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Language Revitalisation Policy: an Analytical Survey Theoretical Framework, Policy Experience and Application to Te Reo Maori

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Language Revitalisation Policy: an Analytical Survey Theoretical Framework, Policy Experience and Application to Te Reo Maori TREASURY WORKING PAPER 98/6 Language Revitalisation Policy: An Analytical Survey Theoretical Framework, Policy Experience and Application to Te Reo Maori Francois Grin & Francois Vaillancourt* (Contract to New Zealand Treasury, managed by Ron Crawford) ABSTRACT PART I develops an analytical framework where language policy is viewed as a form of public policy. The framework is based on the economic approach to language and language planning, with a strong inter-disciplinary orientation. PART II reviews policy experience. Four revitalisation policies are examined (two in Wales, one in Euskadi, one in Ireland). Its goal is to assess the cost and effectiveness of these policies, and to identify conditions that have made them successful. PART III builds on the framework and findings for Parts I and II to derive implications for the revitalisation of te reo Maori. *François Grin, Department of Economics, University of Geneva and François Vaillancourt, Department of Economics, University of Montreal. Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the New Zealand Treasury. The Treasury takes no responsibility for any errors or omissions in, or for the correctness of, the information contained in these working papers. Analytical survey of language revitalisation policies — Executive summary Executive summary This study is divided in three parts and 15 chapters. Each part starts with an intro- ductory chapter. Part I develops an analytical framework; Part II reviews policy experience in other minority language situations; Part III derives implications for policies aiming at the revitalisation of te reo Maori. PART I develops an analytical framework where language policy is viewed as a form of public policy. The framework is based on the eco- nomic approach to language and language planning, with a strong interdisciplinary orientation. Chapter 2 presents some key sociolinguistic results on minority language dynamics, and then links them up with the principles of the language economics approach. ♦ Language shift occurs in cases of languages in contact, involves complex dynamics and generally reflects asymmetry between languages. ♦ Language shift reversal can be implemented more or less easily depending on the conditions of each language. ♦ These processes must be made amenable to policy analysis; where policies can be evaluated in terms of cost-effectiveness and of their impact on welfare. This requires a “macro” level of analysis rather than a detailed sociolinguistic study of language behaviour. ♦ However, the framework must allow for the inclusion of relevant detail information on language behaviour, in order to select and design the specific aspects of policies. Chapter 3 presents the analytical tools. ♦ The economics of language refers to the paradigm of theoretical economics and uses the concepts and tools of economics in the study of relationships featuring linguistic variables; it focuses principally, but not exclusively, on those relation- ships in which economic variables also play a part. ♦ The language economics approach does not preempt perspectives based on political or historical considerations. Rather, different perspectives complement each other. ♦ Quite apart from political and historical justifications, language revitalisation can be justified from an economic standpoint. There are four types of benefit to language policies: private or social / market or non-market. i Analytical survey of language revitalisation policies — Executive summary ♦ In the case of minority languages, benefits are mostly of a non-market nature. More precisely, they are akin to the benefits derived from the presence of a “public good” exhibiting impossibility of exclusion and non-rivalry of consumption. By contrast, private goods can be produced by the private sector and sold on a market, and their market price will provide a reliable indicator of value. Linguistic environments present striking similarities with the environment. The chief consequence of the above is that minority language maintenance and revitalisation are not supplied by markets. ♦ There are redistributive implications in language policy. Not engaging in minority language maintenance amounts to a redistribution from the minority to the majority. Chapter 4 develops a formal model linking policy measures to language revitatlisa- tion. ♦ The emphasis is placed on cause-and-effect relationships. The goal is to provide an integrated and systematic instrument that is general enough to allow for macro-level policy analysis, yet detailed enough to allow for the later inclusion, in a structured fashion, of terrain information. ♦ The following figure summarises the structure of the framework. GENERAL CAUSAL STRUCTURE LANGUAGE POLICY LANGUAGE STATUS INDICATORS LANGUAGE USE BY BILINGUALS AGGREGATE OUTCOMES ♦ In the extended causal structure (Fig. 1.8 in the text), classes of language policy measures (provision of Maori language services, educational planning, direct Maori ii Analytical survey of language revitalisation policies — Executive summary language promotion) are shown to influence language status indicators (supply-side factors of the linguistic environment, skills development, number of speakers, language attitudes). These, in turn, affect patterns of language use by bilinguals, which are analysed with a formal model of language choice (provided in the appendix). Bilinguals’ language behaviour translates into aggregate outcomes in terms of language use—which is the main object of a language revitalisation policy. Chapter 5 draws the policy implications from the theoretical modeling. ♦ We first examine four policy measures: (i) direct language promotion; (ii) education planning focusing on increasing the number of speakers (“acquisition planning”); (iii) education planning focusing on the average level of competence of speakers (“skills development”); (iv) provision of Maori-language services. ♦ For each measure, we formally derive the necessary and sufficient conditions for minority language use to increase as a result of the policy. ♦ We then discuss the selection of the three communities whose language policies are studied in Part II, namely the Welsh, the Irish and the Basque. PART II reviews policy experience. Four revitalisation policies are examined (two in Wales, one in Euskadi, one in Ireland). Its goal is to assess the cost and effectiveness of these policies, and to identify conditions that have made them successful. Chapter 7 presents the methodology used. It outlines the eight steps followed, in Chapters 8 to 11, for the analysis of each of the four policies.. Chapter 8 examines road and traffic signs in Wales. ♦ This chapter first presents data on the percentage of people who speak Welsh in Wales (18.7% in 1991). Since 1971, there has been an increase in the percentage of Welsh speakers in the 3-14 age group (e.g., from 17% to 27% in the 10-14 age group). It then outlines the bilingual road signs policies which followed the 1972 Bowen report. As of 1997, practically all road signs are bilingual, giving Wales a clearly Welsh-plus-English profile. Chapter 9 examines Welsh language television in Wales. ♦ Welsh language TV went on the air in 1982, substantially increasing the availability of Welsh-language programmes (which had, since 1964, consisted of a meagre 6 hours per week). In 1996, an average of 32 hours per week Welsh TV was on the air with an average viewership of 100,000 per hour or 20% of Welsh speakers. iii Analytical survey of language revitalisation policies — Executive summary Chapter 10 examines language education planning in the Basque region of Spain. ♦ In 1991, Basque was known by 26% of the population (35% of the 5-17 age group), which represents a marked increase. The key finding is the following: ENROLLMENT IN BASQUE-MEDIUM EDUCATION % pre + primary school 1982/1983 1996/1997 enrollment in - Bilingual schools 10 29 - Basque schools 15 43 Chapter 11 examines direct language promotion in one of the Gaeltacht (Irish- speaking) regions of Ireland. ♦ This policy stresses the relevance of the minority language to the local economy. Irish gives it a profile, attracts tourism and provides access to public funds for the support of the language. ♦ The promotional programme encourages private firms to use bilingual signs and written material as well as to increase the use of Irish in oral communication. Chapter 12 assesses the policies. ♦ Policies are first evaluated in terms of cost-effectiveness, as summarised in the Table below: ENROLLMENT IN BASQUE-MEDIUM EDUCATION Policies Per-hour cost of Overall impact Best practice minority language index index use (NZD) Welsh road signs 4.40 8 9 Welsh-medium 1.10 3 3.5 television Basque 0.22 2 2 education planning Irish business 0.04 7 4 signs Index values run from highest (1) to lowest (10) ♦ Seven success conditions are then derived from the analysis of these policies. These conditions are: 1. the avant-garde condition; 2. the redistribution condition; 3. the normalcy condition; 4. the technical effectiveness condition; 5. the shadow price condition; 6. the individual language maintenance condition; 7. the strict preference condition. iv Analytical survey of language revitalisation policies — Executive summary PART III builds on the framework and findings of Parts I and II to derive implications for the revitalisation of te reo Maori. Chapter 14 describes language policies in New Zealand. Practices over the last 40 years can be summarised as follows:
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