index

Note: Page numbers followed by “n” refer to endnote.

A anti-Thaksin networks, 108 , 65, 72, 77 Anwar Ibrahim, 65, 67, 71, 74 Abdul Rasyid, 50 Arab Spring, 66, 152, 194, 200 activism Architects of Networked Disinformation blogosphere and, 147–49 (2018), 29 social media and, 168–75 Asalkan Bukan UMNO (Anyone But “ADHOC 5”, 138 UMNO), 66 Ahok, 12, 49, 53 Aung San Suu Kyi, 88, 93, 98, 204 Alex Au, 170, 175 authoritarian control, 202–4 Aljunied-Hougang Punggol East authoritarian regimes, 200, 207–8 Town Council (AHPETC), 177 authoritarian resilience Andrew Loh, 171 causes of, 198–200 Anh Ba Sam, 148 in Southeast Asia, 192–93, 200–207 “anti-Barisan Nasional”, 64, 67 democratic regression and anti-coup activists, 109 authoritarian resilience, causes anti-establishment forces, 116 of, 198–200 anti-establishment sentiment, 109 global trends, 193–97 Anti-Fake News Act, , 74 autocratic regression, in Myanmar, Anti-Fake News Centre, Thailand, 199 105, 111 autocratization, 119, 192 anti-Formosa movement, Vietnam, 154–55 B Anti-Muslim, 97 Balik Undi (return home to vote), 67 hate speech and fake news, 100 Bangkok.com, 108 anti-Najib sentiment, 68 Bank Rakyat (BRI), 52 anti-Single Gateway proposal, Thailand, 119 Bannok.com, 108

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Barisan Nasional (BN) Bongbong Marcos, 33 Bersih, 66 Breakfast Network, 176, 178 coalition, 80n1, 197 Broadcasting Act 2013, , cybertroopers, 77 13–14, 175 disinformation campaign, 78 Buddhist extremist pages, removal election, 67, 76 from Facebook, 87 electoral system, 65 Buddhist nationalist sentiment, 93 engagement in disinformation Budi Purnomo Karjodiharjo, 52 practices, 80 Burma Media Association, 94 fall of, 77 BurmaNet, 92 GE14, 64 “Burmese Media Spring”, 93 GE12 in 2008, results, 71 “buzzer istana” (the Palace’s buzzers), government, 63 54 internet, 69 “buzzers” in Indonesia, 9, 50 national election campaign, 63–64, 67 C online disinformation strategy, 76 Cambodia, 126–28 responds, 69–74 cyberspace, 127 rule, 64 “digital democracy” in, 127 ruling coalition, 12 digital transformations in, 128 social media campaigning, 75 emergence of digital platforms, trust deficit in, 79 128–31 Baswedan, Anies, 53 political system, 197 Bauxite Vietnam blog, 151 social media “The Beginning of Online Social and decline of political Movements in Vietnam” (2017), opposition, 137–40 154 networks, 202–3 Benjamin Lee (Mr Miyagi), 170 and political activism, 131–37 Bersih, 66–68, 79, 80n3 Cambodia Development Resource “Clean Elections” movement, 2 Institute, 134 rallies, 68, 71, 76 Cambodia National Rescue Party “biased” liberal media, 27 (CNRP), 127, 131–32, 138 “black campaign”, 10, 48 Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) “Black Monday” campaign, 130 cyberspace, 140 Blackout 505, 67 Hun Sen, 13, 127–28, 131, 197 “blogfather” of Singapore, 169 re-election incentives, 136 bloggers, 171, 178, 201 ruling party, 126 blogging communities, 160 slogan of “change”, 131 blogosphere, and activism, 147–49 SMS messaging, use of, 130 blogs, 172 social media, 132 decline of, 175–79 The Cambodia Daily, 130

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Cambridge Analytica, 28 Constitutional Court, Thailand, celebrity endorsements, 25 105–6, 120n1 censorship contemporary Thai politics, military methods, 146 in, 111 of online public sphere, 204 “context collapse” phenomenon, Central Youth Union, 153 178–79 Centre of Digital Security, 112 Covid-19 pandemic, 183–84 Chatter Party, 127 “cures” of patient zero, 20 China, 145–46 “cyber activists”, 70 aggressive foreign policy, 199 Cyber Centre, Thailand, 112 authoritarianism in mainland cyber defiance, 106 Southeast Asia, 199 cyber mobs, 205 ban Facebook, 155 cyber repression, 205 government’s policy on, 151 Cyber Scouts, 115, 116 Chinese-based platforms, 181 Cybersecurity Bill, Thailand, 112, 115 Chinese model, 199 Cyber-Security Law, Vietnam, 145, civil society, 120n7 203 cyberspaces by, 118–19 cyberspace, 111, 127 groups, 89, 139 cyber terrorism, 115 nascent cyber activism, 108 cyber-tokhang, 30–32 organizations, 15 cybertroopers, 70–72 sector, 94 Barisan Nasional, 12, 74, 75, 77 Thailand, 205 conversation spaces, 78 clicktivism, 200 disinformation practices, 72 closed messenger groups, 78 election, 79 Coalition for Free and Fair Elections emergence of, 64 (BERSIH), 205 in Malaysia, 9 coarse political discourse, Najib, 76 amplification of, 26–28 cyber unit, 116 “Coins for Prita”, 45 cyber warfare, 111 Colours Rainbow Yangon, 2 communal violence in Myanmar, 87, D 98 “Daddy Duterte” (Tatay Digong), 32 Communications and Multimedia Act Declaration on a Framework to 1998, Malaysia, 73 Minimise the Harmful Effects of Communications Authority of Fake News (2018), 4 Thailand (CAT), 107 Decree 97 on the Management, Computer Crime Act (CCA), Supply, and Use of Internet Thailand, 109, 114, 118, 205 Services and Electronic Computer-Related Crimes Act, Information on the Internet Thailand, 109, 120n3 (2008), 150

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democracy “digital democracy” in Cambodia, activists, 151 127 autocratic rule and, 107 digital disinformation, 20 Corazon Aquino, 32 Digital Economy and Society (DE), death of, 20 Thailand, 111 in electoral authoritarian regimes, digital era, 6 193 digital media, 192, 205 and human freedom, 192 grassroots activism on, 15 human rights and good digital platforms, emergence of, governance, 26 128–31 in Indonesia, 196 digital politics, turning point for, Jokowi, 206 109–10 lower support of, 198 digital public sphere in Philippines, new digital totalitarianism, 200 19–20, 35 and political discourse, 13 disinformation, 21–26 “promissory coups”, 207 beyond elections, 30–35 prospects of, 194 2016 Philippine elections, 26–30 reforms for, 16 digital technologies, 22 social media, 79 for political campaigns, 25 in Southeast Asia, 2, 196 digital transformations in Cambodia, struggle for, 91 128 supportive of, 44 digital workers, 23 sustainability of, 199 disinformation threats to, 12 beyond elections, 30–35 tools in, 56 grassroots activism to, 1–6 veil of, 75 diverse social media landscape, democratic breakdown, in Thailand, 6–9 206 elections, 12–13 democratic regression, causes of, laws and crackdowns, 13–16 198–200 rise of, 9–11 Democratic Socialist Republic of in Indonesia, 43–44 Vietnam, 152 industry and political buzzers, Democrat Party-led government, 47–51 109 production grows, 52–55 Dengvaxia scandal, 35 social media, 44–47 Department of Health’s industry, professionalization of, immunization programme, 28–30 Philippines, 34 in Malaysia, 63–64 de-securitizing disinformation, 118 Barisan Nasional, 69–74 digital activism, phase of, 91 historic change of government, digital authoritarianism, 127 75–78

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opposition campaigning and 2012 Jakarta gubernatorial election, election battles, 67–69 43–44, 46, 49–50 social media activism and 2013 General Election (GE13), opposition politics, 64–67 63–64, 67, 69, 71–73, 80n5 in Philippines, 21–26 2014 General Election (GE14), 64, 2016 elections, 26–30 68, 72, 74, 78 rise of, 3, 9–11 2015 General Election (GE15), securitization approach to, 106 176–78, 184 “distorted information”, 116 Philippine elections, 26–30 distrust, in Southeast Asian societies, political economy of, 47 193 of Rodrigo Duterte, 13 diverse social media landscape, 6–9 Singapore government, 13 “divided disinformation”, 106 “turning point”, 12 “divisive” political discourse, 43 election disinformation grows, 52–54 draconian laws, Malaysia, 72–74 Elections Advertising Regulations, Dung, Nguyen Tan, 152–53, 155 Singapore, 170, 172 Duterte, R., 198, 199 electoral authoritarian regime, 193, Asia’s oldest democracies, 19 196 campaign in Ilocos, 33 Malaysia, 197 Death Squads, 28 electoral authoritarian rule, 194 drug war, 27 Electoral Commission, Malaysia, 68 election victory of, 13 electoral contestation, 45 electoral outcomes, 25 electoral democracies, 15 media agencies, 28 electoral reform, 67 in Philippines, 30, 196 Electronic Information Transaction provincial warlords, 26 Law, Indonesia, 203 on social media, 20 enhanced censorship, 193 supporters of, 31, 206 environmental activism online, 160 exiled activist groups, 90 E “explicitly political” content, ban on, ecosystem of state agencies, Thailand, 170, 172 112 election, 12–13 F battles, 67–69 Facebook, 86–89, 115–18, 133–40, campaigns, 9 148–55 disinformation, 30–35, 52–55 Cambodia’s largest LGBT 2006 General Election (GE06), organizations, 129 169–71 citizens and activists, political 2011 General Election (GE11), parties, 173 171–74 co-opting Facebook, 155–59 2012 General Election (GE12), 71 disinformation campaigns, 146

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dominant social media platform, Filipinos, 21–24 128 communities, 28 Filipino internet users, 21 migrant labour, 22 “free basics” in Philippines, 7 online, 21 and Google, 10 Force 47, 156, 157, 158, 159, 204 groups, 23 Freedom House, 9, 194 LGBT communities, 2 Free My Internet movement, 176 live streaming, 69 #FREETHE5KH (Free the Khmer Ma Ba Tha, 96 Five) campaign, 130 Myanmar human rights groups to, 99 G “patient zero”, 19 1969 General Election, 80n2 silent protest on, 68 2006 General Election (GE06), 169–71 Southeast Asian countries, 8 2011 General Election (GE11), 171–74 Thinking Pinoy, 35 2012 General Election (GE12), 71 and Twitter, 32, 45, 172, 174, 177, 2013 General Election (GE13), 63–64, 179, 180 67, 69, 71–73, 80n5 West Papua, 55 2014 General Election (GE14), 64, 68, WhatsApp and, 12, 74 72, 74, 78 and YouTube, 97, 114 2015 General Election (GE15), 176–78, Facebook Free Basics in 2015, 88 184 “Facebook genocide”, 86 Giap, Vo Nguyen, 150 “Facebook Live” broadcasts, 25 Global Day of Action for Burma, 92 Facebook Messenger, 8 Global Inventory of Organised Social fact-checking websites, 180 Media Manipulation, 4 Fahmi Redza, 68 Google fake news, 27–28, 87, 112 Facebook and, 10, 146, 157, 158, 168 disinformation and, 21 and Yahoo, 147 on Facebook, 19 government officials’, social media Myanmar’s political transition, activism and, 135 86–100 Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, 56 political trolling and production grassroots activism of, 29 on digital media, 15 readers of, 36 to disinformation, 1–6 rise of, 93–97, 206 diverse social media landscape, social media and, 9, 20 6–9 Thailand, policy responses to elections, 12–13 disinformation in, 105–20 laws and crackdowns, 13–16 victims of, 139 rise of, 9–11 Federal Constitution for Malaysians, 2017 gubernatorial elections, in 67 Indonesia, 206

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H information and communication Haque, Zulkiflee Anwar (Zunar), technologies (ICT), 127 73–74, 78 Information Operation (IO), 115 Hari Merdeka (Independence Day), information security, 114 Malaysia, 68 Instagram, 201 hate speech, 87 Internal Security Operations rise of, 93–97 Command (ISOC), 111, 112, 115, health disinformation, 34–35 116 Hindu Rights Action Force International Fact Checking Network (HINDRAF), 66 (IFCN), 180, 185 “hoax news”, 9, 11 internet Human Rights Film Institute in arrival and early digital activism, Myanmar, 97 89–93 Hun Sen, 13, 127, 128, 132, 133, 135, censorship, 202–4 138, 197 development of, 107–10 in Indonesia, 44 I social media and, 127 “I am the Five” photo campaign, in Southeast Asia, 202 130 in Thailand, 205 Indonesia Internet Relay Chat (mIRC), 169 “buzzers” in, 9, 50 internet service providers (ISPs), 92 civil society and pro-democracy activists, 2 J democracy in, 44, 195, 198 Jakarta gubernatorial election, 43, 44, disinformation, rise of, 43–44 46 industry and political buzzers, Jokowi, 2, 12, 43, 46, 49, 52, 54, 206 47–51 Jokowi Ahok Social Media Volunteers production grows, 52–55 (JASMEV), 49, 50 social media, 44–47 online population, 7 K political buzzers in, 50 Kem Sokha, 132, 137, 138 2014 presidential election, Khe, Nguyen Cong, 149 Indonesia, 53 Ko Htike, 92 2019 presidential election, ko-htike.blogspot.com, 92 Indonesia, 44 “Kon Khmer” (Facebook page), 138 research in, 43 scholarship in, 8 L Indonesian Anti-Corruption Lee Kin Mum (mrbrown), 170 Commission (KPK), 45, 54 Leong Sze Hian, 175 Indonesian digital sphere, 12 lèse majesté (monarchy offences), Indonesian political landscape, 51 114–15, 120n2, 205

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Liberal Party, 30 multi-user dungeons (MUDs), 169 LINE, 8 Mulyasari, Prita, 45 Little India case, Singapore, 182 “Muslim Cyber Army”, 53 Muslim minorities, 98 M Myanmar Ma Ba Tha, 95–100 autocratic regression in, 199 , 65, 68, 72, 73, 77, civil society, 99 197, 205 digital activism, 90 mainstream media, 176, 177 email service in, 89 Malaysia, 2 internet penetration in, 90 “cybertroopers” in, 9 media and telecommunications disinformation in, 63–64 sectors, 88 Barisan Nasional, 69–74 military, 93 historic change of government, social media in, 14, 86, 87, 98 75–78 state-society relations online, 93 opposition campaigning and Myanmar-based dissidents, 91 election battles, 67–69 Myanmar.com, 92 social media activism and Myanmar Muslim community, 95 opposition politics, 64–67 MyConsti campaign in 2009, 66 electoral authoritarian regime, 197 Multimedia Super Corridor, 65 N new communication technologies, Najib Razak, 64, 68–70, 72–79, 197 205 National Broadcasting and resilient electoral-authoritarian rule Telecommunications Commission in, 198 (NBTC), 111 scholarship in, 8 National Council for Peace Order, Malaysiakini, 65, 72, 76 Announcement 12/2014, 120n4 The Malaysian Insider, 73 National Council for Peace Order, Marcos Cyber Warriors, 32 Announcement 17/2014, 120n4 Martial Law, 33 National Cyber Security Committee “memefication” of satirical works, 78 (NCSC), 112 The Middle Ground, 178 National Electronics and Computer “Midnightuniv.org”, 108 Technology Centre (NECTEC), military, in contemporary Thai 107 politics, 111 National League for Democracy Min Htin Ko Ko Gyi, 204 (NLD), 88–89, 94, 98–99, 196, Ministry of Information and 206 Communication Technology National Science and Technology (MICT), Thailand, 109 Development Agency (NSTDA), Multimedia Bill of Guarantees, 107 Malaysia, 65 National Security Council (NSC), 110

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NATO’s StratCom Centre of P Excellence, 10 Pakatan Harapan (PH), 69, 79, 197 “negative campaigning”, 9 Pakatan Rakyat, 67 Network Enforcement Act, Germany, Partai Demokrasi Indonesia 14, 180, 183 Perjuangan (PDIP), 49 new communication technologies, “patient zero”, 19–20 Malaysia, 205 for disinformation, 13 new digital totalitarianism, 200 beyond elections, 30–35 “new” media in Malaysia, 65 in Philippines, 21–30 Nguyen Van Hai, 149 People Power Revolution, 195 Nguyen Viet Chien, 149 People’s Action Party (PAP) 969 Buy-Buddhist campaign, 95–96 mobilization by, 177 969/Ma Ba Tha monks, 96 in Singapore, 197 988 FM, Tin Pei Ling, 173 Association (MCA)-owned Philippines Chinese-language station, 68 democracy in, 198 development programme, 199 non-governmental organizations digital public sphere in, 35 (NGOs), 94, 117 disinformation in 2016 elections, Nugraha, Pepih, 54 26–30 economy, 33 O “free” internet environment, 201 Occupy Movement, 66 “trolls” in, 9 1Malaysia Development Berhad Philippines’ Commission on Human (1MDB), 68 Rights, 19–20 corruption scandal, 75, 78 The Phnom Penh Post, 138 online blogging, 149 polarization, 119 The Online Citizen, 170, 172 in Southeast Asian societies, 193 online disinformation services, 5, 28 policies Online Freelance Workers (OFW 2.0), control, legal repression and 24 manipulation, 113–18 online public sphere, censorship of, implementing bodies, 111–12 204 political activism, social media and, online repression, 193 131–37 online vigilante groups, 205 political buzzers in Indonesia, 50 opposition politics, social media political campaigns, 43–44, 47–48 activism and, 64–67 digital technologies for, 25 opposition sympathizers, 138 industry and political buzzers, overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) 47–51 Facebook groups, 23, 28 production grows, 52–55 social media, 44–47

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political culture, 24–26 Reporters Without Borders, 94 political disinformation, 10 repressive laws, 205 political economy, 22–24 Reserve officer training corps political engagement in Singapore, (ROTC), 120n6 167–68 resilient electoral-authoritarian rule, social media 198 and activism, 168–75 Ressa, Maria, 20 emerging disinformation, 179–84 Reza, Fahmi, 78 regulation and decline of blogs, Robles, Raissa, 31 175–79 Rohingya minorities, 86, 87, 98 political polarization, 87, 196 Rohingya Muslims, 94, 97, 100, 207 post-authoritarian democracy, 56 Rohingyas online, 88 post-authoritarian technological Rojanapruk, Praiwit, 115 transformations, 46 Roy Ngerng, 175 post-2011 General Election, 176 Russian fake news campaigns, 9 Prabowo’s campaign, 53 “Prachatai.com”, 108, 114 S pro-BN cybertroopers, 76 Saffron Revolution, 87, 91–94 pro-BN social bots, 76 Sammyboy.com, 170 professionalization of disinformation The Sarawak Report, 73 industry, 28–30 Save Malaysia movement, 68 proliferation of digital disinformation, Section 66(d) of Myanmar’s 2013 20 Telecommunication Law, 202 pro-regime traditional media, 117 securitizing disinformation, Protection from Online Falsehoods regulation and policies, 110–18 and Manipulation Act (POFMA), Security Offenses (Special Measures) 14, 183–84 Act 2012 (SOSMA), 73 pro-UMNO political bloggers, 77 Sedition Act, 73, 74 Public Attorney’s Office (PAO), “Sei Ha” (Facebook page), 137 Philippines, 35 The Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods, 182 R “Silent No More” (Facebook page), 31 Raden Nuh, 50 Silicon Valley, 11 Radio Free Asia, 130 SIM cards, 89 Rainsy, Sam, 132, 133, 139 Singapore Rakhine Buddhist mob, 94 government, 13 rallies organized via social media, People’s Action Party (PAP) in, growth of, 174–75 197 Reformasi Diary (Zain), 65 political engagement in social Reformasi movement, 45, 66 media, 167–68 Remy Choo Zheng Xi, 171 and activism, 168–75

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emerging disinformation, 179–84 volunteers, 46 regulation and decline of blogs, social media activism, 45, 168–75 175–79 and discourse, 169–71 resilient electoral-authoritarian rule and government officials’, 135 in, 198 and opposition politics, 64–67 Singapore Democratic Party (SDP), social networking sites, 108 169 socio-political blogs, 172 Single Gateway, 119 decline of, 178–79 SingNet, 168 socio-political landscape, Singapore, SingTel, 168 167 Siregar, Denny, 54 Sombat Boongnam-anong, 108 slacktivism, 200 Southeast Asia social media, 192–93 authoritarian resilience in, 192–93, anti-Barisan Nasional sentiment 200–207 on, 64 democratic regression and capital, 21 authoritarian resilience, “chilling effect” on, 72, 114 causes of, 198–200 democratic regression and global trends, 193–97 authoritarian resilience, causes internet and social media usage in, of, 198–200 202 election, 171–74 internet penetration in, 129 global trends, 193–97 key internet controls in, 203 in Indonesia, 44–47 social media trends in, 1–6 and internet, 107–10, 127 disinformation, rise of, 9–11 Myanmar’s political transition, diverse social media landscape, 86–100 6–9 platforms, 43 elections, 12–13 and political activism, 131–37 laws and crackdowns, 13–16 political opposition, decline of, Speakers’ Corner, Singapore, 174, 176 137–40 Suharto’s New Order government, 49 role of, 192–208 Singapore, political engagement in, T 167–85 Telegram, 78, 183 in Southeast Asia, 1–6, 202 Telephone Organisation of Thailand disinformation, rise of, 9–11 (TOT), 107 diverse social media landscape, Temasek Review Emeritus, 172, 173 6–9 Thailand, 2, 87, 106 elections, 12–13 case of, 118 laws and crackdowns, 13–16 civil society, 205 Vietnam, state information controls Computer Crimes Act, 203 in, 145–60 coups in, 199

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cyberspace, 106 U democratic breakdown in, 206 UN Independent International Fact- digital economy, 114 Finding Mission on Myanmar, digital openness to surveillance, 207 109 Union Solidarity and Development digital repression in, 113 Party (USDP), 87–88 digital space, 107 United National Organisation elections in, 196 (UMNO), 80n4 information technology, 106 Asalkan Bukan UMNO (Anyone But internet in, 205 UMNO), 66 LINE, 8 Mahathir Mohamad, 73 polarization, 106 New Media Unit, 70 politics of, 106, 119 split in, 77 securitizing disinformation, 110 UN Special Rapporteur on the human society, 196 rights situation in Myanmar, 93 Thai Rak Thai Party, 108 U Wirathu, 96, 97 Thai Rath, 117 Thaksin Shinawatra, 108, 109, 198 V Thanh Nien, 149 V-Dem data, 193–94 Thein Sein, 87, 93, 98 Vietnam, 1, 204 Thida Htwe, 94 social media in, 15 Think Big Indonesia, 53 state information controls in, Thinking Pinoy’s Facebook post, 35 145–47 Third-Party Fact-Checking Program, blogosphere and activism, 168 147–49 “toxic information”, 157 “trolls” in the Philippines, 9 co-opting Facebook, 155–59 turning point Facebook crackdowns fail, for digital politics, 109–10 151–55 in social media production, 5 traditional media crackdowns Twitter, 172–74 and Facebook’s arrival, “bots”, 9 149–51 buzzers Vietnamese authorities, 146, 151–52, in Indonesia, 50 155–56, 159 and Instagram, 11 Vietnamese Internet Service digital research industry, 6 Providers, 151 in disinformation studies, 8 Vietnamese netizens, 151 Facebook and, 32, 45, 55, 69–72, Vietnamese social media landscape, 172, 180 148 Jokowi on social media, 54 Voice of America, 130

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W Y “weaponization” of social media, 20 Yahoo!360 social network, 148, 150 weblogs, 108 Yawning Bread, 170, 175 Western media, 95 YouTube, 21, 28, 30, 49, 157 WhatsApp, 133, 168, 184 Facebook and, 97, 114 and Facebook, 12, 69, 74 lèse majesté, 109 in Malaysia and Indonesia, 7–8 pro-BN cybertroopers, 76 review of, 179 “revolution”, 87 and Telegram, 78, 183 videos on, 70 White Paper Protest, 174 Workers’ Party (WP), 173 Z Zuckerberg, Mark, 10, 99, 158

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