SPECPOL-Study-Guide-FINAL.Pdf

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Welcome Letter from the Directors 2

Introduction to SPECPOL 3

Addressing a Post-2048 Antarctica 4 Introduction to the Topic 4 Past Actions 5 Discussion 6 Natural Resources in Antarctica 6 Land Disputes in the Antarctic 7 Scientific Research in Antarctica 8 Antarctica in a Global Ecological Crisis 8 Bloc Positions 10 Pre-Treaty Claimants 10 Reserved Claimants 10 Non-Claimants 10 Points a Resolution Must Address 11 Further Reading 12 Bibliography 13

Welcome Letter from the Directors Hi delegates!

Welcome to the Special Political and Decolonisation Committee (SPECPOL) at LIMUN High School 2019! We are so excited to be going on this journey with you to address a post-2048 Antarctica. It is our greatest hope that you will find your time in SPECPOL interesting, fulfilling and challenging at the same time, especially considering the topic is of great relevance to the future you will be leading. The topic was chosen with the intention of stretching your mind consider a range of issues as well as encourage participation from all delegates, who will no doubt all bring a different approach to the issue at hand.

We hope to shed more light on a topic that has not been in the spotlight that much (yet) and be ahead of the curve in what will prove to be a heated issue in the near future. It is a perfect blend of territorial disputes, scientific exploration, natural resource competition, and possible environmental catastrophe, one of which we hope will interest every single delegate in the committee. We hope to be able to break new ground with the issue and have an enlightening, engaging, and most importantly, enjoyable debate. We look forward to seeing you all soon!

Your chairs,

Natalie and Terry

Natalie: [email protected] Terry: [email protected]

Introduction to SPECPOL

The United Nations General Assembly Fourth Committee (GA4) also known as the Special Political and Decolonization Committee (SPECPOL) is one of the six General Assembly committees founded by the United Nations on October 24, 1945 by the founding 51 member states. The committee deals with many pressing and political issues such as dealing with outer space, decolonization of nations, peacekeeping operations and many more.1

As the Special Political and Decolonization Committee, it had previously mainly dealt with actions related to decolonization, however, due to the great joint efforts of the committee many nations became independent and since then has dealt mainly with particular conflicts. The committee in recent years has expanded its mandate and has now gone on to debate new topics such as the effects of atomic radiation, observing special political missions, provided relief for refugees and assisted in mine action. One example of a particular field that SPECPOL regularly discusses is how to preserve the safety and peaceful use of a specific area, this may be outer space or in this year's case, Antarctica.2

As a General Assembly committee it consists of all Member States in the United Nations and meets every year from late September to mid November but may also convene to adopt any resolutions relating to peacekeeping or emergency sessions. Each nation represented by one delegate has one vote and unlike the United Nations Security Council there are no vetos in the voting stage. However, like the other General Assembly committees all resolutions passed through SPECPOL are non-binding, meaning that the resolution has to be approved by the Security Council.

1 "UN General Assembly - Fourth Committee - Special Political And Decolonization". 2019. Un.Org. https://www.un.org/en/ga/fourth/. 2 "SPECIAL POLITICAL AND DECOLONIZATION COMMITTEE CONCLUDES GENERAL DEBATE | Meetings Coverage And Press Releases."2019. Un.Org. https://www.un.org/press/en/1999/19991007.gaspd160.doc.html.

Addressing a Post-2048 Antarctica

Introduction to the Topic Antarctica is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere and is Earth’s southernmost continent that covers almost 10% of the Earth’s land. It does not have an indigenous population nor any occupying force but is claimed by 54 parties that have signed the Antarctic Treaty System.3 During the 19th and early 20th centuries, expeditions to Antarctica led to many surrounding islands being claimed by different countries including Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, The Soviet Union, South Africa, United Kingdom, and the United States.4 The continent has roughly 90% of the ice in the world and so holds almost 70% of the world’s fresh water. Apart from control over the majority of supply of Earth’s fresh water, dominion over Antarctica holds many other benefits, namely ownership of any potential resources and research access.

Currently, Antarctica is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) that was negotiated in 1959, where the original 12 signatories were the parties active during the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58.5 It has since grown, with 42 other countries acceding to the Treaty.6 Under the terms of the Treaty, multiple countries agree to have mutual sovereignty over the territory where all military activity is banned, and it is a scientific preserve where scientific research and findings are not owned by any member state, but freely shared. Furthermore, the Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty states that it “prohibits all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources, except for scientific research” until 2048 unless all the Consultative Parties to the Treaty agree to allow for such activities to occur.7

3 Nash, Rosemary. 2019. "The Antarctic Treaty System". SCAR. https://www.scar.org/policy/antarctic-treaty-system/. 4 "Parties". 2019. Ats.Aq. https://www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e. 5 "Parties". 2019. Ats.Aq. https://www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e. 6 "Parties". 2019. Ats.Aq. https://www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e. 7 "Environmental Protocol | Antarctic Treaty". 2019. Ats.Aq. https://www.ats.aq/e/protocol.html.

(Image from: “Antarctic Treaty SummaryThe Treaty Covers the Area between 60°S Latitude to the South Pole,” Antarctic Treaty a summary of the 14 points, and a list of the Antarctic Treaty Nations, accessed October 25, 2019, https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica factfile/science/antarctic_treaty_summary.php.)

This is the crux of the issue to be discussed. Addressing how the international community and especially the Consultative Parties can move forward from the Protocol on Environmental Protection after 2048 while balancing the interests of all the different parties involved.

Past Actions

The United Nations for a very long period of time did not have a view or say in the proceedings in Antarctica and only recently was the agenda discussed. One of the first countries to present the question of Antarctica was Malaysia to the United Nations General Assembly on September 29, 1982. The Prime Minister of Malaysia stressed the importance on how “the United Nations should focus its attention on Antarctica, the largest land area remaining on Earth without natives or settlers”. He further expressed how Antarctica belongs to the international community and how the United Nations should be responsible to preserve the peace and security over the region. Malaysia with the support of Antigua and Barbuda, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan, Algeria, Sierra Leone and Guyana all fought to introduce the issue of Antarctica as an agenda at the thirty-eighth UN General Assembly, however, this introduction was opposed by members of the Consultative Parties of the Antarctic Treaty and the agenda just passed and was set to be discussed in the First Committee of the General Assembly.

From November 28, 1983, the First Committee has discussed the question of Antarctica in 5 sessions and adopted a resolution. This resolution would request the Secretary General “to prepare a comprehensive, factual and objective study on all aspects of Antarctica, taking fully into account the Antarctic Treaty System and other relevant factors,” and in completion report to the thirty-ninth session in 1984. The resolution was adopted by the Security Council on December 15, 1983. During the thirty-eighth session it was clear that there was a divide between the Malaysia group and members of the Treaty where the Malaysian group criticized the Antarctic Treaty and urged for the management of the continent by the international community. The Consultative Party in defence reported the achievements, advantages as well as the dangers of revising the Treaty. This conflict continued across the thirty-ninth session of the General Assembly.8

Recently, the region has been discussed in greater depth across many committees both General Assembly and Specialized Agencies. An example of this is the actions by the United Nations Environment Program or the

8 Hayashi, Moritaka. 1986. "The Antarctica Question In The United Nations". Cornell International Law Journal 19 (2): 275-290. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1165&context=cilj.

UNEP. Due to the massive concern for the health of the Antarctic ecosystems and its vast array of marine and terrestrial life the UNEP has adopted and ratified many resolutions as well as international conventions regarding Antarctica. During the mid-1970s an increase in krill catching had caused a serious effect on the populations of krill and other marine life which lead to the adoption of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine living resources or (CCAMLR) which has allowed nations to work together and manage resources in the southern oceans. Other resolutions include the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty which commissioned the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP). 9

9 "Antarctic Region". 2019. UNEP - UN Environment Programme. https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/region al-seas-programmes/antarctic.

Discussion

Natural Resources in Antarctica

Being a mostly uninhabitable region of land with a total area of 14 million square kilometers, many can say that there is little to no resources or use for Antarctica. However, due to the work of hundreds of scientists venturing into the Antarctic, experts recently hypothesised that mineral and metal resources are likely to be found there. The possible resources include large amounts of silver, copper, gold, nickel, platinum, iron, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, zinc, manganese lead, titanium, nickel and uranium as well as small quantities of coal and other hydrocarbons. For many scientists this is a chance to explore and uncover new secrets of science, but for many nations it is a large mass of unexploited resources. 10

There has never been any commercial mining in Antarctica due to the treaty which has banned mining under the Environmental Protocol. During the 1959s when the Antarctic Treaty was signed, mining was not formally discussed as at the time there had been no evidence of resources in the Antarctic. The mining issue was first raised in 1970 by the United Kingdom and New Zealand who has been consulted by mineral companies interested in exploitation of the area. However, between 1982 and 1988, a new set of tough environmental protection policies were set under the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA)11. Under the convention, mining was prohibited as it could cause a risk to the environment ,however, the treaty also states that mining could take place under the condition that all parties agree and were certain that there was no risk to the environment. This clause created a dispute between the parties especially France and Australia who in 1989 refused to sign the convention as they believed that no mining should ever take place in the Antarctic. Due to this, CRAMRA was never passed and acted as the first blow to the peace in the Antarctic but it did help provide the frameworks for the Environmental Protection Protocol which was passed in 1998 and has since banned mining in Antarctica.12

10 Society, National. 2019. "Antarctica". National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/antarctica/. 11 "The Threat To Antarctica From Mining And Exploiting Oil And Gas". 2019. Coolantarctica.Com. https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_mining_oil.php. 12 "Protocol On Environmental Protection To The Antarctic Treaty (1991) - British Antarctic Survey". 2019. Bas.Ac.Uk.

Today, there are calls for review of the treaties to lift the ban on mining in Antarctica as oil reserves and other natural resources are becoming limited. In 2048, natural resources will be at an all time low and the resources in Antarctica will become a valuable asset to all nations.

Land Disputes in the Antarctic

Currently there are seven nations who hold territorial claims in Antarctica. They are Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. Each member has helped to create and enforce the Atlantic Treaty and has offered their respective lands to the joint efforts of the treaty and has allowed major scientific research and innovation to occur. However, there still exists a number of facilities located outside of any nation’s control and claimed land. Due to this there has been many other countries who have claimed land as their own these countries include Russia and the United States.13

Historically, the United Kingdom was one of the first nations to fully claim a region of the Antarctic as their own which occurred in 1908. Since then many other nations shortly followed with New Zealand in 1923 and France 1924. Now, luckily, Antarctica remains one of the small handful of places in the world that war has never touched and where the environment is fully protected.

The Antarctic Treaty in regards to land claims and disputes states specifically that any territorial claims made at the time are still valid and that the treaty does not affect the basis of the claims made nor does it affect the right of a state to recognise or refuse to recognise any new territorial claims. However, the treaty does affect new claims saying that no new claims can be made, no current claim can be enlarged and there shall be no activities occurring after 1961 due to the basis of territorial claims. Due to this, the United States and Russia have both stated that they are against the restriction on new claims and assert their right to make claims in the future if they see fit. These provisions meant that

https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/the-antarctic-treaty/environmental-protocol/protocol-on-environ mental-protection-to-the-antarctic-treaty-1991/. 13 "Antarctica :: Antarctica — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". 2019. Cia.Gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/print_ay.html.

9 there have always been some fractures in relation to trust between the members of the Antarctic Treaty.

One specific land dispute that carries on today is the disputed claim between the United Kingdom and Argentina regarding the South Orkney Islands. Both nations maintain bases on the islands. Argentina established their base, Orcadas, in 1904 consisting of 11 buildings that can house up to 45 people, whereas the United Kingdom holds their British Antarctic Survey base, the Signy Research Station, established in 1947. The two nations since then still stand their ground and claim and believe that the islands belong to them. 14

There has been speculation of possible future claims in the Antarctic by several other nations. The United States and Russia continue to state that

14 Lorton, Roger. 2019. "Pin Pricks & Antarctic Pretensions". Academia.Edu. https://www.academia.edu/38913480/Falklands_Wars_-_the_History_of_the_Falkland_Islands_Paper _9_-_1900_to_1959_Pin_Pricks_and_Antarctic_Pretensions.

10 they have reserved the right to make claims. Furthermore, Brazil has once tried to claim an area between 53°W and 28°W, overlapping with the Argentine and British claims. This is also the case with Peru, Uruguay and Ecuador.

Scientific Research in Antarctica

Antarctica is currently reserved as a scientific preserve where the scientific discoveries are not owned by a single nation, but are shared with the scientific community. However, with the expiration of the ATS, the rights to the scientific findings would be in contention. Current scientific research is overseen by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and within it, acts as an official observer to the Antarctic Treaty to provide “independent, objective scientific advice in a variety of fields, particularly on environmental and conservation matters”, focussing specifically on life sciences, geosciences and physical sciences.15 This is the main means in which scientific research of Antarctica is shared with the wider scientific community. However, with the expiration of the ATS, countries may claim any scientific findings and prevent them from being shared, coupled with the loss of a formal system in which this can be carried out.

Antarctica in a Global Ecological Crisis

Antarctica holds the reserve of 70% of the world’s fresh water, and that is arguably their greatest natural resource. The granting of rights of these waters and the seabed beneath them would be an issue that will be opposed by adversaries, especially with the secondary right of seabed prospecting, or deep sea mining.16 This could possibly make countries split into blocs with mutual interests and militarise the southern islands to protect their interests in Antarctica. This would leave Antarctica an extremely hostile environment which may “open a naval theatre in the Southern Ocean that cascades into a war”.17

15 Rosemary Nash, “Standing Committee on the Antarctic Treaty System (SCATS),” SCAR, accessed October 25, 2019, https://www.scar.org/policy/scats/. 16 Matthew Feldman and James Blake Wiener, “Who Will Control the Antarctic?,” Fair Observer, May 21, 2014, https://www.fairobserver.com/region/north_america/who-will-control-antarctic/. 17 Matthew Feldman and James Blake Wiener, “Who Will Control the Antarctic?,” Fair Observer, May 21, 2014, https://www.fairobserver.com/region/north_america/who-will-control-antarctic/.

Keeping in mind the amount of water the ice sheets of Antarctica holds, the persistent rising global temperatures put this balance into jeopardy. As global temperatures increase, large volumes of fresh-water drift ice is released, approximately “1.55 million square kilometres of coastal Antarctic ice shelves”, which could be sold to water-scarce nations, creating a volatile and exploitative global water economy.18 This could lead to illegal scavenging of Antarctica with the increase in demand of fresh-water, eventually leading to the capitalisation of other natural resources and increased disputes in territories and resources.

(Image from: Franz Dietrich Oeste et al., “Climate Engineering by Mimicking Natural Dust Climate Control: the Iron Salt Aerosol Method,” Earth System Dynamics 8, no. 1 (2017): pp. 1-54, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-1-2017.)

The Antarctic Bottom Water (ABW) is water found right above the seabed of any waters that are connected to the Southern Ocean at a depth of 4000m and above. It is the deepest water found in the world with the

18 Matthew Feldman and James Blake Wiener, “Who Will Control the Antarctic?,” Fair Observer, May 21, 2014, https://www.fairobserver.com/region/north_america/who-will-control-antarctic/.

12 densest, coldest, and most oxygen-rich water mass of the ocean, it consequently has a huge influence on movement of the world’s oceans in a process called thermohaline circulation.19 It has been described as “the ventilator of the planet”, and its issues are twofold - excessive fishing and offshore drilling, and melting of the Antarctic ice sheets.20 Excessive fishing and offshore drilling will deplete the oxygen content of the ABW and increase its temperature, causing an imbalance in the thermohaline circulation and ultimately having adverse consequences on the entire oceanic system. With the melting of the Antarctic ice sheets, the formation of ABW is slowing down, and a complete shutdown of the system, with no human activity factored in, is possible by 2050, dramatically effective ocean circulation and global weather patterns.21

19 “Antarctic Bottom Water,” Antarctic bottom water - AMS Glossary, accessed October 24, 2019, http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Antarctic_bottom_water. 20 “Antarctic Bottom Water,” Antarctic Bottom Water - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics, accessed October 24, 2019, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/antarctic-bottom-water. 21 James Hansen et al., “Ice Melt, Sea Level Rise and Superstorms: Evidence from Paleoclimate Data, Climate Modeling, and Modern Observations That 2 °C Global Warming Could Be Dangerous,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, no. 6 (2016): pp. 3761-3812, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016.

Bloc Positions

Pre-Treaty Claimants

These are the countries that had claims to Antarctica prior to the ATS and have agreed to share its rights by acceding to the ATS. Antarctica still represents a core issue for them and they might vie to redeem full claim to it.22 East Antarctica is “a land-mass rich in mineral-fuel resources” and the PTCs such as Australia with invested infrastructure in those areas might worry about other claimants who may choose to extract these resources with the expiration of the ATS.

Reserved Claimants

These are the countries that did not make any claims to Antarctica during or before the 1961 treaties but have stated they will reserve the right to put forward such claims during the 2048 review. These countries each have their own personal interests in the region be it land, resources or status. Many of the reserved claimants have tried to gain control of a region in the past and will continue to do so.

Non-Claimants

These are the countries that have no claims to Antarctica so are largely concerned with the stability and peace of the global order and are invested in developing a mechanism to pre-empt any conflict that may arise post 2048. They primarily have exploration interests but have not made any claim to Antarctica. Many of the non-claimants want the information to be transparent and in other words have a say in how the region is run. In terms of scientific research, they would have vested interests in keeping any scientific findings as freely shared and not owned by any country. One such country that is spearheading this would be India.

22 Matthew Feldman and James Blake Wiener, “Who Will Control the Antarctic?,” Fair Observer, May 21, 2014, https://www.fairobserver.com/region/north_america/who-will-control-antarctic/.

Points a Resolution Must Address

● Should any one nation or nations be allowed to take claim of the Antarctic?

● Is the current Antarctic Treaty still valid for the modern world today or should changes be made?

● How should the issue of global warming be addressed in the resolution?

● Do you think the treaty is fair to all countries, especially those without current claims?

● Should the current Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties lift their ban on mining or would this cause further dispute in the region?

● Has the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties been able to manage Antarctica in a democratic, transparent and accountable manner?

● What short term and long term policies and initiatives can be applied to the treaty?

● How should countries address the possibility of increased activity in Antarctica causing a global ecological crisis?

● How should scientific finds be treated after the expiration of the Antarctic Treaty System?