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Understanding the Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Sports Performance Under Pressure Through Cognitive Training Understanding The Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Sports Performance Under Pressure Through Cognitive Training Emmanuel Ducrocq Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck, University of London A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2018 1 The thesis includes research that appears in the following articles: Chapter 2: (3 experiments) Ducrocq, E., Wilson, M., Vine, S., & Derakshan, N (2016). Training attentional control improves cognitive and motor task performance. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 5, 521-533. Chapter 3: Ducrocq, E., Wilson, M., & Derakshan, N (2017). Adaptive working memory training reduces the negative impact of anxiety on competitive motor performance. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 8, 1-11. 2 ABSTRACT Accumulating research has emphasised that anxiety can profoundly interfere with task performance during sporting competitive contexts. Recent research has implicated disruptions to attentional control in explaining such impairments. The present PhD thesis intended to build upon recent advances in sports science and cognitive affective neuroscience, by marrying theoretical predictions from the Attentional Control Theory (ACT; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos & Calvo, 2007) with recent developments in cognitive training, to develop lab based training interventions, to improve attentional focus and performance in lab-based and field- based sporting tasks performed under pressure. In doing so, another critical aim of the thesis was to identify potential neurocognitive mechanisms by which the experience of pressure related anxiety in sporting contexts can lead to impairments in motor performance. In Chapter 2, a sample of tennis players undertook training on a novel visual search training task designed to enhance inhibitory control. Transfer effects of training were observed on a lab index of inhibition, tennis performance and gaze behaviours reflecting attentional control in tennis. Results of Chapter 3 in turn revealed that training on a an adaptive working memory training task, resulted in transfer effects on indices of WMC, tennis performance and gaze behaviours. In Chapter 4 an 5 the emphasis was placed on the potential impact of attentional biases on performance under pressure. In Chapter 4, tennis players undertook an Attentional Bias Modification training intervention and results indicated that the intervention elicited significant changes in attentional bias with transfer effects of 3 training also being observed on tennis performance. Finally, in Chapter 5, a study was conducted to explore whether neural markers of cognitive effort and error monitoring would modulate the attentional bias-performance relationship in a sample of experienced tennis players. Result indicated that the relationship between levels of attentional biases and tennis performance was modulated by the N2 as measured on a flanker task. Performance was also associated with participants’ levels of attentional biases which was in turn modulated by their gaze behaviours during the tennis task performed under pressure. Overall, findings from this PhD thesis suggest that it is possible to target specific cognitive mechanisms such as attentional control and attentional biases, using lab based interventions, to enable athletes to cope with the negative impact of competitive pressure on motor performance. Moreover, the current findings provide novel insight into the potential neurocognitive mechanisms that modulate how sports performers respond to competitive pressure. 4 TABLE OF CONTENT Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………….9 List of figures……..…………………………………………………………....11 List of tables…..………………………………………………………………..13 Chapter 1: General Introduction 1.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................. 15 1.2 Sports Performance and Competitive Pressure ................................................. 16 1.3. Anxiety Definition, Anxiety in Sports ............................................................. 17 1.3.1 Definition of Anxiety ................................................................................. 17 1.3.2 Anxiety in Sports ....................................................................................... 18 1.4 The Attention Control Theory of Anxiety ........................................................ 19 1.4.1 What is Attentional Control? ..................................................................... 19 1.4.2 Anxiety, Attention Control and Executive Functioning ............................ 20 1.4.3 Anxiety Related Impairment in Attentional Control in the Presence of Threatening Stimuli ............................................................................................. 25 1.4.4 Processing Efficiency vs Performance Effectiveness in Anxiety .............. 26 1.5 Attention Control and Anxiety in Sports .......................................................... 27 1.6 Gaze Behaviours in Sports ................................................................................ 33 1.6.1 The Quiet Eye ............................................................................................ 33 1.6.2 The Quiet Eye in Tennis ............................................................................ 34 1.6.3 The QE as an Index of Attentional Control in Sports ................................ 35 1.6.4 Alternative Gaze Indices of ‘Attentional Control’ in Tennis ..................... 36 1.7 Competitive Anxiety and the Quiet Eye ........................................................... 37 1.8. Quiet Eye Training ........................................................................................... 40 1.8.1 Limitations of QE Training Methods ......................................................... 42 5 1.9 Lab Based Cognitive Training Methods ........................................................... 43 1.9.1 ABM Training ............................................................................................ 44 1.9.2 Working Memory Training ........................................................................ 46 1.9.3 Working Memory Training in Emotionally Vulnerable Populations ........ 48 1.9.4 Visual Search Training and Anxiety .......................................................... 50 1.10 Cognitive Training Methods in Sports ............................................................ 51 1.11 Summary ......................................................................................................... 54 1.12 Research Aims and Thesis Outline ................................................................. 56 1.13 Methodology of Eye Tracking Data Collection and Analysis ........................ 58 1.13.1 Eye Tracking Equipment ......................................................................... 58 1.13.2 Recording Motor Phases .......................................................................... 60 1.13.3 Analysis of Motor and Gaze Data ............................................................ 61 1.13.4 Defining and Calculating the QE for the Tennis Volleying Task ............ 62 Chapter 2: Can Training Inhibition Improve Cognitive and Motor Task Performance? 2.1 Chapter overview .............................................................................................. 65 2.2 General Introduction ......................................................................................... 66 2.3 Experiment 1: Training Attentional Control to Improve Inhibitory Control. ... 69 2.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 69 2.3.2 Methods ...................................................................................................... 70 2.2.4 Results ........................................................................................................ 75 2.3.4 Discussion .................................................................................................. 78 2.4 Experiment 2: The Impact of Inhibitory Control Training on Attentional Control in Tennis. ................................................................................................................. 79 2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 80 2.4.2 Methods ...................................................................................................... 81 2.4.3 Results ........................................................................................................ 83 2.4.4 Discussion .................................................................................................. 85 6 2.5 Experiment 3: Training Attentional Control to Improve Performance and Gaze Indices of Attentional Control During a Tennis Volleying Task. .......................... 86 2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 86 2.5.2 Methods ...................................................................................................... 89 2.5.4 Results: ....................................................................................................... 96 2.5.4 Discussion .................................................................................................. 99 2.6 General Discussion ...................................................................................................... 102 Chapter 3: Testing the Efficacy of Working Memory Training in Improving
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