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First Amendment FIRST AMENDMENT RELIGION AND FREE EXPRESSION CONTENTS Page Religion ....................................................................................................................................... 1063 An Overview ....................................................................................................................... 1063 Scholarly Commentary ................................................................................................ 1064 Court Tests Applied to Legislation Affecting Religion ............................................. 1066 Government Neutrality in Religious Disputes ......................................................... 1070 Establishment of Religion .................................................................................................. 1072 Financial Assistance to Church-Related Institutions ............................................... 1073 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Released Time ...... 1093 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Prayers and Bible Reading ..................................................................................................................... 1094 Governmental Encouragement of Religion in Public Schools: Curriculum Restriction ................................................................................................................ 1098 Access of Religious Groups to Public Property ......................................................... 1098 Tax Exemptions of Religious Property ...................................................................... 1101 Exemption of Religious Organizations from Generally Applicable Laws ............... 1102 Sunday Closing Laws .................................................................................................. 1103 Conscientious Objection .............................................................................................. 1104 Regulation of Religious Solicitation ........................................................................... 1105 Religion in Governmental Observances .................................................................... 1105 Religious Displays on Government Property ............................................................ 1107 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................................... 1111 Free Exercise of Religion ................................................................................................... 1112 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 1112 Interaction with the Establishment Clause .............................................................. 1115 The Mormon and Jehovah’s Witnesses Cases .......................................................... 1117 Oaths and Religious Disqualifications ....................................................................... 1120 General Governmental Requirements ....................................................................... 1121 Corporations ................................................................................................................. 1130 Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press ............................................................................. 1132 Adoption and the Common Law Background .................................................................. 1132 Freedom of Expression: The Philosophical Basis ............................................................ 1138 Freedom of Expression: Is There a Difference Between Speech and Press? ................ 1139 The Doctrine of Prior Restraint ........................................................................................ 1142 Injunctions and the Press in Fair Trial Cases ......................................................... 1145 Obscenity and Prior Restraint ................................................................................... 1147 Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests ......................... 1148 Clear and Present Danger .......................................................................................... 1150 The Adoption of Clear and Present Danger .............................................................. 1153 Contempt of Court and Clear and Present Danger ................................................. 1154 Clear and Present Danger Revised: Dennis .............................................................. 1157 Balancing ..................................................................................................................... 1158 The “Absolutist” View of the First Amendment, With a Note on “Preferred Position” .................................................................................................................... 1162 1059 1060 AMENDMENT 1—RELIGION, FREE SPEECH, ETC. Freedom of Expression—Speech and Press—Continued Subsequent Punishment: Clear and Present Danger and Other Tests—Continued Modern Tests and Standards: Vagueness, Overbreadth, Strict Scrutiny, Intermediate Scrutiny, and Effectiveness of Speech Restrictions ....................... 1164 Is There a Present Test? ............................................................................................. 1169 Freedom of Belief ............................................................................................................... 1170 Flag Salutes and Other Compelled Speech .............................................................. 1171 Imposition of Consequences for Holding Certain Beliefs ........................................ 1174 Right of Association ............................................................................................................ 1176 Political Association .................................................................................................... 1181 Conflict Between Organization and Members .......................................................... 1186 Maintenance of National Security and the First Amendment ....................................... 1190 Punishment of Advocacy ............................................................................................. 1191 Compelled Registration of Communist Party ........................................................... 1193 Punishment for Membership in an Organization That Engages in Proscribed Advocacy ................................................................................................................... 1194 Disabilities Attaching to Membership in Proscribed Organizations ....................... 1195 Employment Restrictions and Loyalty Oaths ........................................................... 1197 Legislative Investigations and the First Amendment .............................................. 1202 Interference With Vietnam War Effort ...................................................................... 1203 Suppression of Communist Propaganda in the Mails .............................................. 1204 Exclusion of Certain Aliens as a First Amendment Problem .................................. 1204 Material Support of Terrorist Organizations ................................................................... 1205 Particular Governmental Regulations That Restrict Expression ................................... 1206 Government as Employer: Political and Other Outside Activities ......................... 1206 Government as Employer: Free Expression Generally ............................................ 1209 Government as Educator ............................................................................................ 1217 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Elections and Referendums . 1222 Government as Regulator of the Electoral Process: Lobbying ................................ 1239 Government as Regulator of Labor Relations .......................................................... 1240 Government as Investigator: Reporter’s Privilege ................................................... 1240 Government and the Conduct of Trials ..................................................................... 1243 Government as Administrator of Prisons .................................................................. 1246 Government and the Power of the Purse .................................................................. 1251 Governmental Regulation of Communications Industries .............................................. 1256 Commercial Speech ..................................................................................................... 1256 Taxation ........................................................................................................................ 1267 Labor Relations ........................................................................................................... 1269 Antitrust Laws ............................................................................................................ 1270 Broadcast Radio and Television ................................................................................. 1270 Governmentally Compelled Right of Reply to Newspapers ..................................... 1274 Cable Television .................................................................................................................. 1275 Government Restraint of Content of Expression ............................................................. 1277
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