liguri," etc., loc. cit.,tab. viii; Giuffrida-Ruiggeri,V., "La capacitb4," etc., IOc.cit., p. 258. As the singlecapacities are missingin Sergi'stables it is impossibleto give the preciseaverage: ifwe referto the groupof greaterfrequency the male capacitymust be consideredlower than 1500 c.c., perhaps1450 c.c. Lombrosoin 28 normalPiedmontese crania obtainedan averageof 142919.

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Passing fromthe living to the skeletalmaterial, some resultshave already been published by me,' othersI have taken from my tables: in 56 male Ligurian skulls (of which 38 were Genovese) I obtained an average cephalic index of 79 34; in 68 femaleLigurian skulls (of which38 wereGenovese) the same index is 79 89. The samieseries slightly diminished (55 men and 63 women)gave me the nasal index of 45 I 44 forthe male skulls and 47I26 forthe female,thus the total average is a littlelower than the Piedmontesetotal average. Lomtbardy.-TheLombard is mostlike the Piedmontese,only he is a littletaller, moreblond and with a longerskull than the Piedmontese. The average heightof Lomnbardconscripts was 1632 mm., thereforefor the whole adult male population 1642 mm. For the pigmentationthe percentages are: for the pure blond type 4 3, for the mixed 11 7, forthe pure browntype 20 1, forthe mixed 445. The average cephalic index is 84 4. The nasal index of 169 Lombardsmeasured by Morigave an average of 67'31. The cranial capacity of 55 men of was 1393 c.c., taken with millet.2 In the province of 326 brains with the meningeswere weighed by Tenchini3(as Broca had already done), 159 male and 167 female; the average male weight was 1320 gr. and the female 1194 gr., the sexual differencebeing thus 126 gr. Venetia.-Nicolucci says the Venetians' heightis greaterthan that of other Italians, the colour of theirskin is betweenwhite and brown,hair almost always chestnut,often also quite blond; the iris is generallyof a dark colourbut not in- frequentlymore or less blue, nose shortand fleshy; the face wide and round,with thecheek-bones somewhat extended to thesides and thejaw wide towardsthe corners, so that we findthis part in the same verticalline with the zygomas. The average height,of Venetian conscripts is 1653 mm.,so that we get 1663 mm. forthe wholeadult male population,which is slightlyless than 1679 mm.,the average obtained by Viola4 on 350 Venetians.

1 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " Crani Sicilianie craniLiguri," Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., xiii, 1907, fasc. i. 2 The individualfigures are to be foundin a publicationby Zoja, G., 11Gabinetto di Anatomia narmaledelcta R. Universittidi Pavia, Osteologia, Pavia, 1874. The cephalic indices of thesesame skullsare probablylower than the real index,as the transversediameter was taken by Zoja " fromthe mostprominent part of one parietalprotuberance to the other,"instead of the maximumwidth of the braincase. The nasal indexis missing. 3 Tenchini,L., Sul peso dell' encefalo,degli emisferi cerebrali e del cervellettonei Lombardi, dellaprovincia Bresciana. Parma, 1884,pp. 4-5. 4 Viola, G., " Le dimensionidell' uomo medio normale ," in thework by De Giovanni, A.. Studidi morfologiaclinica. Vol. ii., Padova, 1905.

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For the pigmentationwe have thesepercentages: forthe pure blond type5*4, for the mixed 14' 2-these are the highestfigures of those obtained fromall the Italian regions; for the pure brown type 18'6, forthe mixed 41 8-on the other hand, these figuresare not the lowest,as theyare somewhat higher than those obtainedin Piedmont.,1 The average cephalic index is 85, 0. The average nasal index of 67 Venetians measured by Mori was 66i73. In the Trentinothe data fromthe levies whichwe have, gatheredand used by othermethods, are not always comparablewith those used by Livi; the factremains that the proportionof tall individualsis somewhatinferior to that whichwe findin Venetia and veryinferior to that in the Tyrol; the oppositeproportion is foundfor the low statures.' In the many cranial series studied by various anthropologists the dolichocephalsdo not reach1 per cent.and the same is foundon theliving ;2 the proportionof brachycephalsand hyperbrachycephalsis about 80 per cent. The leptorrhinesand themesorrhines are in almiostequal proportionsalong with a considerableproportion of platyrrhines,i.e., 26 per cent. in 110 skulls fromthe Fassa valley. For the pigmientationthe data only concernschool children.3 Emilita,, .-In theinhabitants of these threedistricts Nicolucci recognisesthe " Umbriantype." The average heightof Emilian conscriptswas 1639 mm.,therefore for all adult male Emilians we have 1649 mm.; proceeding in the same way, we have for Umbrians1636 mm.,and forMarchigians 1633 mm. The pigmentationin the threedistricts is very closelyrelated, especially in the mixed browntype, for which the percentagesare: in 50' 2, in the Marche 49 0, in Umbria 48 7; correlativelyblonds are morefrequent in Umbria,3*8, than in the Marche,2 7, or in Emilia, 2 3. The greatestdifference is in the cephalic index, which is, on an average, 85 2 in Emilia, whileit is 84 1 in Umbria and 84 0 in the Marche. But in Emilia itself thereare notable differences,as :,which makes part of it, is much more brachycephalicthan all the rest of the , whilst the mountainpopulation of the Emilian Apennianesis only slightlybrachycephalic. The highestaverage nasal index for the whole kingdomis that obtained on 90 Umbrians,viz., 70'37, while 208 Emilians gave an average of 68'68, and 112 Marchigians67 26.

I Moschen,L., " La staturadei Trentini,"Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., Vol. i, 1893,p. 84. 2 Moschen,L., " Note di craniologiaTrentina," Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., v, 1897,p. 11. A plan of cephalicindexes compiled for 12,000Tyrolo- skulls can be foundin Ripley,W. Z., The Races ofEurope. London,1900, p. 291. 3 Nloschen,L., " I caratterifisici e le origini dei Trentini,"Arch. per l'Antrop.e 1' Etnol., xxii, 1892,p. 106 etseq.

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For Emilia we have some examples of anthropologicalobservations confined to one town,Bologna. It is surprisingto findthat whileLivi gives a heightof 1642 mm. forBolognese at 20 years of age, Riccardi' gives higheraverages beginningat 17 years of age, and as the definiteheight (from26-35 years) he gives 1696 mm., whichisnearlyequal to theaverage found by Peli2for adult Bolognese,i.e., 1697 mm. For the femalesex Riccardi gives 1553 mm., which is a sexual differenceof 14 cm., and Peli gives 1549 mm.,almost reaching the sexual differenceof 15 cm. In the cranial capacity also, measuredwith shot, the sexual differencein the Bologneseappears very high,i.e., 183 c.c., accordingto what I have gatheredfrom Moschen's tables,3189 c.c. in anotherseries studied by Zanolli,4making the male capacity 100; the femaleis only 87, below the average of such a comparisonin Italy. This is in correlationwith the great sexual differencesin height. Zanolli has also comparedhis series of Bolognese skullswith a seriesof skulls from Todi (Umbria), of 47 male and 63 female. In this series the average male capacity being 1498 c.c. and the female 1356 c.c., the differenceis reduced to 142 c.c. ; theaverage cephalicindex oscillatesaround 82 forthe Bolognese as well as for those fromnTodi, and the nasal index around 47.5 On the other hand, fromeighty-five Umbrian skulls from Ferentillo, measured with shot by Professor Sergi,I get 1490 c.c. forthe male sex and 1308 c.c. forthe female: sexual difference 182 c.c. The brain weightis also notably differentin the two sexes in Emilia: Pini6gives for 30 male Bolognese1330 gr. and for30 female1175 gr. .-In Tuscany,says Nicolucci,we still see physiognomieswhich recall the ancientEtruscans: the Tuscans are generallyof mediumheight, but tall men are not infrequent;the colourof theirskin is brown,and theirhair generallydark; black eyes,rarely blue, largeand wide open,an oval face,slightly wide at the line of the cheek-bones; a high, straight,clean-cut nose, delicate lips, somewhatpointed chin,a sweetand expressivecountenance, especially in thewomen, who are generally prettyand pleasing. The heightof Tuscans-adding the usual 10 mm. to that of conscripts-gives an average of 1649 mm. 1 Riccardi,P., " Staturae condizionesociale studiate nei Bolognesicontemporanei," Arch. per l' Antrop. e I' Etnol., xv., 1885, p. 104. 2 Peli, G., " Sulle misuredel corpo nei Bolognesi,ricerche antropometriche," Mem. dell' Accad.delle Scienze di Bologna,1881, S. iv, T. ii. 3 Moschen,L., "Nuova contribuzioneallo studiodella craniologiadei Bolognesi,"Atti. Soc. Roin.Antrop., viii, 1901,pp. 18-20. 4 Zanolli, V., " Studi di antropologiabolognese, Part i, Crani e mandibole,"Atti Accad. scient.Ven.-Trent.-- Istriana, Classe I, AnnoV, Padova, 1908.

a For the exact figuressee Zanolli,V., " Saggio di craniologiatuderte," Atti Accad. scient. Ven.-Trent.-Istriana,Padova, 1912,p. 10 of the reprint. 6 Pini,G., " Sopra il rapportofra il volumeed il peso specificodell' encefaloumano," Atti Soc. Rom. Antrop.,Vol. vii, 1900, p. 111. Here are cited the precedingresults of other authors: Franceschi,who was able to weigh400 Bolognesebrains, obtained somewhat higher figures.whilst Gaddi obtainedmuch lower figures for .

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For the pigmentationwe have thesepercentages: forthe pure blond type 3 3, forthe nixed 9 8, forthe pure brown type 22, 0, forthe mixed 47*7. The average cephalicindex is 82 3. The average nasal index of 760 Tuscans, measuredby Mori,is 69 09. In Tuscany it is necessaryto distinguishthe Lucehesitaand the Gar/agnana,as thesetwo regionsbelong to a populationwhich is amongthe tallestin the kingdom and tends to dolichocephaly,as alreadynoted by Lombroso.1 By adding 10 mn-. to the heightof conscriptsfrom the Garfagnana(" circondario" of Castelnuovo) we getthe average height of 1672 5 mm.,whichis the highest in Italy.L The average cephalic index of this same " circondario" seems to be 78 2. In the femalesex of the Lucchesia we also findvery tall statures: in 114 womenthe greatestfrequency was noted at 1570 mm.3 As to Tuscan skeletal mnaterial,the study made by Bianchi4 of fortymnale skullsand fiftyfemale from the town and surroundingcountry of Siena abounds in detailed observations,but the averages-because of a hostilitytowards averages, whichbecame fashionablesome time ago-are missingand cannot even be exactly deduced. Withoutthe averages the most importantmeans of presentinganthro- pological phenomenais absent,; these phenomenacannot be summarisedin any otherway. We can say approximatelythat the capacity seemsvery near to that of the Piedmontese. It seemnsalso thatprognathism is relativelynotable, and is almost invariablyalveolar. There has also been noted a great variety of morphological characteristicsdepending upon the mixtureof brachycephals(which are in the majority)and dolicho-mesaticephals. .-The Roman typehas been much debated; differentopinions are held, principallyby Nicolucci,who affirmsits existence,and by Livi, whois ofthe opposite opinion. The question,however, has been resolvedby an exhaustivestudy of the female sex. Dr. Maria Montessori,having measured 200 women of Latium, was able to conclude that there are two distinct types:5 the dolicho-mesaticephalic (cephalicindex 76), brown,short (1 53 m.), moreleptorrhine (nasal index 61), which was numericallyprevalent and the otherwhich is taller (1I57 m.), brachycephalic (cephalic index 83), blond and less leptorrhine(nasal index 65). For the male sex the average heightof conscriptsfrom Latium being 1623 mm., we get forthe whole adult population 1633 mim.

1 Lombroso, C., " Note di antropometria della Lucchesia e Garfagnana," Annali di Stati- stica, 1878. 2 Cf.Atti Soc. Rom.Antr., xii, 1906,p. 340. 3 Pittaluga, R., " Studio antroponietricosulle donne della Lucchesia," AttiSoc. Rom. Antrop., xv, 1908, p. 19. 4 Bianchi, S., "Craniologia dei Senesi odierni," Arch. per 1'Antrop. e 1'Etnol., xiv, 1884, p. 319. 5Montessori, M., " Caratteri fisici," etc., loc. cit.

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The percentagesof pigmentationare: for the pure blond type 2,0, for the mixed7-3, forthe purebrown type 26a1, forthe mixed52 9. The average cephalicindex is 81 0. For the nasal index we find,in Mori's tables, only21 personsfrom Latiuni, who give an average index of 69 '71. This much higherfigure than that whichwe have in the nasal index of the women measured by Montessorimakes us inclined to think that Mori's indices are all higherthan theyshould be for the male sex,but it is not possible to determineby how much: otherinvestigations are necessary. The cephalic index of 44 male skulls of so-called modernRomans-they are really of very differentderivation, from Old and New Latium-studied by Nicoluccil gave an average of 78 2: he got the same average in a small series of femaleskulls. The average capacity of 41 skullsmeasured with sand was 1513 c.c. Abruzzi,Campanisa, Puglie, Basilitcata,Calabrie.-All these districtscorrespond anthropologicallyto the southerntype of the ,which is thus de- scribed by Nicolucci. The heightis generallybelow the medium,the colourof the skin somewhatbrown, although white and flesh-colouredskins are not lacking. The hair is almost always black, black the lively,penetrating eyes; a slim figure withoutadipose and withouta paunch. They have not a very wide forehead,but it is high and flat,the eyebrowsthick and arched,the nose high and clean cut, the chin slightlypointed. In the heightwe findmuch resemblancein these fiveregions. We have-with theusual additionof 10 mm.to thoseof conscripts-the following averages: Abruzzi (and )1617, 1620, Puglie 1613, 1599(whichis the minimum forthe whole kingdom),Calabrie 1604. For the pigmentationwe have a characteristicaugmentation from north to south,as we have for the mixed browntype the followingpercentages: Abruzzi (and Molise) 50 8, Campania 54-7, Puglie 55,2, Basilicata 56-0, Calabrie 62 2. The average cephalic index presentsa generaldiminution towards the south: Campania 82 1, Abruzzi81-9, Basilicata 80-8, Puglie 79-8, Calabrie 78&4. The homogeneityof the meridionaltype is well seen in the nasal index,in 188 Abruzzese69 77, in 116 Campanians 69 68, in 185 Pugliese 69 49. A series of 100 Neapolitan skullswere studied by De Blasio,250 male and 50 female. The male averages were: cephalic index 77 3, nasal index 46 56, cranial capacity 1294 c.c.; differencebetween the two sexes 107 c.c. The cranial capacity of the Pugliese was higher: 57 male skulls measured

1 Nicolucci,G., " Antropologiadel Lazio," Atti R. Accad. Sc. fis. mat. di Napoli, 1875, Vol. iv. 2 De Blasio, A., " L' ossuariodell' Annunziatadi Napoli," Rit. mens.di Psich.for., Antrop. crim.e sc. affini,1903, p. 123.

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 90 V. G 1UFFRIDA-RUGGERI.-A Sketchof theAnthropology of Italy. with shot by Moschen' gave an average of 1494 c.c. and 31 female skulls 1340 8; difference193 c.c. .-Nicolucci does not findthe Sicilian type so uniformas it is generally believedto be; others,on theother hand, find it indistinguishablefrom the meridional type as a whole. Both judgmentsmay be true,according to the degreeof analysis which one has in mind. For example, it is difficultto finda differencebetween and the above-mentionedSoutherners in the statisticsof the levies. The heightof the whole adult male population-adding 10 mm. to that of con- scripts-is 1618 mm. The average cephalic index of 32,526 Sicilians given by Deniker is 79 0 by a misprint,it being really79-6. The nasal index of 382 Sicilians measuredby Morigave an averageof 70*0. Many seriesof Sicilian skullshave been measured.2 The most homogeneousis that of Mondio, made up of modernMessinese, 100 men and 80 won-en. In this series the average cephalicindex forthe male sex was 75 81, forthe female75 08. The averagesagree with the resultsI obtainedfrom a morenumerous series, that of the AnatomicalInstitute of the Universityof Catania (but whichcame fromvarious parts of the island), the 113 male which mneasured being one-halfwith an index below 75 0 and one-halfwith an index above, whilstthe 90 femaleskulls gave an index somnewhathigher. For the average nasal index on the skeletonMondio gives 48 05 forthe male sex and 49-78 forthe female. As to distributionby categoriesI have been able to see that the leptorrhines(up to 47-0) make up 40*2 per cent.,as in the male so in the femaleseries; therefore,as the majorityis above such an index,an incipientskeletal mesorrhinyis demionstratedfor the whole population. For the cranialcapacity Mondio obtained an average of 1398 c.c. in theinale sex and 1256 c.c. in the female,a differencebetween the sexes of 142 c.c. In the 210 skulls measured by mnewith shot (120 male and 90 female) I obtained an average of 1330 6 c.c. forthe males and 1239 6 c.c. for the females,a diflerenceof only 91 c.c. betweenthe sexes,3but probablyI had struckan exceptional series(in thecollections of anatomicai institutes there are easilyincluded by preference those abnormalskulls which occurin dissections),as it seems to me that the male capacity is too small. We must also rememberthat theirbelonging to the lowest social class influencesthe result.

1 In an unpublished work: see Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., La capacitdadel cranio, etc., where there are other indications (i.e. for Venetians, Istrians, etc.) not included in this sketch. 2 See principally: AMoschen,L., " Quattro decadi di crani moderni della Sicilia," Atti Soc. Veneto-Trentina di Sc. natur., Serie II, Vol. i, fasc. ii, 1903; Mondio, G., "Studio sopra 200 teschi messinesi: 180 appartenenti a sani, 20 a delinquenti," Arch. per 1' Antrop. e 1'Etnol., xxvi, 1897, fasc. 3; Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " Crani Siciliani e crani Liguri," loc. cit. 3 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " Terzo contributo all' antropologia asica dei Siculi eneolitici " Atti Soc. Rom. Antrop.,ix, 1905, fasc. 1, p. 82, in a note.

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Sardinia.-In also Nicolucci findsvery differenttypes accordingto districts;he agreeswith Father Bresciani, froim whom he takesthe following descrip- tion:-" The Sardinianshave thickand veryblack hair,some plait it and someallow it to fall on to theirshoulders with locks each side on theirtemples. They have a brownskin, but thisis darkesttowards the South Cape and graduallyacquires lighter shades as we proceed northwards,until we findthe vermilion and white cheeksof the Fonnesi and Gallurani. They have black vivacious eyes . ."I He also notesthe differencein heightbetween the Sardiniansof Cape Calaritano,a verysmall people, and the tall people ofLogodoro, and Nurrawith thick beards. As the average heightof all Sardinians of the male sex we have 1601 mm., the heightof conscriptsbeing 10 mm. lower.2 For pigmentationwe have thesepercentages: for the pure blond type0 5, for the mixed 2 -9; for the pure brown type 25-4, for the mixed 70 *4; these are the minimumnand maximum figuresrespectively for each type,found in Italy. The average cephalic index is also the minimum,77,5: in the provinceof Cagliariit is 77-2 and 78&1in the provinceof Sassari. For the nasal index, only35 Sardinians are found in Mori's tables, and these give an average of 68 82, which is a little higher than the index 66-6, obtained from86 Sardiniansmeasured by Gillebertd'Hercourt.3 Much skeletalmaterial from Sardinia has been gatheredin the museumsof the island and theContinent. The Sardiniancollection in ,at theCollegio Romano, has been excellentlywell studied by ProfessorDuckworth of Cambridge.4 The cephalic index of the male series (70 skulls) gives an average of 71-53, the nasal index 490, the cranial capacity,calculated according to Lee's formula,1426 c.c., a very high capacity, consideringthe low heightof Sardinians. The femaleseries gave, cephalic index (32 skulls) 71x94, nasal index 49-2, cranial capacity 1252 c.c., differencebetween the two sexes 174 c.c. The femalesare less orthognathous, havingthe alveolar index 96 -48, whilethe male is 95 -2. On thewhole the Sardinians are more dolichocephalicthan the Sicilians (a diflerenceof 4 units) and equally mesorrhine,with a much greatersexual differencein the cranial capacity. Given the low statureit seems as though this sexual differencewas out of proportion, especiallyas it is not confirmedin otherseries. A series,partly unpublished, by 1 Bresciani,A., Dei costumidell' isola di Sardegnacomparati agli antichissimipopoli orientali, Napoli, 1850,Vol. i., p 41. 2 ProfessorMartin (op. cit.,p. 214) gives the statureof Sardiniansas 1619*: this asterisk indicatesthat other 10 mm.must be added to get the correctheight, 1629; but all thisis comn- pletelyerroneous, as it wouldmean an increasein statureamounting to 38 mm.! 9 Gillebertd'Hercourt, " Rapportsur l'anthropologieet l'ethnologiedes populationssardes," Arch.des missionsscientifiques etlitt&., 3 s6rie,t. xii, Paris, 1885,p. 42,. " Duckworth,W. L. H., " A studyof the Craniologyof the ModernInhabitants of Sardinia," Zeitschr.f. Morphol.u. Anthrop.,xiii, 3 (1911),pp. 439-504, In thisarticle are citedother authors on the Sardinians.

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Ardu Onnis,gives 1403 c.c. for114 male skullsand 1298 c.c. for97 female skulls, a sexual differenceof 105 c.c. ProfessorDuckworth himself compares the populationof Sardinia withthat of .1 From anthropometricdata,- obtained by Jaubert,we get as the average heightof 17,726Corsican conscripts 1633 4 mm.2as cephalicindex of 500 men 76 6. The strongestdolichocephaly is foundin the mountainousdistrict of Niolo, and is accompaniedby greaterheight and a blond or light-chestnutcomplexion, instead of which the people of the mountainousdistricts of Sardinia, wherealso we find the greatest dolichocephaly,i.e., Lanusei and Nuoro, are the lowest in height and darkestin colouring. Accordingto Duckworth,a replacementof the primitive population has occurred in centralCorsica, which has remainedfairly pure in the mountainousdistricts of Sardinia. It is this originalelement which he has tried to isolate in his Sardinian series (11-12 skulls of 70), which presentthe characteristicsof extremedolicho- cephaly,a tendencyto platyrrhinyand prognathism.The presenceof this element which is not the common Mediterraneanelement-explains why Sardinia is themost dolichocephalic of the Italian districtsand has perhapsthe greatest tendency to prognathismand curlyhair.3 An ancient Pignmyelement of Africanorigin has been thoughtof by ProfessorSergi, but this idea of an ancientPigmy population in manyparts of Europe has been abandoned in recenttimes: the factson which it relied were perhaps only favourableto the demonstrationof the presence of a Proto-Ethiopicelement of low height,an hypothesisaccording to us moreplausible, and whichexplains equally well the presenceof certainequatorial characteristics. * * * * * If the so-called Race really existed, the anthropologyof Italy, as of a good part of Europe, would be very simple: it would be sufficientto describethe characteristicsof this race. But he who tries to put togethersuch a description findsout at oncethat thingsare verydifferent, and that thereare no physicalcharac- teristicswhich apply to all the representativesof the so-called Latin Race. He findswithout fail that the physical characteristics are the mostvaried, and he has no criterionto select some and leave othersaside: in theseconditions it is notpossible to give any descriptionof thispretended race, and a race whichcannot be described in its physical characteristicsis purelyimaginary, it does not exist in a zoological sense: of this cultivated people are generallypersuaded. There exist instead somatic groups, or somatic unities, which we find among all the Latin popula- tions,as we findthem in the Anglo-Saxon,Slav, etc., populations. This inquiry 1 Numerousliterary references on the subject of Corsican anthropologyare given by ProfessorW. L. H. Duckworth,loc. cit.,p. 480; see also Deniker,J., " La Taille en Europe," loc cit.,pp. 34-36. 2 For thesean averageincrease in heightof only 10 mm.between the 21st and 26th years has beenascertained (Duckworth, loc. cit.,p. 481). 3 Both factsare frequentlymentioned by Sergi,G., La Sardegna,Torino, 1907, pp. 81-85, Figs. 23-24, 27-28.

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI.-A Sketchof the Anthropologyof Italy. 93 constitutesthe somaticanalysis of a given population,and belongs exclusivelyto physical anthropology. The physicalanthropology of Italy can be describedon broad lines and forthis are especiallyuseful the investigationsin militaryanthropometry of Livi, who has co-ordinatedthem and summedthem up withinfinite care-or in the moredetailed way by restrictedand monographicinvestigations. On broad lines we can say-and commonlythe fact is clear even to the eyes of the vulgar-that thereis a very evidentsomatic differencebetween the North and the South ofItaly. The collectionsof skullswhich have been studied,of these two large regions,have shownthat the lower half of the peninsula and the islands have a veryhomogeneous population. It is certainthat the fact of finding practically onlycertain cranial forms,ellipsoid, ovoid, pentagonoid,along with perfectorthog- nathisniand a lepto-ntesorrhinenasal index,gives us the rightto thinkthat we are dealingwith a single,Mediterranean, race, without wishing to enterinto the question whetherthis has not been originallyaltered by archaic similar forms,but which belongedto anotherrace, less orthognateand less leptorrhine,and withoutwishing to exclude the possibilitythat some element,which can onlybe diagnosed by its very high stature and by depigmentation,has been incorrectlyincluded among the Mediterraneans. Vice versa,the collectionsfrom the North show the opposite fact, that is, the prevalence of the differentshort forms, sphenoid, spheroid, etc., especially platycephalic,1the shapes of the so-called Eurasic stock; or, better, perhaps, of the Alpine variety; nevertheless,the homogeneityis less than in the South, as Mediterraneanforms are fairlywell represented. We notice almost the same fact if we considerthe maps of the cephalic index published by Livi: we see in Southernand the great prevalence of dolicho-mesocephals,in NorthernItaly the preponderanceof brachycephals,whilst in CentralItaly firstone and then the otherprevail; that is, on the Adriaticslope, inore oftenthe brachycephals,on the Tyrrhenianslope the dolicho-mesocephals. In the Northalso we have not everywherethe same intensityof brachycephaly, but we have lighterspots whichcorrespond to a considerableproportion of dolicho- mesocephals. When one also remembersthat a part of the Mediterraneanskulls. especiallypentagonoid and ovoid shapes,pass intothe firstdegrees of brachycephalyY the mixture in NorthernItaly is still greater than that which appears fromi Livi's maps: in certainEmilian and Lombardprovinces the cranialforms, which are reallyAlpine or Dinaric, inake up less than half.2 In SouthernItaly, also, one has not everywherethe same intensityof dolichocephaly,as thereare hereand thereunequal brachycephalic infiltrations,according to whetherinvasions have carried naew

1 See, forexample, for Venetia ?Tedeschi,E. E., " Studi di antropologiaVeneta," Atti Socx Rom.Antrop., Vol. v, p. 49. 2 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " La staturain rapportoalle formecraniche. Note di antropologia Emilianae Lombarda,"Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., Vol. v, fasc.ii.

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ethnicwaves to one place ratherthan to another. It seems that these have quite spared the Garfagnanaand in part Liguria also, especiallythe Gulf of Spezia, as the ancient dolicho-mesocephalic,brown, tall population has remained almost intact. Nicolucci says that in Romagna one not infrequentlymeets men of a strong, robustfigure, who are notincorrectly judged to be of Gothicorigin, and also that the descendantsof the Longobardshave generallya high nose, somewhatthick towards the tip, ratherprominent cheek-bones, the shape of the face between round and square; they are tall, of a white skin,with verylight chestnut-colouredhair and oftenblond. He himselfcites Maggiorani,lwho says that the descendantsof the Arabsin Sicilyare recognisableby theirheight, brrown colouring, slim, slightfigure, long profile,deep-sunk eyes, which are black and shining,small mouth,aquiline nose,with only a slightdepression at its root. We have already seen that in colouringand hair the Italian population is by a very great majoritybrown: in fact not onlyis the Mediterraneanrace brown, but also the so-calledCeltic race whichpredominates in the valley of the Po. The greatestquantity of really blond individuals, with blond hair and lighteyes, is found in Venetia. In a less degreeblonds are foundall overItaly, not excludingthe islands: in Sicily theyare speciallyfound in the provinceof Palermo,which is said to arise from the greater number of Normans who established themselvesthere. The Albanians,too, fromainvestigations made in the provinceof Cosenza,2are foundto be less pigmentedthan the Calabrians; it is sufficientto say that in 59 men fair hairwas 27 per cent.,light eyes 47 per cent., and white skin 67 per cent.; theyare also taller (in. 1P64) and less dolichocephalic(cephalic index 80' 6). If we exclude Venetia and the Garfagnana,height in the rest of Italy is somewhatlow, as the Alpine or Celtic race of the valley of the Po, as well as the Mediterranean,are both of low stature, with the differencethat the first is moresturdy. In the south of the peninsula,especially in Basilicata, and in the islands,we have a largepercentage of very short individuals, as we can see by the numberof conscripts refusedbecause of theirheight: we have the maximumof men refusedin Sardinia, about 30 per cent. of the conscriptsfroma the provinceof do not reach the heightof m. 1 46. In a verysmall degreethis can be attributedto retardedgrowth. It would be importantto ascertainif thereare differencesin the various phases ofgrowth between the differentregions of Italy: it seemsthat the rhythmrsis not the same forthe Romagnols and the Abruzzese.3 In the Abruzzeseof Teramo it seems

I Maggiorani,C., " Reminiscenzeantropologiche della Sicilia," Atti R. Accad. dei Lincei, 1871. 2 Zampa, R., " AnthropologieIllyrienne," Revue d'Anthropologie,2e serie,T. ix, p. 634. Unfortunatelythis important memorial is fullof printer'serrors: cf., by the same author," Ver- gleichendeanthropologische Ethnographie von Apulien,"Zeits. f. Ethnol.,1886. 3 Vitali,V., " Gli Abruzzesi."Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., vol. viii,1901, p. 218.

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions V. GIUFFRIDA-ZRUGGERI.-A Sketchof the Anthropologyof Italy. 95 that we have coefficientsof growthbelow the sixteenthyear which are supeiiorto the respectivecoefficients-in the Romagnols. The period of greatestgrowth occurs betweenthe thirteenthand sixteenthyear in the case of the Abruzzeseand between the twelfthand fifteenthyear in the Piedmontese.' It seems also that an acceleration of developmenthas taken place generallythroughout Italy in recent times.2 Fromwhat we have pointedout it is evidentthat thereare manygaps, but they are not greaterthan thosewhich we findin otherEuropean ethnographicalregions ; in fact,perhaps we may say that Italy is relativelybetter studied than any other. With the averages which we have given for the differentdistricts, it is easy to constructa map of the geographicaldistribution throughout Italy of each somatic characteristicstudied. A revision of Italian craniologicaldata is at present beingmade fromthe pointof view of the heightof the skull,3 and promisesto give importantresults.

II.-THE ORIGINS OF THE ITALICI PEOPLES. Leaving aside all that refersto the Palwolithicage, in whichItaly was nmuch less favouredthan were the otherregions of WesternEurope, Italian originsfind a more solid base in theNeolithic age. Fromnthe Lombard plains to the Ionic shore arch2eologistshave foundthe circularfoundations of a numberof huts half buried in the earth,which were inhabitedby the familiesof a pastoral people who were unitedin real villages. The huts are hollowedin the groundon purpose,perhaps to frustratethe violence of the wind or to hide better the inhabitantsfromLl their enemies: as entranceswe findeither descending steps, or an inclinedplane, or a shaftclose to the hut. In these hut-foundationsare found,not onlyweapons of polishedstone, but all the remains of domesticcrafts, amongst which the pottery is the maostevolved in technique,form, and decoration. Withthe hut-dwellersappear the firstburials, the funeralrite is that ofinhuma- tion; the body was laid in the so-called "contracted" position,that is, lyingon its side with the legs doubled up; it had beside it everythingit could need in its life beyond the tomb. In the greatPrehistoric and EthnographicalMuseum in the CollegioRomano at Rome, such skeletonscan be seen still in the earth,where they werefound with funeralfurniture which diflersaccording to the sex. The caves generallyserved as cemaeteriesfor the small neighbouringtribes; manyhave been explored,especially in Liguria,where are the famousBalzi Rossi (in dialect," Bausse russe ") caves, also called the caves of Mentone,which have givenso muchmaterial

1 Pagliani,L., Lo sviluppoumano, 2a ediz. , 1913,p. 35. 2 Da' Rossi,G., " La staturadegli Italiani," Arch. per 1'Antrop. e 1'Etnol., xxxiii, 1903, p. 63. 8 Pelizzola,C., " L' altezza del cranionel Tirolo," R. Ist. Lomb.sc. e litt.,Rendic., XLVIII, 1915, fasc. 12; "Linee generalidella distribuzionedell' altezza del cranio nella Penisola Italiana." Parte I, AttiSoc. Ital. Sc. Nat., LVII, Pavia, 1918.

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forstudy to Frenchanthropologists. These caves are on the frontierbetween Italy and , and close to the territoryof the Prince of Monaco, who gave liberal sums to French archoeologistsand anthropologiststo facilitatetheir exploration and study. Theywere inhabitedand used as places even beforethe age, that is, at the end of the palseolithicage, to which belong the skeletonsof a negroidtype, which were foundin themalong with others,more recent, of the Cro- Magnontype, a type oftenfound in France in the Magdalenianepoch. They there- foreseem to belong in one sense to French Paleethnologyand in othersto Italian; theirimplements belong to the end of Aurignacianepoch, but the caves are related to the other neolithic caves of Liguria, examined by ProfessorIssel and other Italians, where also were found many skeletonswhich are now in the Geological Museumof . But characteristicneolithic Italian tombsare thoseexcavated in cliffs,which ProfessorPigorinil calls the " most ancientmonuments of theEuropean continent." These artificialcaves, whichare enteredby an inclinedplane, or by a cylindricalshaft, or by steps cut in the rock,are like a narrowoven, and in realitv reproducethe type of dwellingof the semi-subterraneanhuts2 mentioned above. The firsttXo demonstrate the greatimportance of the studyof prehistoric civilization was Gaetano Chiericiof Reggio-Emilia,and in the Museo Civico of that town are preservedmany skeletonsof this epoch. Afterhim a phalanx of studentshave inquiredinto our prehistoric origins, with results which have been muchappreciated, as theirstudies have illuminatedgreatly the wholeItalian neolithicage. At the presentday it seems that we can affirmthat we are not dealing with local progressfrom the palseolithic age, and perhapsnot evenwith a civilizationwhich slowlyintroduced itself. ProfessorPigorini, who has given his scientificlife to this research,holds that although the old inhabitantsremained here and there,it is certain that in the midst of themsuddenly appeared a people whose usages, customs,arts. and craftsare totallywithout relation to the past. These new inhabitantsprobably came fromthe East in canoes, and havingcrossed the Mediterranean,landed on the southernshores of the peninsula, as well as in Sicilyand Sardinia. Amongthe orna- mentsabandoned on thefloors of the hutsand caves theyleft the shellsof Meleagrina margariti/eraand Mitra oleacea,which reveal the Eastern route. Eric Peet, in his comprehensivevolume dedicated to prehistoricItaly,3 writes, "They are no novicesin the art ofpottery-making,"4 and he also adds that theyare a pastoral people and can be no otherthan that later called Ligures (Liguri) by

1 Pigorini,L., " Le piuiantiche civilta dell' Italia," Bull. Palet. Ital., xxix,Nos. 10-12,1904, p. 197. 2 Pigorini,L., " Gli abitantiprimitivi dell' Italia," AttiSoc. Ital. per il prog.d. scienze,3a riunione,IRoma, 1910, p. 16. 3 In this highlyrecommendable work one findsamply expounded many investigations, here omitted,by Brizio,Orsi, Colini, Milani, Pinza and others. 4 Peet, T. E., The Stoneand BronzeAges in Italy and Sicily. Oxford,1909, p. 165.

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historians. He is uncertainwhether the Ligures came by sea or by land, passing throughSpain and SouthernFrance. This latter route is certainlythe longer,if they came fromthe East, because it means that they had to cross all Northern Africato the Straitsof Gibraltar, but it is perhapsthe routemost likely to be followed by a pastoral people. It seems that the Siculi belongedto the same race as the Ligures,as theywere all people of the " Mediterraneantype." The descentof the Siculi fromthe Italian peninsulainto Sicily is strenuouslyupheld by ProfessorPatroni, 1 as it seemsconfirmed by diversarchseological evidences ; given the vicinityof the island to the mainland, it is veryprobable that this happened various timesand came to the notice of historians,if evenin 'times there were Siculi in . In manyparts of the peninsula traditionmentions the Siculi, which would be difficultto account foras purelya fable. But the most ancientneolithic population, that whichtakes its name fromStentinello, a locality near Syracuse,must have come straightfrom the Eastern Mediterranean,probably fromCrete, if Peet was able to assert that whoeverexamines the neolithicpottery to be foundin the museumsof Syracuseand Candia, sees at once that the Stentinelloware belongs to the same archaeological context as that which came frombeneath the floorsof the palace at Knossos and elsewherein Crete.2 At a later epoch, at the end of the neolithicage, in the cave of Villafrati,near Palermo,are also foundthe human representativesof an Oriental type (markedlybrachycephalic skulls), together with the characteristiccup shaped like an invertedbell, whose prototypeis foundin the East. The legend of the -Iberiis now put aside, althoughin the westernpart of the island similarities to Iberian civilizationof the same period are not lacking,but this is due to " that greatwave ofinfluence which touched the coast districtsof , bringing withit the dolmenand -pottery,"4as the dolmenalso appeared in the neo- lithic age and seem to be distributedaccording to certainlines of navigationand overland commerceA6On the other hand it is certain that the brachycephalic skullscould not come fromSpain, but ratherfrom the highregions of Asia Minor. ProfessorPatroni affirmsthat in the most ancient Sardinian tombs of oven- form,called " " or "witches' houses" (case dellestreghe), one finds numerousclose resemblancesto the dolmen civilization. Moreover,in Sardinia,

1 Patroni,G., " La civilisationprimitive dans la Sicile Orientale,"L'Anthropologie, 1897, pp. 129 and 294. 2 Peet, T. E., op. cit.,p. 135. 3 The questionof the anthropo-archoeologicalconcomitance has been lately dealt with in my article," Antropologiae archeologiain taluni riguardidella preistoriaeuropea," Arch._per l'Antrop.e 1' Etnol.,xlvi, 1916,fasc. 1-2. 4 Peet, T. E., op. cit.,p. 482. 6 Cf. Peake, H., " The Originof the Dolmen," Man, xvi, 1916,No. 8, p. 116. The author, however,places the originof the dolmenat a too recentepoch-that of metals!-whereas they beginin the neolithic. VOL. XLVIII. H

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 98 V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI. -A 'Sketchof the Anthropologyof 'Italy. the whole evolutionof the dolmenis founid:from the small dolmen which is only slightlyraised above the level of the ground to the highest,from that constructed of a very fewslabs of stone to that made of many stones,gradually lengthening until we findthose corridorsof tomnbscalled by their local name of "Tombe di giganti." Parallel to that of the dolmen,we have the evolutionof the "domus de janas," which,about 2000-1500 Ba., reachedtheir highest development, as seen in the little caves of AngheluRuju near Alghero,explored by Antonio Taramelli. These necropoleisbelong to what is called the " eneolithic" age, that is to an age in whichcopper was used as well as stone; in otherwords, we are at the beginning of the employmentof metals. In these caves are buried the representativesof another migration,which came fromthe East, and this time the proofsare not simple shellsbut the pottery,which is found to be the same as that of Crete,the symbols expressed in relief on the walls and pillars of the tomb, the marble figurinesof an asexual and also of a femininetype like those so well knownin the IEgean, the betylic cult and the statue itself of a bull-god. The skeletonsthem- selves,found in the necropolisof AngheluRuju, indicate their derivation,as, of (63 skulls studied by ProfessorSergi,' 10 (that is 15'87 per cent.) were found to be brachycephalicand to belongto the so-called " Eurasians." Anotherfavourable indication of the Eastern source of this eneolithicpeople, ,whowere known to the Egyptiansof the XlXth Dynastyas " Shardana," is found in the megalithicarchitecture, known as Cyclopicconstructions, introduced by them ,especiallyin the constructionof the " nuraghi." These nmassivebuildings, true fortressesof the epoch, had an evolutionlasting many centuries,beconming continu- ally morecomplicated and sumptuousin the metal age; in the beginningthey were onlystone hutsresembling the conicbrick huts which we findpictured in theAssyro- Babylonian bas-reliefs. ProfessorPatroni2 has lately illustratedthis analogyand indicated,in prehistoricGreece, at Orcomeno,the existenceof huts witha base of ,stoneand domed roofs of raw bricks. In the Eastern Mediterraneanthese raw bricksrapidly gave place to stone,which is explained by the abundant use already made of this material in the building of the dolmen,as well as by the fact that ,stonebuildings made, a much more valid and permanentdefence, and therefore werebetter adapted to theirneeds. Theremust have arisenan epoch ofgreat power for Sardinia at thistime, power which was never afterwardsregained. was manufacturedhere on a large scale and also certainlyexported, The cupriferousrocks, in which the island was rich,were diligentlysought for by the Sardiniansby an eager work of excavation -andselection, in trenches,galleries and wells; as Taramellihats been able to verify

1 Sergi,G., " Craniantichi della Sardegna,"Atti Soc. Rom.Antrop., xiii, 1907, fasc. 1. 2 Patroni,G., " L' originedel 'sardo e le relazionidella Sardegnacon 1' Oriente," Atenee Roma,xix, 1916,Nos. 211-12-13.

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI.-A Sketchof the Anthropologyoj Italy. 99 by a series of investigations.1 The remains,which he also found,of tin minerals in the formof cassiterite,show that importationfrom Eastern Europe was equally active to providethe materialmissing in the island and necessaryfor the preparation of bronze. It has also been stated that the Sardiniansprovided war materialfor the confederationof the "peoples of the sea " or their allies, the Libyans, who attacked Egypt in the twelfthcentury B.C. Whilst the civilization of the dolmen and megalithicmonuments flourished in WesternEurope and in the Mediterranean,there was a differentcivilization in CentralEurope; herewe finda people wholived in thelake-regions on pile-structures (palafitte),a people whose history,says ProfessorPigorini, " is writtenonly in the refuseof their daily life, covered to-dayby water and peat-bogs."2 This people descendedinto and occupied the ponds and lakes. Later, or perhaps contemporaneously,their kindredfrom the valley of the Danube penetratedinto Venetia along the valley of the Adige; when theyreached the Po theycrossed it and invaded Emilia as far as the sub-Apenninehills. Their organisationappears very rigidand, I should say, inflexible,judging fromthe fact that whereverthey settled to construct their stations they religiouslyerected a pile-dwelling,even thoughthe spot was elevated and unadapted forsuch a construction: this is shown by diverspile-dwellings situated on hills. These littletowns, with streets and houses all built on woodenposts, are called " Terremare." These terremareare always quadrilateral,of a trapezoidalshape, closed by a rampartand a moat,across which was a singlebridge which could be easily removed. This great enclosurewas thereforea kind of fortress,:in the interiorit was divided by streets which crossed each other at rightangles; these streetsare banks of earthheld up by rowsof stakes,as was each house. A sacred part ofthe littletown was reservedin the middle of the easternside: it was a higher,quadrilateral area, to which,as it was surroundedby a moat, it was not possible to attain except by bridges. This littletown, consisting of wooden houses regularlyarranged, was many timesdestroyed and rebuilt as the years passed, for this happened as soon as the refusefilled up the space underlyingeach house; but each timethe same regularity and order reappeared in the new town, thus excludingany individual initiative. This strictobservance of rules impliesa rigoroussocial organisation,a disciplined people,and a great respectfor tradition. In theirlittle towns the arrangementis identicalwith that whichwe findin " Roma quadrata," the city of Romulus; the highestpart, that quadrilateral" area " describedabove, appears like the germof the " arx," the prmetoriumnand the forun.a Moreover,the objects characteristic I Taramelli,A., " I problemiarcheologici della Sardegnaprimitiva," Riv. di Antrop.,xx, 1916. 2 Pigorini,L., " La piu' antiche civilta?dell' Italia," Discorsoletto nella sedutadella R. Accademiadei Lincei,il 7 Giugno,1903. 3 Pigorini,L., "-Gliabitanti primitivi dell' Italia," loc.cit. See also an articleby W. Warde Fowler, published in the Journ.of Roman Studies,1912, and an article by E. A. Horton, publishedin the Rev.d'Ethnogr. et de Soc.,1913. H 2

This content downloaded from 194.27.18.18 on Tue, 12 Jan 2016 12:43:56 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 100 V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI.-A Sketchof the Anthropologyof Italy. of the terremare-dwellershave been foundin regions nearestthe Urbs, that is in Sabine and in Marsica. On these resemblancesdepend the great importanceof the terremara,which was the motherof the civilizationof Latium, a very humble mother,as we findher in the Po valley. Withoutwriting and withoutany indication of figuredart, in possession of bronze which was meltedbut not hammeredout, with her potteryalmost withoutdecoration-she was inferiorin aesthetictaste to the Mediterraneancivilization of the neolithichut-dwellers. The differenceappears evidenteven in the funeralrites, which demanded the cremationof the dead; this had to take place outside the terremara,so that it mightnot becomea preyto fire; the few bones which remainedamong the ashes were collected in rude ossuaries, whichwere left uncovered and withoutfuneral furniture. Sometimesthese ossuaries have been foundin a simulacrumof a pile-dwelling,fashioned like a terremarawith its surroundingmoat and woodenbridges at each side; thiswas the city of the dead. As we see, the bridgewas an importantpart of all these constructions it was the finishingpoint of the work,as certainlywhen the workwas finishedcommunications would be established and probably the bridge was inauguratedwith solemnity and certainrites over which a priestwould preside; the great importanceof the pontilexis explainedby its name. Towards the end of the second millenniumB.C., a greatmovement of peoples who came downfrom the northtook place; the pile-dwellingsof Eastern Lombardy and the terremareof WesternEmilia wereabandoned by theirinhabitants. They had certainlybeen hunted out, while, on the otherhand, the JAiguresremained in thewestern regions of the Po valley untilthe time of the Gallic hordes. The dwellers in the terremarewho were hunted fromtheir homes by the Umbro-Sabelli were driventowards the Marche and the Tiber valley, and it seems that some reached the shores of the Ionic sea. If, really, as everythingleads us to believe, their descendantswere the , the foundersof Rome, it is necessaryto say that their penury of brilliantgifts was perhaps compensatedby a quality for organisation, and a spiritof disciplineand frugalityin theirlives, whichqualities we in factfind in the ancient Romans. Certainlytheir language was that called "Aryan," as was Aryanthe language of the Umbrians, who also practisedthe of corpses. The , the , the Samnites,and other Sabellic peoples were Aryans or Aryanised,although they inlhumated their dead instead of burningit. It is possible that the foundersof Rome consistedof both families,as we findboth ritesin . In the AnthropologicalMuseum of the Universityof Rome are kepttwenty- eightskulls, all anteriorto or contemporaneouswith the walls of Servius Tullius; the greatpart came froma burial groundon the Esquiline. These skullsgive an idea of a part of the populationof Rome at the time of the , but we have no idea of that otherpopulation which burnt its dead and leftus only the ashes whichare foundin the famoushut-shaped urns of Latium. The population of the buried is

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prevalentlymade up of the MediterraneanRace,' withskulls which are moreor less long, a somewhatlong face and a nose of mediumthinness; but the populationof the burnt,which must be that whichis descendedfromn the terremare-dwellers,was, perhaps,not of a Mediterraneantype, or was not so to the same degree,as, given its derivation,it mnayhave been made up mainlyof representativesof H. alpinu8. These hypotheseswill remainalways impossibleto confirm. We can say that the end of the second millenniumnB.C., especiallythe twelfth to eleventhcenturies B.C., representthe period of settlementof the ethnicalraces in Italy as in a great part of the Mediterranean. The Umbro-Sabellihad chased the terremare-dwellersfrom , but had notremained there. Thereflourished the Euganeans,whose splendid necropolis is foundat Este, nearPadua, as thenecro- polis of the Veneti is foundat S. Lucia, near . The beginningof this period bears the name of Hallstattiancivilization, from the cityof Hallstatt in Salzsburg, wherearch'eeologists have foundthe firstiron age verywell represented,and anthro- pologistsa populationwith an elongatedskull, which might be of a Nordictype. It was this same typewhich, according to some authors,spread from to Palestine and Africain excursionsover threecontinents. This typeseems to have descended -certainly mixed with Alpines-into Italy with the civilizationof Villanova,and must have enteredin some proportioninto the ethnical composition of the " Eternal City." Thus it came about that the threefundamental European races,H. mediter- raneus,H. alpinus and H. nordicus,had their representativesamong the ancient Romans, althoughthe skeletal remains of the Mediterraneanand the Northerners are difficultto distinguishfrom each other. It is also possiblethat the Northerners belongedto the aristocratswho preferredto burntheir dead. In the calm tenacity and quiet growth of the Roman people perhaps the descendantsof H. nordlicus representedthe turbulentrestlessness of violent and bold individualswhich, even in Roman history,one is able to discernfrom time to time. In the eighthto seventhcenturies B.C., whilston the one side of the Apennines theform of the sepulchresand the typeof furniture is unchanged,the use oftumulus and architectonictombs with rich furnishingsof precious metals, bronze, and terracottasof one or more colours,and with sculpturesin stone,is diffusedin : the Etruscan vaults show the astonishedvisitor a trulyOriental luxury. The symbolsthere found are also Oriental,neither the alphabet northe writing seems Italic. All this is accompaniedby a perfectionin the techniqueof extractingand workingiron and of hammering-outbronze, by a splendourof filigreejewels and by the perfectionof the cultureof vines and grain. It is a new population; whenand whence come ? We mustreturn to the end of the secondmillennium B.C., to that ethnicturmoil

1 Sergi,G., " Studidi antropologialaziale," Bull.R. Accad.med. di Roma,xxi, 1895,fasc. 10; Giuffrida-Ruggeri,V., " Elenco del materialescheletrico preistorico e protostoricodel Lazio," AttiSoc. Rom.Antrop., xii, 1906,fase. 3.

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of the so-called " peoples of the sea," who soughtother lands, pressedforward and constrainedto leave theirhomes by the Aryan vanguards which came down from the north. It was then that the " Tursha," with otherallies, attacked Egypt on theirway fromtheir homes in Asia Minor. Their sad experiencesand otherunder- takingswhich failed mnusthave taughtthem that in anotherdirection, towards the barbaricregions of the West, and not against thepowerful kingdom of the Pharaohs, theirattempt might be moresuccessful. So it was that in the eleventhcentury B.C. -as ProfessorMontelius believes, and as Sir ArthurEvans and otherauthoritative archwologistsallow-the Tursha directed their prows to the distant western peninsula, the far-fabledHesperia, and this time most probably broughttheir families; still, in Tuscany we see a physical type which is not commonto the rest of Italy, a long, thin face, with somewhatwide cheek-bones,especially to be seen among the women. The Umbrianswer.e vanquished, but not chased away. The skulls taken frorm Etruscan tombsare numerousand in great majoritydolicho-mesaticephalic, that is, of the long Mediterraneantype: the remainder,of the Eurasian type,are attri- buted to the pre-existingand remainingUmbrians, although certainly the 'ans were not all brachycephals. This mixtureof dolichocephalsand brachycephalsin centralItaly has alwaysbeen maintained; but thequestion " Who werethe Italici ? " seems to us perfectlysuperfluous, as neitherthe Etruscans nor the Umbrianswere the most ancient inhabitantsof the country. On the otherhand, neitherthey nor the terremare-dwellers,nor the Liguresor othershad any conceptionof Italy, whose name appeared forthe firsttime much later, in a little cornerof Calabria. Italy is an historicformation and all the antecedentraces who contributedto hermaking are equally Italian. But if the name " Italici " is understoodin a linguisticsense, then it mustrefer to the new-comerswho spoke an Aryan tongue. Unfortunatelyit is extremely difficultto recognisethe prehistoricAryan linguisticarea: many peoplesmay have spoken an Aryan tongue who (as happens even now) did not understandeach other. If, as it seems from the latest discoveries,the spoke an Aryan language,as theywere in Asia Minornear the originalhome of the Etruscans,it can no longerbe thoughtimpossible that the Etruscans also spoke an Aryan tongue, and because we cannotyet understandtheir languageis not a sufficientreason for classifyingthe Etruscansas Anaryansdefinitively and withoutappeal.

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