The Evolution of Communications in the Military As It Relates to Leadership

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Evolution of Communications in the Military As It Relates to Leadership Murray State's Digital Commons Integrated Studies Center for Adult and Regional Education Fall 2017 The volutE ion of Communications in the Military as it Relates to Leadership Palmer Lipscomb [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.murraystate.edu/bis437 Recommended Citation Lipscomb, Palmer, "The vE olution of Communications in the Military as it Relates to Leadership" (2017). Integrated Studies. 90. https://digitalcommons.murraystate.edu/bis437/90 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Center for Adult and Regional Education at Murray State's Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Integrated Studies by an authorized administrator of Murray State's Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 1 The Evolution of Communications in the Military as it Relates to Leadership By Palmer Lipscomb Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelor of Integrated Studies Degree Regional Academic Outreach Murray State University August 30, 2017 Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 2 Historical Project Proposal This project proposal will follow the “Design for a Historical Research Project” found in the BIS 437 Senior Project Guidelines. 1. This historical project will focus primarily on the United States military, but reserves the right to reference militaries of other nations throughout time. 2. The project will span a large amount of time in history. The intent is to show how military communications have evolved over time. To fully show the evolution of communications in the U.S military, this project will span from the inception of the U.S Army, as the oldest branch of the U.S military, in 1775 to present. 3. The most important questions that will be answered in the project are how communications have evolved over the history of the U.S military and what the relationship and effects communications have had on military leadership. The research will involve tactical communications as well as communications in leadership. 4. Primary sources will be from history books initially and as the project reaches into the modern era, i.e., the twentieth and twenty-first century, reference will come from peer- reviewed journals, writings from various U.S Army institutes of higher learning and military field manuals. The questions of how communications affect leadership in the military will be addressed. 5. Secondary sources will be individuals that have first-hand knowledge of communications in the military and have experienced the effects of leadership. 6. The sources will provide the necessary information to validate the evolution that has occurred in military communications since inception. Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 3 7. Due to the scope of time involved in the project, approximately five chapters will be needed. There will be four chapters dedicated to each century since the inception of the U.S military in 1775. There will also be a chapter dedicated to reflection and comparison of the evolution of communications and how effective or ineffective communications were in these different eras. Notes: Project formatting will include a Table of Contents, a references page, and appendices as required. MLA style was used for this proposal due to ease of format and space. ___________________________________ _____________ Palmer Lipscomb Date Advisee ___________________________________ _____________ Mrs. Regina Arnold Date Senior Project Adviser Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 4 Abstract The evolution of communications in the military as it relates to leadership will review the different means and methods of communications that have been used throughout U.S military history. This will be accomplished using a chronological format. Starting in the Revolutionary time when horseback riders and written communications were the primary means for commanders to relay orders to subordinates, through the invention of the telegraph, that was one of the most significant communications methods developed during the first one-hundred years of United States history. From the telegraph to wireless technology and finally to present day and the widespread use of satellite communications. A comparison of the effectiveness between interpersonal communications and technological methods for communicating will be made. Although it is hard to quantify, the effects on leadership will be discussed. This project is a learning experience in military history and technology. It will be interesting to see how communications within the military evolved. Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter 1 Communications of the Eighteenth-Century Military 6 Chapter 2 Nineteenth Century Military Communications 14 Chapter 3 Twentieth Century 24 Chapter 4 Twenty-First Century 36 Chapter 5 Comparison and Reflection 49 References 57 Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 6 Chapter 1 For as long as there have been militaries, communications have been key to the success and failures of these militaries. The earliest recorded war was in Mesopotamia between Sumer and Elam in 2700 BCE. Records of this war were discovered carved in stone, so this would be a very early example of communications (Gabriel & Metz, 1992). Verbal communications would have been employed as well, but this civilization had just learned to write. Communicating with hand and arm signals would also have been used to control formations. To give a historical account of how militaries communicated back to ancient times would require much more time and space than is allotted. This chapter will focus on communications within the United States military from the time of inception in 1775, the beginning of the American Revolution, through the end of the century. The different means and methods of communications will be discussed and then determined if there was one method that was more effective than the other. The effect that different methods of communication had on leadership will be looked at also. This time frame will encompass several wars that the United States participated in, including many wars with France and Britain. The Industrial Revolution occurred during this period also, from approximately 1760 to 1840. The telegraph was invented in the 1830’s and 1840’s by Samuel Morse (Staff, Morse Code & the Telegraph, 2009). The span of time, the Industrial Revolution and experience in war contributed to the way communications in the military changed during this period. As tensions intensified between the colonies in the Americas’ and the British government abroad, the militias began to have clashes with the British soldiers. Eventually, this led to full- Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 7 scale war as the 13 colonies sought their independence from Britain (Staff, American Revolution History, 2009). General George Washington led the Continental Army against the British. Means and Methods The industrial revolution greatly enhanced the colonist’ ability to utilize resources that were abundant in North America. Coal was the fuel of choice and mining for coal started increasing dramatically. Coal use in 1700 was 2.7 million tons and by 1850 had increased to 50 million tons. Oil was being used for electricity while coal was used for heating and lighting. Once it was determined that oil could be extracted from the ground instead of from whales, oil production skyrocketed. Steele and iron were used to advance the capability of machinery which increased transportation, construction of bridges and better tools (Simmons, 2014). Better tools enabled craftsman to build items used in communications at a much greater pace. The effect of the industrial revolution on communications will be discussed later in chapter two. Before many technological advances were developed, there were other means of communications that have been used to communicate in the military. Voice. Voice communications have been and always will be the primary means to communicate with other military units. At a time when there were no telegraphs, telephones, computers, or satellites, people had to talk or write to relay information. Voice communications during the Revolutionary War may have appeared simple except for the fact that the colonies were being settled by not just the English, but also the French and Germans. The French fought primarily on the side of the colonist while the Germans were allied with the British. In one instance from the Battle of Brandywine, a German officer, Captain Johann Ewald wrote, that in the army’s advance, were sixty jaegers on foot, fifteen mounted jaegers, a company Highlanders, and a company of British light infantry. These units protected the army from Running head: THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATIONS IN THE MILITARY. 8 ambush and cleared the way for the advance. There was no explanation of how this could be effective despite the language barrier. (Dunkerly, 2016) Societies have used hand gestures to communicate for thousands of years. Hand gestures are used to enhance or emphasize what is being communicated. Sign language was developed as a means to communicate with the deaf community in the 1500's. Hand and arm signaling. Hand and arm signaling are a means of communications that has been used since the beginning of warfare. Hand and arm signals can be used by themselves or in conjunction with voice communications. During the din of battle, soldiers cannot always hear commands from their leaders or between one another. In this instance, hand and arm signaling are used in concert with voice communications. When the need Figure 1 for stealth arose hand, and arm signaling would have Hand and Arm Signals been the preferred means to communicate between individuals and military units. This form of communications is especially effective when conducting reconnaissance missions or laying in ambush positions, and the need for silence is critical to the success of the mission.
Recommended publications
  • Radio Communications in the Digital Age
    Radio Communications In the Digital Age Volume 1 HF TECHNOLOGY Edition 2 First Edition: September 1996 Second Edition: October 2005 © Harris Corporation 2005 All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-94476 Harris Corporation, RF Communications Division Radio Communications in the Digital Age Volume One: HF Technology, Edition 2 Printed in USA © 10/05 R.O. 10K B1006A All Harris RF Communications products and systems included herein are registered trademarks of the Harris Corporation. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION...............................................................................1 CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .....................................6 CHAPTER 2 THE IONOSPHERE AND HF RADIO PROPAGATION..........................16 CHAPTER 3 ELEMENTS IN AN HF RADIO ..........................................................24 CHAPTER 4 NOISE AND INTERFERENCE............................................................36 CHAPTER 5 HF MODEMS .................................................................................40 CHAPTER 6 AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE) TECHNOLOGY...............48 CHAPTER 7 DIGITAL VOICE ..............................................................................55 CHAPTER 8 DATA SYSTEMS .............................................................................59 CHAPTER 9 SECURING COMMUNICATIONS.....................................................71 CHAPTER 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS .....................................................................77 APPENDIX A STANDARDS
    [Show full text]
  • A Guide to Radio Communications Standards for Emergency Responders
    A GUIDE TO RADIO COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONDERS Prepared Under United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO) Through the Disaster Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) Regional Initiative in Disaster Risk Reduction March, 2010 Maputo - Mozambique GUIDE TO RADIO COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONDERS GUIDE TO RADIO COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS FOR EMERGENCY RESPONDERS Table of Contents Introductory Remarks and Acknowledgments 5 Communication Operations and Procedures 6 1. Communications in Emergencies ...................................6 The Role of the Radio Telephone Operator (RTO)...........................7 Description of Duties ..............................................................................7 Radio Operator Logs................................................................................9 Radio Logs..................................................................................................9 Programming Radios............................................................................10 Care of Equipment and Operator Maintenance...........................10 Solar Panels..............................................................................................10 Types of Radios.......................................................................................11 The HF Digital E-mail.............................................................................12 Improved Communication Technologies......................................12
    [Show full text]
  • Digital Television Systems
    This page intentionally left blank Digital Television Systems Digital television is a multibillion-dollar industry with commercial systems now being deployed worldwide. In this concise yet detailed guide, you will learn about the standards that apply to fixed-line and mobile digital television, as well as the underlying principles involved, such as signal analysis, modulation techniques, and source and channel coding. The digital television standards, including the MPEG family, ATSC, DVB, ISDTV, DTMB, and ISDB, are presented toaid understanding ofnew systems in the market and reveal the variations between different systems used throughout the world. Discussions of source and channel coding then provide the essential knowledge needed for designing reliable new systems.Throughout the book the theory is supported by over 200 figures and tables, whilst an extensive glossary defines practical terminology.Additional background features, including Fourier analysis, probability and stochastic processes, tables of Fourier and Hilbert transforms, and radiofrequency tables, are presented in the book’s useful appendices. This is an ideal reference for practitioners in the field of digital television. It will alsoappeal tograduate students and researchers in electrical engineering and computer science, and can be used as a textbook for graduate courses on digital television systems. Marcelo S. Alencar is Chair Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Brazil. With over 29 years of teaching and research experience, he has published eight technical books and more than 200 scientific papers. He is Founder and President of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Communications (Iecom) and has consulted for several companies and R&D agencies.
    [Show full text]
  • Battle Management Language: History, Employment and NATO Technical Activities
    Battle Management Language: History, Employment and NATO Technical Activities Mr. Kevin Galvin Quintec Mountbatten House, Basing View, Basingstoke Hampshire, RG21 4HJ UNITED KINGDOM [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper is one of a coordinated set prepared for a NATO Modelling and Simulation Group Lecture Series in Command and Control – Simulation Interoperability (C2SIM). This paper provides an introduction to the concept and historical use and employment of Battle Management Language as they have developed, and the technical activities that were started to achieve interoperability between digitised command and control and simulation systems. 1.0 INTRODUCTION This paper provides a background to the historical employment and implementation of Battle Management Languages (BML) and the challenges that face the military forces today as they deploy digitised C2 systems and have increasingly used simulation tools to both stimulate the training of commanders and their staffs at all echelons of command. The specific areas covered within this section include the following: • The current problem space. • Historical background to the development and employment of Battle Management Languages (BML) as technology evolved to communicate within military organisations. • The challenges that NATO and nations face in C2SIM interoperation. • Strategy and Policy Statements on interoperability between C2 and simulation systems. • NATO technical activities that have been instigated to examine C2Sim interoperation. 2.0 CURRENT PROBLEM SPACE “Linking sensors, decision makers and weapon systems so that information can be translated into synchronised and overwhelming military effect at optimum tempo” (Lt Gen Sir Robert Fulton, Deputy Chief of Defence Staff, 29th May 2002) Although General Fulton made that statement in 2002 at a time when the concept of network enabled operations was being formulated by the UK and within other nations, the requirement remains extant.
    [Show full text]
  • Atp 6-02.45 Techniques for Tactical Signal Support To
    ATP 6-02.45 TECHNIQUES FOR TACTICAL SIGNAL SUPPORT TO THEATER OPERATIONS NOVEMBER 2019 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited. This publication supersedes FMI 6-02.45, dated 5 July 2007. Headquarters, Department of the Army This publication is available at the Army Publishing Directorate site (https://armypubs.army.mil/), and the Central Army Registry site (https://atiam.train.army.mil/catalog/dashboard). *ATP 6-02.45 Army Techniques Publication Headquarters No. 6-02.45 Department of the Army Washington, DC, 07 November 2019 Techniques for Tactical Signal Support to Theater Operations Contents Page PREFACE.................................................................................................................... iii INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... v Chapter 1 THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT .................................................................... 1-1 The Information Environment .................................................................................... 1-1 The Tactical Network ................................................................................................. 1-3 Chapter 2 ECHELONS ABOVE CORPS TACTICAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURE .............. 2-1 Section I –Network Architecture and Transport Capabilities ............................. 2-1 Colorless Core Architecture....................................................................................... 2-1 Network Transport Capabilities
    [Show full text]
  • Using Satellite-Based Videoconferencing to Integrate the Satnex Research Community
    1 Using Satellite-based Videoconferencing to Integrate the SatNEx Research Community Sergey Raber, Robert Rumeau, Laurent Franck, Tomaso De Cola, Ulla Birnbacher, Georg Egger, Anton Donner, Ray E. Sheriff, Gorry Fairhurst distributed across Europe. Mobility is an important aspect of Abstract— The SatNEx Project provides a pan-European SatNEx’s work, with academic staff and researchers being multimedia network that may be used to rectify fragmentation in encouraged to move between institutions to allow access to satellite communications research, by bringing together Europe’s specialised research equipment and to facilitate knowledge leading academic institutions and research organisations in a cohesive and durable way. The resultant network provides a transfer and research integration. collective grouping of expertise and state-of-the-art laboratory The philosophy underlying the facilities that would otherwise remain dispersed throughout SatNEx approach revolves around Europe. This paper describes the Platform developed by the the selection of focused actions that SatNEx community for use by the community to provide high- capitalise on the expertise present quality videoconferencing facilities, based on a satellite within the Network and ensure a connectivity. durable and effective integration. Index Terms— SatNEx, video conferencing, satellite The focused actions are performed communication, IP multicast, tele-learning, tele-education. jointly by the partners. A key goal of SatNEx is to achieve effective I. INTRODUCTION communication between partners. This requires establishing a EMOVING Barriers, Integrating Research and Spreading common pan-European Platform to provide equitable access to R Excellence are the primary objectives of SatNEx, the real-time communication services for all partners [2]. Satellite Communications Network of Excellence [1].
    [Show full text]
  • Broadcast Television (1945, 1952) ………………………
    Transformative Choices: A Review of 70 Years of FCC Decisions Sherille Ismail FCC Staff Working Paper 1 Federal Communications Commission Washington, DC 20554 October, 2010 FCC Staff Working Papers are intended to stimulate discussion and critical comment within the FCC, as well as outside the agency, on issues that may affect communications policy. The analyses and conclusions set forth are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the FCC, other Commission staff members, or any Commissioner. Given the preliminary character of some titles, it is advisable to check with the authors before quoting or referencing these working papers in other publications. Recent titles are listed at the end of this paper and all titles are available on the FCC website at http://www.fcc.gov/papers/. Abstract This paper presents a historical review of a series of pivotal FCC decisions that helped shape today’s communications landscape. These decisions generally involve the appearance of a new technology, communications device, or service. In many cases, they involve spectrum allocation or usage. Policymakers no doubt will draw their own conclusions, and may even disagree, about the lessons to be learned from studying the past decisions. From an academic perspective, however, a review of these decisions offers an opportunity to examine a commonly-asserted view that U.S. regulatory policies — particularly in aviation, trucking, and telecommunications — underwent a major change in the 1970s, from protecting incumbents to promoting competition. The paper therefore examines whether that general view is reflected in FCC policies. It finds that there have been several successful efforts by the FCC, before and after the 1970s, to promote new entrants, especially in the markets for commercial radio, cable television, telephone equipment, and direct broadcast satellites.
    [Show full text]
  • EVOLUTION and CONVERGENCE in TELECOMMUNICATIONS 2002 2Nd Edition 2005
    the united nations 11 abdus salam educational, scientific and cultural international organization ISBN 92-95003-16-0 centre for theoretical international atomic physics energy agency lecture notes EVOLUTION AND CONVERGENCE IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS 2002 2nd Edition 2005 editors S. Radicella D. Grilli ICTP Lecture Notes EVOLUTION AND CONVERGENCE IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS 11 February - 1 March 2002 Editors S. Radicella The Abdus Salam ICTP, Trieste, Italy D. Grilli The Abdus Salam ICTP, Trieste, Italy EVOLUTION AND CONVERGENCE IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS - First edition Copyright © 2002 by The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics The Abdus Salam ICTP has the irrevocable and indefinite authorization to reproduce and dissem• inate these Lecture Notes, in printed and/or computer readable form, from each author. ISBN 92-95003-16-0 Printed in Trieste by The Abdus Salam ICTP Publications & Printing Section iii PREFACE One of the main missions of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy, founded in 1964 by Abdus Salam, is to foster the growth of advanced studies and research in developing countries. To this aim, the Centre organizes a large number of schools and workshops in a great variety of physical and mathematical disciplines. Since unpublished material presented at the meetings might prove of great interest also to scientists who did not take part in the schools the Centre has decided to make it available through a new publication titled ICTP Lecture Note Series. It is hoped that this formally structured pedagogical material in advanced topics will be helpful to young students and researchers, in particular to those working under less favourable conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • Inter-Island Communications
    SOUTH CHINA SEA MILITARY CAPABILITY SERIES A Survey of Technologies and Capabilities on China’s Military Outposts in the South China Sea INTER-ISLAND COMMUNICATIONS J. Michael Dahm INTER-ISLAND COMMUNICATIONS J. Michael Dahm Copyright © 2020 The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC. All Rights Reserved. This study contains the best opinion of the author based on publicly available, open- source information at time of issue. It does not necessarily represent the assessments or opinions of APL sponsors. The author is responsible for all analysis and annotations of satellite images contained in this report. Satellite images are published under license from Maxar Technologies/DigitalGlobe, Inc., which retains copyrights to the original images. Satellite images in this report may not be reproduced without the express permission of JHU/APL and Maxar Technologies/DigitalGlobe, Inc. See Appendix A for notes on sources and analytic methods. NSAD-R-20-048 July 2020 Inter-Island Communicaitons Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Troposcatter Communications, 散射通信 ..................................................................... 2 VHF/UHF and Other Line-of-Sight Communications ...................................................... 6 4G Cellular Communications ........................................................................................ 7 Airborne Communications Layer .................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Webex Meeting Center User Guide
    WebEx Meeting Center User Guide For Hosts, Presenters, and Participants WBS29.11 Copyright © 2015 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. WEBEX, CISCO, Cisco WebEx, the CISCO logo, and the Cisco WebEx logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Cisco and/or its affiliated entities in the United States and other countries. Third-party trademarks are the property of their respective owners. U.S. Government End User Purchasers. The Documentation and related Services qualify as "commercial items," as that term is defined at Federal Acquisition Regulation ("FAR") (48 C.F.R.) 2.101. Consistent with FAR 12.212 and DoD FAR Supp. 227.7202-1 through 227.7202-4, and notwithstanding any other FAR or other contractual clause to the contrary in any agreement into which the Agreement may be incorporated, Customer may provide to Government end user or, if the Agreement is direct, Government end user will acquire, the Services and Documentation with only those rights set forth in the Agreement. Use of either the Services or Documentation or both constitutes agreement by the Government that the Services and Documentation are commercial items and constitutes acceptance of the rights and restrictions herein. Last updated: 01062015 www.webex.com Table of Contents Host a Meeting ............................................................................................................... 1 Quick reference tasks: host a meeting ...................................................................... 1 Grant or remove privileges .......................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Taxation & Regulatory Treatment of Web Conferencing Services
    Taxation & Regulatory Treatment of Web Conferencing Services: What a Tangled Web We Weave Taxation & Regulatory Treatment of Web Conferencing Services: Outline of Presentation Part 1: FCC Regulatory Treatment of Web Conferencing Part 2: State and Local Tax Treatment of Web Conferencing Part 3: Where does that leave us now? 2 Background of FCC Treatment of Conferencing Services Timeline of FCC Decisions: • Pulver (2004) – Non-PSTN conferencing • InterCall (2008) – Stand-alone audio-bridging/ conferencing • MeetingOne (2011) – IP-Based audio conferencing (Appeal to FCC pending) • Webex (2013) – Online Collaboration (Appeal to FCC pending) 3 Pulver Free World Dialup (2004) Non-PSTN conferencing classified as an Information Service: • Free World Dialup (FWD) allowed internal, Non-PSTN communications between members via voice, video or text • Membership based, requires broadband connection and softphone • Unique 5 or 6 digit FWD number assigned to each member • Conference bridging capabilities • FCC found the service to be an information service (2004) 4 InterCall Services Description Background: InterCall provides stand-alone audio conferencing services that includes certain features: • validation functions, • collect billing and participant information, • enable participants to record, delete playback, mute and unmute, and access operator assistance • FCC described InterCall as marketing audio, video and web conferencing; however, record is not clear InterCall’s service included anything beyond audio 5 InterCall Order (2008) Stand-alone audio-bridging
    [Show full text]
  • Communications System Utilizing Passive Satellites
    The Space Congress® Proceedings 1966 (3rd) The Challenge of Space Mar 7th, 8:00 AM Communications System Utilizing Passive Satellites Robert T. Hart Collins Radio Company Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings Scholarly Commons Citation Hart, Robert T., "Communications System Utilizing Passive Satellites" (1966). The Space Congress® Proceedings. 5. https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings/proceedings-1966-3rd/session-1/5 This Event is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Space Congress® Proceedings by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS UTILIZING PASSIVE SATELLITES Robert T. Hart Collins Radio Company Dallas, Texas Summary Dallas, Texas. The geographical locations of the sta­ tions permitted mutual visibility on many passes The era of communications systems utilizing with the passive satellites was inaugurated by the launch of satellite at an orbital height of approximately 700 miles. Operational Echo I in 1960. This was followed by Echo II in 1964. frequencies in the S-band region These preliminary experiments have proven system were chosen for maximum radio reflectivity of the sat­ feasibility and indicated deficiencies of the satellite ellite consistent with available equipment in the ground station materials and configurations. Echo III will be launched complex. in the spring of 1966 to test the latest available A set of disappointing circumstances caused the materials. Echo II satellite to be less than a perfect radio reflec­ This paper outlines the history of the passive tor, primarily due to ejection of the balloon from the satellite communications experiments to date and canister.
    [Show full text]