Proceeding of International Conference on Contemporary Management - 2016 (ICCM-2016), pp 312-320 REPRESENTATION OF TAMILS IN POST WAR SINHALA MOVIES: SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MOVIES PRODUCED DURING 2010- 2012 Sivapriya.S ABSTRACT An exciting aspect of inter cultural communication is the communication processes through which one culture's perceptions of another culture are created and recreated. From a Symbolic Interactions perspective, the perceptions one culture has of another are constructed through interaction with and about the target culture. Media messages are primary sources of messages that shape one culture's perceptions of another. The existing literature insists that dominant culture often try to maintain their role as powerful and superiors among the subordinate cultures. This study uses content analysis of Sinhala movies to explore the ways in which Tamils are represented in the post war Sinhala movies and to analyze how those images contribute to the development of cultural perceptions about Tamils in Sri Lanka. The quantitative data collected through content analysis were further analyzed using qualitative approaches. The results indicate that Tamils are portrayed as cruel soldiers who are very strong about their mission and even kill their own corps for their mission, minority characters who depend on Sinhalese for their survival, depended who could be rescued by the army, emotionally weak and violent. Overall, the findings prove that Sri Lankan Sinhala war movies produced during the post war period develop a negative perception about Tamils in Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Inter- cultural communication, Symbolic interactionism, Sinhala movies

1. INTRODUCTION visual medium as it can be utilized as a Cinema is one of the most important dominant tool of propaganda. Almost all instruments of political power. In the course Countries use its cinema industry to of its history, cinema would be a space of propagate their ideologies to their own escape for the people, for instance during the people and others. harsh times of the great depression in the As cited by Fuat (2005), Robert Gregg United States twenty-six million persons proposes that, films help us to understand were going to movies each week in America “valuable windows to the reality of (Fuat, 2005). Cinema is a powerful audio- international relations” (p.01.). According to Department of Languages and Communication Studies, Trincomalee Campus, Eastern University, Sri Lanka. [email protected] 312 him films are ideological in that they reflect In the early days, movies were shot in the their producer's perspectives. Weber (2001) local studios and most of them were insists that films are instruments through religious or historical movies. The most which certain world views are naturalized in veteran director Lester James Pieris started the popular culture and they offer valuable to bring the characters out from the studio insights about the connection between the and made the characters closer to the village popular and political (p.09). The relation man. His films were neo-realistic films and between film and power works in quite a dealt with the social issues. This made a complex way. significant change in the Sri Lankan film industry. The following directors of Lester Films not only affect the social structure, but James Pieris started to shot movies about also the other areas related to the society, for people, their life, culture and their agonies. instance, sports, education, technology, family values, culture and so forth all. As The early Sri Lankan films did not portray cited by Khan et al (2011), Whitney explains the local ethnic war directly. Most of them that media is a vital part of the state's power depicted the consequences of war. Hence, structure. In its practical application, it is the films produced during the civil war more valuable than military (p.04.). period in Sri Lanka were mostly about the impacts of war. At this juncture, the growth In any conflict environment, the audio- of information technology let the film visual medium, in particular cinema is makers to portray the real war as it is. Film utilized as a dominant tool of propaganda. makers began to portray the war, aerial Cinema that is directly sponsored by the attacks, bomb blasts, killings, and casualties State invariably bears the voice of the in their movies. Prasanna Vithanage, Bennet State.In the case of Sri Lankan civil war, the R a t h n a y a k e , A s o k a H a n d a g a m a , country uses its cinema industry to Somarathna Dissanayake and many others propagate its ideologies. started to picturize the war and its consequences. Sri Lankan film industry has inaugurated in 1947 with the film “Kadawunu “Kalu Sudu saha Alu”, “Sarungale” (1979), Poranduwa” produced by S.M.Nayagam “Koti Waligaya” (1986), “Golu Muhuthe for Chithrakala Move Tone. Sri Lankan Kunatuwak” (1991), “Pura Hanta Sinhala cinema has achieved the Kaluwara” (1998), “Saroja” (2000), “Ira International recognition because of certain Madiyama” (2005), Prabhakaran (2008), veteran directors. Lester James Pieris, “Alimankada” (2009), “Ira Hanta Yata” Dharmasena Pathiraja, Dharmasiri (2010), Selvam (2011), Maatha (2012), Bandaranayake, Prasanna Vithanage are Prathiroo (2012), Ini Awan (2012) and some of them. “Sulaga enu Pinisa” (banned) are some of

313 the Sinhala language films which represent Lanka. Sri Lankan Sinhala film industry has the local war. begun to produce many films related to the country's civil war after the legal end of the These films are centered on several themes, ethnic war. One of the reasons is the open some films depict the consequences of the space to invest more money in a war free war among the Sinhala society, where as zone and the other is the ideological changes some others are about the romantic in the minds of the people. relationship between a Sinhala boy and a Tamil girl or Tamil boy and a Sinhala girl and Alimankada (2009), Ira Hada Yata (2010), how the war affects their life. “Saroja” is Selvam (2011), Maatha (2012), Prathiroo about two children, a Sinhala girl and a (2012), and Ini Awan (2012) are produced Tamil girl and it portrays how the war affects and screened during the post- war period. these children's lifestyle, and how they Even though they have been produced in the perceive the war. Ira Madiyama tells the life post- war period, these films also contain of three persons amidst the war, a soldier battle scenes and the cruel war. These films who witnesses his sister as a prostitute in also portray Sri Lankan Tamils. So it should town, a Muslim man who circumcised to be investigated that how the Sri Lankan displace from his home town, and a young Sinhala films portray the Sri Lankan Tamils woman who searches her husband in the in the post- war period? Whether in a battle zone. Pura Hanta Kaluwara is about positive way or negative way? the agony of a blind father who gets to know about his one and only soldier son's death. Hence, this study attempts to examine the All these movies are Sinhala language portrayals of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sinhala movies and talk about the war from the movies produced in the post- war period. perspective of Sinhalese community. Sri Lankan films are usually made in Sinhala 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Language, the language of the majority Italian revolutionary Antonio Gramsci Sinhala people. The status of Tamil cinema introduced the term hegemony to describe in Sri Lanka is a depressing one. There is no the dominance of one social class over Tamil film industry to speak of. Hence, there others. Mass media often portray the events is no film medium in Sri Lanka to portray the which are taking place in real world and civil war from the perspective of minority provides a platform for dialogue and debate Tamils. on issues which can generate social changes. As cited by Khan et al. (2011), Phillip argues Sri Lankan government officially declared that, “regardless of what is actually the end of the armed war in May, 2009. The happening, it is the media's interpretation of period from May, 2009 to now is being that event that shapes our attitudes, values considered as the post- war period in Sri

314 and perceptions about the world and about their role as powerful and superiors among our culture” (p.04.). the subordinate social groups. They use the cinema as a medium to disseminate this Srividya Ramasubramanian, in her study on ideology. Films often take the side of the the portrayal of India in films produced by majorities. the west, insisted that the stereotypical portrayals are not the reflections of personal There are fewer studies on Sinhala movies. preferences of media content but seem to be The purpose of this study is to analyze the a part of the larger societal meanings and image of Tamils in post war Sinhala movies. myths existing among the peoples of one Tamils are the minorities and the Sinhalese culture about the peoples of a minority are the majorities of the country. The culture. Existence of such shared cultural research questions are designed to examine stereotypes as opposed to individual how the dominant group see and depict the stereotypical beliefs makes it easier for minorities in their creations. people in power to discriminate out groups in ways that are legitimized by social 2.1 Objective institutions, and eventually leading to To examine the portrayals of Sri Lankan institutional prejudice (Ramasubramanian, Tamils in Sri Lankan Sinhala war movies 2005). produced during the post war period in Sri Lanka. As insisted by Fernando (2009), when there are inter-state wars and ethnic tensions 2.2 Research Question occurs, the media in the country should carry How Sri Lankan Sinhala war movies the responsibility of performing greater produced during the post- war period portray ethnic tolerance, among the citizens, and call the Sri Lankan Tamils? for openness and acceptance towards multiculturalism. More importantly, the 2.3 Hypotheses watchdog function of the media requires media to warn the citizens about various H1: Portrayal of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri destructions that are either manmade or Lankan Sinhala war movies produced natural. However he also points out that, in during the post- war period will be more times of war, with conflict escalation and negative than positive. state mobilization against insurgencies, media generally functions according to the 3. METHODOLOGY wishes. Content analysis method was used as the primary data collection method. It is a Previous works advances the notion that systematic, research method for analyzing dominant social groups often try to maintain

315 textual information in a standardized way analysis flourished as a research that allows evaluators to make inferences methodology in mass communication about that information. Researchers are studies and social sciences with the arrival of using content analysis to find out the television. Media content analysis has been a intentions of the originator of the messages - primary research method for studying Who says, what, to whom, with what effect, portrayals of violence, racism and women in in which channel?, and how media reflect television programming as well as in films. social and cultural issues, values and Secondary data were taken from books, phenomenon (Berger, 1998). journals, and newspapers. Samples were selected using purposive non random Media content analysis is a specialized sub- sampling method. Selection of the samples set of content analysis, a well-established in content analysis is depending upon the research methodology. As cited by Jim nature and complexity of the subject under Macnamara (2005), Neuendorf describes investigation and the intention of the content analysis as “the primary message researcher. Hence, one film from each year centered methodology” and cites studies were selected as the samples. The samples such as Riffe and Freitag and Yale and Gilly are, Ira Hada Yata (2010), Selvam (2011), which reported that in the field of mass and Maatha (2012). communication research, content analysis has been the fastest growing technique over Social appearances of the characters were the past 20 years or so (p.01.). collected using eight categories, they are as follows, Status, Sex, Role, Socio- economic Content analysis is used to study a broad class, Religion, Ethnicity, Language and range of 'texts' from transcripts of interviews Place of residence. Emotional appearances and discussions in clinical and social of the characters were collected using seven research to the narrative and form of films, categories, they are as follows, Warm or TV programs and the editorial and Cold, Anxious or Calm, Stable or Unstable, advertising content of newspapers and Authoritarian or Dependent, Hostile or magazines. Media content analysis was Friendly, Powerful or Weak, and Loving or introduced as a systematic method to study Hateful. mass media by Harold Lasswell (1927), initially to study propaganda. The motive behind conducting this study is to discover the view point of the film makers Media content analysis became increasingly when portraying Sri Lankan Tamils in war popular as a research methodology during movies. Data were analyzed quantitatively the 1920s and 1930s for investigating the and to some extent, qualitative method was rapidly expanding communication content also used to understand the effectiveness of of movies. In the 1950s, media content film medium.

316 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (10%), Businessman (4%), Undergraduate Sinhala film directors have symbolically (4%), Imprisoned Army Soldiers (2%), represented the war in the post war period. Principle (2%), Student (2%), Servant (2%), “Ira Handa Yata” tries to bridge the gap and Unemployed (2%). Sinhala characters between Sinhalese and Tamil community, are portrayed as, Army Soldiers (22%), “Selvam” reveals the lives and mentality of Imprisoned Army Soldiers (4%), Monks people aftermath of war and “Maatha” (4%), Housewives (4%), Businessman represent the life, feelings and agonies of (4%), Teacher (4%), Unemployed (4%), soldiers amidst the war. Doctor (2%), and Student (2%).This illustrates that, though the war ends, the The purpose of this study is to examine the image of Tamils as LTTE cadres will be portrayals of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri remained forever in the Sri Lankan Sinhala Lankan Sinhala war movies produced cinema. during the post war period in Sri Lanka. Hence, overall 46 characters were analyzed It could be found out that, Sri Lankan Tamils on the basis of social appearances and are portrayed as main (11%) and subordinate emotional appearances in these films. (39%) characters in these movies. But the hero is always a Sinhala man and an army Under the social appearances, 50% of the soldier. He is morally upright, kind hearted, characters are portrayed as Sri Lankan generous and the guardian of civilians, both Tamils and 50% of the characters are Tamil and Sinhalese. Army soldiers use to portrayed as Sinhalese. Among the Sri tell, “We live in one country, so we can meet Lankan characters 11% are depicted as main anywhere”, “LTTE could be a terrorist group characters, where as 39% are depicted as sub but the Tamils are our siblings” whereas, characters. Similarly, among the Sinhalese, Tamils are portrayed as wayward, 11% are depicted as main characters and uncultured, and cruel soldiers. It 39% are depicted as sub characters. It is symbolically represents the ideology of the apparent that these films give the mainstream group. And also these portrayals prominence to male characters, among both ensure the social identity of the majorities. Sri Lankan Tamils and Sinhalese, 70% of characters are male and 30% of characters Results illustrates that, Sri Lankan Tamils are female. It indicates the gender relations are portrayed as violent LTTE soldiers, who of the country. don't have humanity. In a scene from Ira Hada Yata, one of LTTE soldiers beats The results point out that, Sri Lankan Tamils Corporal Rakitha and asks, “Are you a are portrayed as LTTE (Liberation Tigers of warrior? Do you know who we are?”, and in Tamil Ezham) cadres (20%), Housewives another scene, a woman begs for permission to go to the army controlled area in search of

317 her husband, but the cruel LTTE soldiers but the clarity of Thamizh language is denies and send her back. In a scene from missing in all three movies. Characters are Selvam film, LTTE corps kill their own depicted as Jaffna Tamils but they speak the soldiers and insist the children to kill the upcountry Tamil language. Dialect is one of imprisoned army soldiers. In a scene from the foremost cultural elements which Maatha film, one of LTTE's captain punish signifies one's identity. But the Tamils have the Tamil civilians for violating their rules. lost their unique identity in these films. All these visuals create a negative identity Hence, it could be said that the real cultural about the Tamils and establish a heroic identity of Sri Lankan Tamils, especially identity about the Sinhalese. Jaffna Tamils has not been brought out in these films. Tamil characters are depicted as belong to middle class (48%) in the society. Sinhalese In the category religion, 46% are portrayed characters are depicted as belong to middle as belong to Hinduism, 4% as belong to class (39%) and upper class (11%) in the Islam and 50% as belong to Buddhism. In the society. Sinhalese are portrayed as donors category ethnicity, 46% are picturized as and Tamils are portrayed as needy people. In Tamils, 4% as Muslims and 50% as a scene from Selvam film, one of Sinhalese Sinhalese. man establishes his bakery in the post war period in Thondamanaaru, Jaffna and he Under the emotional appearances of the sells buns to the civilians including Tamils. characters, 39% of Tamils and 17% of This emphasizes the relationship between Sinhalese are depicted as warm characters, Tamils and Sinhalese, Tamil civilians are and 11% of Tamils and 33% of Sinhalese are depending on the Majority Sinhalese for depicted as cold characters. their survival. In another scene from the same film a group of former LTTE corps gets In the category Anxious/ Calm, 46% of the rehabilitation by the Sinhalese army and Tamils and 15% of Sinhalese are portrayed civilians. Sinhalese convince the Tamils as anxious characters, and 4% of Tamils and whenever they get the trauma about the past 35% of Sinhalese are portrayed as calm war. characters. In the category Stable/ Unstable, 13% of Tamils and 37% of Sinhalese are It is evident through the findings that shown as stable, whereas 37% of Tamils and majority of Tamils live in camps (57%), 13% of Sinhalese are shown as unstable. whereas majority of Sinhalese live in their 24% of Tamils and 13% of Sinhalese are houses (52%). It symbolically represent the authoritarians, and 26% of Tamils and 37% status of Tamils in Sri Lanka. Under the of Sinhalese are depending on others category language, results indicate that all emotionally. the Tamil characters speak in Tamil (100%),

318 In the category Hostile/ Friendly, 24% of of the war through the dialogues of the Tamils and 9% of Sinhalese are portrayed as character. hostile characters, and 26% of Tamils and 41% of Sinhalese are portrayed as friendly Selvam, on the other hand about the characters. 26% of Tamils and 39% of aftermath of war, therefore it is observable Sinhalese are powerful and 24% of Tamils that this film has number of scenes which and 11% of Sinhalese are shown as depict the end of war and the dawn of new emotionally weak characters. In the category life. Film opens with the scene where an Loving/ Hateful, 28% of Tamils and 43% of army soldier raises the national flag which Sinhalese are depicted as lovable characters symbolizes the end of war and the regime of whereas 22% of Tamils and 7% of Sinhalese Sri Lankan army in the Tamil area. It also are depicted as hateful characters. consists few scenes which symbolically tell us the dawn of new life, for instance, sun Hence, it is evident through the results that rise, marriage between a Tamil boy and a Sri Lankan characters are portrayed as short Sinhala girl with the support of an army tempered, fearful about others, enemies, and soldier, dialogue between an elderly person animals, unsteady in their decision or always and an adult, “It's all over, close the bunker, change decisions, does not depend on others we don't want to build bunkers anymore”, emotionally, appears as negative or anomies, reopening of schools, the noise of students in powerful in their values, decisions, target, the school playground, cultural integrations and pleasant characters. Sinhalese are and the removal of armed forces from the portrayed as, does not get angry always, Tamil areas. takes everything in a positive way, firm in their decision, idea, and attitude, depend on It is obvious through the findings that the Sri others emotionally, approachable, powerful Lankan Sinhala war films produced during in their values, decisions, and target, and the post war period, with reference to the pleasant characters. years from 2010 to 2012 depict the Sri Lankan Tamils as cruel soldiers who are very Ira Hada Yata and Maatha are about the war, strong about their mission and even they kill therefore it consists several scenes of cruel their own corps for their mission, minority war, bomb blast, aerial attack, gun fire and characters who depend on Sinhalese for their land mines. Directors also portrayed the survival, depended who could be rescued by cruelty of war through dialogues, for the army, emotionally weak and violent. instance, “It shook the whole area”, “cruel Hence, the hypotheses, “portrayal of Sri war”. The director has represented Lankan Tamils in Sri Lankan Sinhala war Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims in these movies produced during the post- war period films. Sri Lankan Army and the Tamil Tigers will be more negative than positive” is have been depicted. Directors tell the cause proved as correct through this study.

319 It also should be insisted that, even though and call for openness and acceptance war comes to an end, the mental schema of towards multiculturalism. Sinhalese film makers about the Tamils in Sri Lanka has not been changed from the war REFERENCES period to now. Sinhala films which were Berger.A.,A. (1998). Media Analysis released during the war period, for instance, Techniques, New York: Sage Saroja, Purahanda Kaluwara, Ira Madiyama, Publication. Alimankada and Prabaharan represented the Fernando,T.A. (2009) Cinematic Portrayal Sri Lankan Tamils as dependent, LTTE of Forms of Violence Rooted in the Sri corps, and uncultured persons. The same Lankan Ethno-Political Crisis: A representations continues even in the post Thematic Appreciation of Three Films, war period. Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, Volume 5. 5. CONCLUSION Fuat, S.A. (2005). Cinema and Representation Representation of terrorism or a war in in International Relations: Hollywood cinema reopens questions of primary Cinema and the Cold War, Graduate concern to sociological theories. According School of Social Sciences of Middle East to social identity theory, social identity is a Technical University. person's sense of who they are based on their Khan, M.A., Bokhari, S.Z. (2011). Portrayal group membership. The group which people of Muslims in Indian Cinema: A Content belonged to was an important source of pride Analysis of Movies during (2002-8), and self-esteem.Groups give us a sense of retrieved from http://www. bzu.edu.pk social identity. In order to increase our self /PJIR/eng1AshrafKhan& Zuria.pdf image we enhance the status of the group to Macnamara, J. (2005). Media Content which we belong and discriminate the out- Analysis: It's Uses, Benefits and Best group members. Practice Methodology. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, 6(1), 1-34. It could be concluded through this study that Ramasubramanian, S. A. (2005). Content the Sinhalese directors portray the Tamils in Analysis of the portrayal of India in a negative way and Sinhalese in a positive films produced in the west. The way in their movies. The reason with Howard Journal of Communications, reference to the social identity theory is, to 16, 243-265. Doi: 10.1080/10646170 uplift the status and the identity of their own 500326533 group they discriminate the other groups. Weber, C. (2001). International Hence, it could be suggested that that the media in a country where there are inter-state Relations Theory: A Critical wars and ethnic tensions should promote Introduction, London and New greater ethnic tolerance among the citizens, York: Routledge.

320 Proceeding of International Conference on Contemporary Management - 2016 (ICCM-2016), pp 321-334

SOCIAL CHALLENGES FACED BY RELOCATED FAMILIES; A CASE STUDY ON “MIHINDU SENPURA” HOUSING COMPLEX Sugandhika.A.S1 & Jeevasuthan.S2 ABSTRACT Social Challenges faced by families due to relocation needs to acquire great attention from the society. Though there were relocations, happening in the past, current relocation programs administered by the government are new to the Sri Lankan context and thus no significant research was conducted on the methods and issues due to such relocation projects. Therefore, careful intervention to identify those issues is highly needed. The objective of the research is developed as, to determine social challenges faced by families after relocation, considering a case study Housing complex of “Mihindu Senpura”. Based on the thorough literature review conducted, a solid methodology was developed to address the objectives of the research. With purposive and convenient sampling techniques, a total sample of 72 residents were questioned, through three data collection tools namely, questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. As research methods, qualitative and quantitative data techniques were used. As for the findings of the research through qualitative and quantitative analysis, it has been identified that the main challenges faced by the residents from relocated families are income generation; lack of space in the housing units; safety & security; neighbors, relationships & belonging ness and leisure & other cultural activities. As for the future researches, it is needed to recommend that more social researches need to be conducted on the topics such as mega scale relocation and the issues encountered, since there are number of relocation projects in pipeline.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Housing complex, Relocation, Social challenges,

1. INTRODUCTION from the starting, still humans are willing to Looking back at the evolving process of settle in a convenient place. Considering the human beings from the beginning of world history into the account, it is quite “Neanderthal”, it is clear that human beings clear throughout different eras in the history, try to settle in one place and keep their lives human beings moved from one place to alive and safe (Bowler, 1986). Though another or practiced relocation methods humans evolved more than millions of years (Bowler, 1986).

1School of Social Work/National Institute of Social Development [email protected] 2Department of Sociology University of Jaffna [email protected] 321 1.1 History of Relocation in Sri Lankan mainly focus on the infrastructure and Context economic aspect in Sri Lanka. Currently Though the urban development is quiet relocation process done by the government popular in these days, there were several deal with larger number of population projects in the past which can be considered compared with that in the history. as rural relocation. Settlements in Sri Lanka (Gunaratna, 2009) by the state in an organized manner began in 1931, through the Donough more 2. T H E S T A T E M E N T O F Constitution and state focused resettlement PROBLEM / SIGNIFICANCE OF and relocation based on the plantation THE STUDY requirements (Gunaratna, 2009). This particular study is about involuntary relocation due to development schemes The next settlements took place in the “Dry administered by the government. People had Zone” when the scarcity of land and other to settle at the given places instead of their resources arose as challenges in “Wet Zone”. previous places due to not having any other There was a considerable number of people alternatives. living in the country that could consider as landless farmers. As a result of policies “Mihindu Senpura” apartment complex initiated by the former president Ranasinghe which is located in Dematagoda area Premadasa, number of resettlements were provides housing facilities for slum dwellers implemented in river banks mainly in who previously lived in Dematagoda country sides to minimize those difficulties. Aarama Road, Dematagoda Railway Gam Udawa, Gal Oya and Mahaweli were Housing, Castle Street and Narahenpita. The few examples for relocation initiatives in Sri previous studies also expressed that various Lanka (Moore, 1980). types of social challenges are being faced by the residents who were relocated due to 1.2 Relocation in Current Sri Lankan various reasons. Therefore this research Context intended to study on the social challenges Having an objective to be the wonder of faced by relocated families in “Mihindu Asia, the previous government focused on Senpura Housing Complex” during the post- urban and rural development. Mean time relocation. these objectives reach the areas like urban beautification, risk management and 3. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY infrastructure facilities in the city area. After the armed conflict in the country, the Though the mega projects on relocation are Former President Mahinda Rajapaksa, in his new to the context, it has become popular in second ruling period expanded the policies the country. However, these projects that introduced as “Mahinda Chinthana”.

322 The policy propaganda intended to improve 6. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND several areas in the country to enhance the Following theories were mainly used when development of the nation. Among those analyzing the behaviour of the respondents policies, considerable attention was given to with respect to changes of the relocations as both social and economic well-being of well as for the challenges faced by them in citizens. This stated programs and their day-to-day functions (Paquette & mechanisms would be used to increase the Ryan, 2001). happiness index as a county. Further it stated 1. The Culturagram that, eradication of poverty would reduce 2. Role theory unemployment and several other 3. Ecological System economical developments would be considered in the development programs. 7. RESEARCH DESIGN The propaganda was listed on the housing projects that are governed by the state in 7.1 Qualitative Method Hambanthota, Colombo and several other As the study opens more space for opinions areas (Department of National Planning & and experience, the researcher adopted a Ministry of Finance Planning, 2010). qualitative research design to discuss the challenges faced by the relocated families. 4. OBJECTIVES This paved a path for respondents to express their ideas and opinions freely. • To determine social challenges faced by relocated families The researcher used different qualitative • To categorize different types of social data collection methods including key- challenges of relocated families informant interviews and in-depth • To identify the impacts of relocation interviews within the qualitative spectrum. process on the day-to-day life of the As for the analysis purpose, a thematic and relocated families manual analysis was employed. It is • To study the coping mechanisms supposed to justify how many respondents adopted by the study population mentioned the similar types of issues which are findings under one theme. 5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS • What are the social challenges faced by Hence this research was a case study, families after the relocation? researcher built up the questionnaire based • How these challenges affected the on the rationale that, it should be provided relocated families' social life? more freedom for respondents to express • What are the strategies they adopted to their feelings and experience through cope with the challenges faced by qualitative methods rather than rating the relocation? given answers in a quantitative way.

323 However the findings from qualitative location to cover multi ethnic and multi method were quantified in order to obtain a religious community. clearer understanding through comparison. 7.3 Sample Selection Further, this research was mainly relying on This particular study ignored the fact that primary data instead of secondary data, most sampling techniques in qualitative since it would give more opportunity to research is neither probability sampling nor gather the honest responses of the residents. convenience sampling, but falls into a third However, as for future research it is category: purposeful sampling (Patton, mentioned to incorporate secondary data 1990, p. 169). also for the comparisons and studies. 7.4 Sample Size 7.2 Selection of the Study (A) Sampling for Semi-structured Location Interview Schedule The site for the research study was in Questionnaires were distributed among the Dematagoda area which is sub-part of the residents in all 10 floors of the Block D. Colombo district and this housing complex Target sample size was 50 for the semi- was handed over to the residents in structured interviews. However to cover the November 2013. The location was selected target sample at the first attempt 60 among other relocated areas, hence this questionnaires were distributed, where six place consisted with slum dwellers from respondents were randomly selected from different areas including Arama Pedesa, each floor. Within the distributed Borella-Castle Street and Narahenpita. questionnaires researcher was able to collect Therefore, the diversity was the prime back only 45 completed ones. The balance reason for the selection of the study 15 questionnaires were either incomplete or locations. were not returned.

Researcher had selected Block D among the (B) Sampling for in-depth interviews other blocks due to few reasons. In-depth interviews were carried out with 1. This block was the biggest block in this two officers from the UDA and the selected apartment complex. residents from the block D. 2. This block also consisted with residents from all four religions which (C) Sampling for the purpose of focus has fair distribution for all ethnicities. group discussions 3. Compared to other blocks, Block D • FGD 1: Mixed group (both genders / contains residents from different mix of ethnicities and religions) Mixed locations as mentioned earlier. locations Therefore Block D was the most suitable • FGD 2: Female group (Tamil

324 Christians, Tamil Hindu and one 1. Level of Education Muslim Lady participate) Same location • FGD 3: Mixed group (both genders/ but only Sinhalese, Sinhala Buddhist and Sinhala Christians) same location • FGD 4: Mixed group

7.5 Ethical Consideration To ensure privacy and to make the Figure 1: Education Level respondents free to express their views 2. Monthly Income Levels researcher clarified the objectives of the study and the ethical obligations to be fulfilled in order to maintain the confidentiality of the information provided. Adhering to the ethical consideration was therefore able to create a conducive and trouble free environment for both respondents and to the researcher.

7.6 Limitations of the study Figure 2: Monthly Income Levels 1. A small sample size 3. Places of Origin 2. No measures to quantify the data collected qualitatively 3. Lack of male participation

8. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS The researcher first analyzed the socio- demographic profile of the respondents in order to understand their backgrounds. This included the level of education, monthly income levels, places of origin and number Figure 3: Places of origin of family members as identified in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.

325 4. Number of Family Members quantitative justification 73% of respondent have identified the income generation as the most felt challenge.

8.1.1 Living Expenses Due to the changes in, income generation, the living expenses also had to be altered. Further additional living expenses were also incurred with the relocation.  The first installment was paid to the UDA Figure 4: Number of family members to get the permission to settle in the house The analysis would be based on following became a huge burden for the residents thematic questions. For further analysis, Most of the people had to lend money to each of the above main themes are provide initial advance fees for renting categorized for sub themes. out the houses. This was expressed in questionnaire numbers 1,3,6,8,11,12,15, Thematic Analysis 21 and some others answers scripts. The main themes of the qualitative findings  The utility bills which most of the are identified as mentioned. residents have received are very high compared to the expenses that they had 8.1. Income Generation while they were residing at their previous Few sub-themes are identified under income places generation as mentioned. Researches argued  As for the observations, most of the that income does not directly fall under residents have ceased paying the rentals social challenges (Vranken, 2011). due to lack of income  Majority of the residents had to reduce However, this was the most felt need among their expenses to meet the day to day majority of respondents. This was also requirements highlighted. (Most common challenges of majority of residents is, monetary 8.1.2 Jobs and job opportunities difficulties. They are unable to pay the rental With respect to this sub theme, there were and utility bills) significant changes in the respondents' lifestyles. As adults they struggle with monetary difficulties which have so many links with Current relocatees had engaged in self- social challenges. Therefore one theme was employment when residing at their previous allocated for income generation. As for the places. But due to the environment, they are

326 reluctant to do such employment work. The following sub themes can also be Though the self-employment opportunities identified. Once these sections are being mentioned under income generation theme analyzed it indicated many negative this also has an influence by the space/ size consequences that may lead to social of the house. A further explanation on this problems in the future. issue is residents whom did self- employment such as saloons at their houses, Most of the houses consisted with more than now face difficulties in doing them due to 5 family members. Therefore they come lack of space. across different types of difficulties when living in one house. It also leads to family (My sister had run a saloon at the previous conflicts. As mentioned in the research house. She had all the equipment are stored (Barnhardt & Field, 2014) family break ups since there is not enough space. She had are motivated by the following issues. But followed a beauty culture course too. Now here space is very limited. This always leads nothing is useful- In Depth Interview 1). to conflicts among siblings.

Another aspect of this is, in their previous 8.2 .1 Privacy places they had extended families, where all Most of the respondents valued their the relatives, grandparents, brother, sisters, privacy, where they had separate gates being were living close by. It has allowed both the placed in addition to the usual door. In most mother and the father to go for the jobs since of the occasions, all the doors and windows the other relatives are there to look after the were closed though the residents were at children. But the situation has changed and home. Most of these types of houses were now respondents live in nuclear families and observed and they were valuing their privacy the relatives are living elsewhere. Therefore, than anything else. very rarely both the parents are going for work since one has to attend to the 8.2 .2 Lack of space for daily activities children. People have stored furniture which they had with them, when they were living elsewhere, 8.2 Space but with the space availability storing the Space was identified as a second most felt furniture was impossible. challenge by 68% of the respondents. All the houses were very low spaced, where the Our previous house was 2225 sqft and it was typical arrangement was 2 bedrooms, living a 3 story house. This house is only 450sqt area, a kitchen and a bathroom which is all large. smaller in size and the whole area of one housing unit is 450 square feet.

327 Some of the people have even sold out their about the future. Therefore residents believe furniture due to the lack of space available to that lack of space created unexpected family keep them. Even the visitors come; there is planning issues in their lives. not enough space for them to talk even in the houses. (Questionnaire 9) 8.3. Safety and Security As for the observations, no separate security 8.2 .3 Family Relationships was provided for each block where only one With respect to their previous life style, the office was available. No CCTV cameras current life style has changed a lot. The main were even provided to track the unusual reason behind that is the family relationship. behaviours happening in the vicinity of the With the random allocation of houses, area of housing complex. Following people have gained the close relatives have findings was observed from the discussions even obtained different, distinct housing with the residents. This social challenge was units, which in result has broken the intra and identified by 62% of respondents. inter family relationships.  Security was an issue for most of the According to one in depth interview with the people, where they were reluctant to respondent he said that previously they lived keep their children at home when the with their mother. His two sisters also parents are not at home married and lived with them together. Now  The unprotected railway has also been one sister lives with her mother in a different seen as an issue for the residents with house in different floor. The child and the the small children playing around near grandmother used to sleep together. At the the busy railway same time, his brother now has to visit their  One of the children has also fallen from mother's house everyday for their daily a top floor and died which questions activities and relationships have changed the safety system of the housing vastly. complex  According to the feedback obtained, it Another aspect of family relationships under is a common secret among people, that space theme showed that respondents there are some child abuse cases been reluctant to invite the relatives to their places observed, especially when mothers or because of the lack of space. One respondent the parents are not at home. This has explained how they struggle to also been a result of becoming a accommodate their relatives while their nuclear family, in contrast to the one visits to these places. Specially, young that they previously had, an extended couple raised the issue of having two kids in family. their home is not possible when thinking

328 8.4 Neighbours, relationships and even the people were living inside Belongingness 2. The relationships that they had with The relocation of the houses had been done their close relatives who were used to using random selection techniques. All the live with them have been now residents were called for a meeting and they separated due to the random allocation were given random chits, in which they have housing units. Therefore most of the been allocated their respective houses. This times the relationships were only has led to several issues with not being able limited to telephone calls. Even the to cope up with the neighbours and also relationships that they had with the resulted in few crucial concerns. other relatives were also limited to telephone conversions, because of the Moving to some findings which emphasized not so good environment available for the same idea that came from the literature the outside visitors to visit. review is vital to mention here. The finding 3. Most of the respondents have felt they was came out of 59% of total population. were separated from the neighbours and the sense of belongingness was no With the collected questionnaires, it showed longer available due to physical that, neighbours are more important for separation from their close relatives relocatees' lives, since they seek different 4. Even they tried to interact with the types of support from their neighbours. neighbours, the behavioural patterns of When an individual need monetary support each of the families come as a barrier. they first try to fulfill the need through an The worse scenario is that these can easy and quick access. Therefore people are generate conflicts among families as used to rely on neighbours. Not only that, if a well. resident is in an urgent situation like suffering from disease, neighbours will help 8.4.2 Participation of neighbors for them. community activities The participation for the community 8.4.1 Interaction with the neighbours activities from the neighbours was low 1. Majority of the residents did not want because of the mismatch that is occurred. to interact with the neighbours. They The life styles of the two families who are were interested in separating neighbours are most of the times completely themselves from the neighbours. They different, which has led to number of such have provided separate doors/gates issues. prohibiting the entrance of outsiders. Most of the housing units were covered 8.5 Leisure and other activities and the doors & windows were closed Number of issues were also identified with

329 respect to the ability to do religious 8.5. 3 Cultural Activities activities, cultural activities and leisure With respect to community activities, as for activities, which are identified as subthemes. the discussions with the residents most of There were considerable changes being them are keen on participating in such occurred due to the relocation process for the events. But unfortunately no one is taking leisure, community and cultural activities as the challenge to initiate such. The main identified from the findings. 57% of the total reason behind that was the unavailability of population highlighted that they face an active organization to organize such. difficulties to enroll in leisure and other activities after they were relocated. People were concerning about their small children and they were not in an 8.5. 1 Religious Activities environment to participate and make the One of the major findings is that the people children participated as well. Despite one did not have a common place for the housing “Pirith Ceremony” that has happened; no complex for religious activities. Despite people are interested in, participating in number of requests being made, there were such, but not in taking the initiative and no actions taken organizing. s for the observations, some of the people In terms of cultural activities and social have gone for places where they were used to events, most of the weddings are happening go when they residing in their previous outside the housing complex due to the lack homes. It is obviously high cost and time of space available. consuming which has resulted in reduction of the frequency of visits to the religious 8.6 Cleanliness and Health places. This has led to serious concerns Health camps has been conducted over the especially for the adults over 40 years. few months but the effectiveness and the

impact of such was not recognized by the 8.5. 2 Leisure Activities residents. Cleanliness and health became the The leisure activities that residents were seventh social challenge with the used to do with their relatives who were identification of 55% population. living with them previously were  The cleanliness of the surroundings abandoned. Main reason for that was the was very poor which is leading to physical separation and the unavailability of several health related issues the required spaces and facilities.  Specially respondents living in upper floors complain that cleanliness cannot be implemented only for themselves.

330 They need the generous support from 8.7 Transportation the neighbours and others to implement In general, the expense for transportation has and for sustainable cleaning projects. If increased due to the relocation. Out of total they try to do it by themselves, it would respondents 45% respondents acknowle- surely lead for some conflicts. dged that they struggle with the  The good health related habits and transportation expense. behaviour was not also observed from the children as well as the adults 8.7.1 Distance and the cost Following sub themes can be Visits to religious places were at close identified. proximity so that they could have saved time and money on transportation. But due to the 8.6.1 Facilities for Health new relocation initiatives, the distance that Facilities for health are not provided they need to travel for a particular sufficiently at the required standards. destination has increased.  Majority of the residents had to go (Going to church, now we have to take further away for a medical facility, two buses. So now we go to the church only since no proper in house medication is for one time instead two visits like earlier provided. Questionnaire 16)  Even the residents were complaining that in case of emergency there is no As coping mechanisms for such, what they particular mechanism to act have done is to reduce the frequency of immediately. Specially for an emergent travels, which can result in affecting the situation, they had to wait till the lifts social behaviour of people. Respondents are arriving and it becomes late for said that since they reduce the number of them to react. visits now they are far from their religious  There is no particular facility provided practices. These consequences will lead for adults and disable people. Priorities challenges in future as the similar way. For were not provided for people in needed, an example, when people unable to practice even when getting into lifts. their religion regularly and less chances to get the guidance from the religious leaders 8.6.2 Rules and Regulations for cleanliness through constant meetings will influence on the behaviour of people. When young people There were no proper rules and regulations are not guided properly with their religious in place for cleanliness. That is why most of background there is a high tendency for them the times, the surrounding areas and to mislead enroll with bad behaviour. environment are not clean.

331 8.7.2 Time misuse their time without proper educational We prepare food early morning at 5.30 a.m. facilities. and children leave home by 7 a.m. with their father and returns. Then he takes the If the children don't study properly it again breakfast and leaves by 8.45 a.m. for the job. link with the financial difficulties. Though The location of the new house creates issues the education is very important to population in time and an extra expense involves with said that, this is a social challenge to them. the relocation. All these influence on family bond and now bond has weakened little bit. 9 CONCLUSIONS AND (Questionnaire 21) RECOMMENDATIONS A number of mega scale relocation projects The above quote explains the difficulties that have been taking place in the recent past, the adult face which arose after coming to which have made lot of attention locally and the new place. Their role as parents, have internationally in the context of Sri Lanka. changed. Now this father does not have time Despite the small scale relocation projects, to spend with his children which may future the country has not experienced such mega leads to violence, family break ups, and not scale projects and thus the methodologies caring elders. that should be followed, the challenges that has to be faced with relocation were very 8.8 Education rarely addressed. In such a background, the Due to the increase of expenses related to the research which sets out as, Social challenges new relocation, the residents are not in a faced by relocated families was conducted in position to allocate more money to the order to achieve the main objective of education of their children. determining social challenges faced by families after relocation. With respect to the As a result, the parents have refrained from broader implications of the findings, the sending their children to extra classes due to research has opened several avenues that the lack of money and parents used allocated should be followed for mega scale money for the education to settle utility bills. relocations. The problems or the challenges could have been addressed at the earlier There fore the education of the children was stages specially when planning and affected due to the relocation. As parents designing, especially for the future mega they might feel guilty of their incapability to scale relocation projects. give enough facilities for their children. Explaining the situation further, once the As for the recommendations, it is needed to children do not get adequate support mention that general public opinion should monetary or materialistic way they try to be obtained before any mega relocation

332 project. Usually public especially the target take actions to empower residents. Specially beneficiaries or affected people will not get coordinating self-employment chances for enough opportunity to share their ideas. At the residents would be a great advantage. the same time, they come to know of this decision at the last minute and they are Social work interventions unable to take steps. Most of the time Social work interventions can be carried out decisions of these programs should be in this field and it will contribute for the explored with the bottom up approach. sustainability of these projects. 1. Social Work Advocacy and Activism Giving attention to conflicts that can arise 2. Social Work Research due to relocation is, limiting the access of livelihood of the relocated families. This Social Advocacy is needed to promote better leads, not to accept the relocation projects by life for the relocated families, social workers the people. Therefore, get thorough should engage with discussions of the understanding of people is highly needed residents of the apartment complex and also before implement the project. with the stake holders. Discussions should open the paths for both of the beneficiaries A survey should be conducted in order to and implementers. And also these should identify the background of the residents minimize the myths between parties and along with their status. Proper rules and should properly involve in advocacy. regulations should also be enforced and it is Therefore social worker can work as the also needed to encourage active mediator or facilitator to promote this, when participation for all the work. To ensure the considering policies that will again link with regulations and other activities are being economic policies, social policies, done, there should be a proper evaluation development and other types. At the same programs. time these projects need much more attention from the society. This should touch Since majority may not have experiences of the general public, government, relocation, intended population should be international bodies, media, and religions trained well. Further they should be prepared participation. Social Work Activist approach to accept new life. Guidance should be will reach that level. provided, addressing the multi dimensions such as income generation, family planning, 9.1 Future Research Needed safety and security, religious and leisure activities. It is needed to conduct more future researches related to mega scale relocations As mentioned earlier, there will be an impact and the challenges that would be faced due to on livelihood; therefore stakeholders should such. Further proper guideline needs to be

333 adopted for such mega scale relocation Farook, L. (2013). Frustrated and Angry projects, in background where number of Owners of Demolished Houses at such relocations projects are in pipeline. Slave Island. Retrieved from Without identifying the drawbacks of past http://srilankamuslims.lk/frustrated- projects, continuing similar type of projects and-angry-owners-of-demolished- will also involve in the creation of social houses-at-slave-island-by-latheef- challenges. This can be minimize if there farook will be proper researches. If there are proper Gunaratna, L. (2009). Planning of human researchers carry on to investigate social settlements in Sri Lanka and the aspect it will also helping the policy making postwar context. Sunday Island. process. The need for the social work Retrieved from http://www.island.lk research is high hence, social work research /2009/12/13/business7.html focus on holistic approach. Moreover it can Hantal, B. (2014, November 24). Slum directly link for policy making process. The Population: Meaning, Characteristics social work research also should be focused and Other Details. Retrieved from on different themes. Hence each of the above http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ess mentioned theme can be further analyzed ay/slum-population-meaning- and finding root causes will help to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - a n d - o t h e r - understand the real life of relocated families. details/42568/ Hardcastle, D. A. (2011). Community REFERENCES Practice: Theories and Skills for Social Workers. Oxford University Barnhardt, S., & Field, E. (2014, August 14). Press. Moving to Opportunity or Isolation? Moore, M. (1980). Agricultural settlement Network Effects of a Slum Relocation under the Mahaweli programme in Sri Program in India. Lanka. Institute of Development Bowler, P. J. (1986). Theories of Human studies. Evolution. A Century of Debate, 1844- Paquette, D., & Ryan, J. (2001). 1944. Johns Hopkins University Press, Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems 701 West 40th St., Suite 275, Theory. B a l t i m o r e , R e t r i e v e d f r o m Vranken, J. (2011). Social Challenges of http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED277548 Cities of Tomorrow. Centre OASeS Department of National Planning Ministry University of Antwerp (Belgium) of Finance and Planning. (2010). Development policy framework government of Sri Lanka. Statistics, What is a Family? Retrieved December 4, 2015

334 Proceeding of International Conference on Contemporary Management - 2016 (ICCM-2016), pp 335-349

DYNAMICS OF POST-WAR SOCIAL IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION OF NORTHERN SRI LANKAN EX - LTTE COMBATANTS WITH DISABILITIES Baskaran.N ABSTRACT In Sri Lanka, many thinkers believe that the three-decade of war indicted number of civilians, LTTE combatants and military soldiers with disabilities. During and after the war all the soldiers (government soldiers and LTTE combatants) including those with disabilities) were considered as war heroes in Sri Lanka. The ruling class, religious institution, civil society, and the local media of Sri Lanka played a crucial role in constructing a positive social identity for the ex-combatants. In this social context, the ex-LTTE combatants including those with disabilities were treated respectably in the society. However, lately, it became quite evident that the ex-LTTE combatants with disabilities are gradually being ignored in the discourses about the combatants and their war victories. Presently, the ruling class proclaims that the victory of the war is the effort of solely the ruling political party and its political leaders. Besides, INGOs try to propagate negatively about combatants' role in the war. Given this context, my attempt is to understand how the Sri Lankan Tamil ex-LTTE combatants with disabilities construct their social identities (masculine and warrior) amidst varying social responses in the post-war period. The literature review revealed that little work was done on this aspect. In order to understand the social identity construction of the ex- combatants with disabilities in the post war period, I conducted a qualitative research. In this study, I especially focus on two major components such as disability and social identity construction. Under these components, this study is designed to examine the effects of the following factors: Primary social groups, secondary groups including Sri Lankan nation state, politicians, and media, religious institution and public transport respond towards the ex-LTTE combatants with disabilities during and after the war period in northern Sri Lanka. Based on these sub-research questions, I used the purposeful sampling method; I selected 33 ex-combatants with disabilities, and 05 civilians. Using in-depth interviews and non-participation observation as the ways of collecting primary data, I have tried to understand the social identity and the identity construction of the combatants with disabilities in the post-war period in northern Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Combatants with disabilities, Post-war, Disability, Social identity, Social identity construction

South Asian University, New Delhi, India. Department of Sociology, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka. [email protected] 335 1. INTRODUCTION combatants. Also combatants did not die for War has plagued humans since time a country. They died for the ideal of creating immemorial. Researchers done in countries a country. As a researcher, the two currently engaged in armed conflict suggests communities in Sri Lanka, the Tamils and that identifying persons with disabilities is a Sinhala received different benefits from the common concern during and after the war nation state and its related identity. In such a period. The end of the three decade long civil social context, the mobilization and re- war in Sri Lanka was declared in May 2009. integration process of disabled people is There are 6.6% of the general population is problematic. 65 years or older, with 22.5% people with disabilities. During the war and its related Compared to other conflict-affected processes civilians, LTTE combatants and countries, research on ex-combatants in Sri soldiers with disabilities have been created. Lanka has been minimal and this paper also War resulted in significant levels of makes contribution to filling this local gap. disablement and concerning the impacts of The few studies available on ex combatants high levels of disability on transforming in Sri Lanka are nevertheless informative. attitudes towards bodily or mental So, in this study, I try to explore how the ex- differences by non-disabled members of the combatants with disabilities construct their community (Silva, 2002). social identities amidst varying social responses during the post -war period in Most of the disabled are living largely in the northern Sri Lanka. As a researcher, I have northern and eastern parts of the country. In applied interpretative theoretical perspective Northern Sri Lanka, where over 110,000 in this study. Ex- combatants with disabilities people were disabled by war struggle along are living in different social contexts i.e. the with very little official assistance (Perera war period and the post-war period. It will be 2016). There are different kinds of people to understand the conceptual frame of social including children, elders, young widows identity contractions, its various forms and and youth with disabilities. It is quite evident the process through which they manifests that the people with disabilities are identified with regard to the ex-combatants with as a marginalized group in the northern Sri disabilities in the post-war society. So, Lanka by politically and legally by a through the interpretative perspective, I majority of the people and also the ruling attempt to find out this form of disabilities political parties of the province. and their identity from the perspective of the person with disabilities. At the same time, In Sri Lankan context, civilians often died in this study is very much relates to individual cross fires or were murdered. I do not experience and consciousness. Therefore, consider these deaths as the sacrifice. This this is study built on the social comparisons was not their choice as opposed to soldiers or theory and ecological theory perspective. 336 Basically, it attempts to understand the ex- (Ginsburg & Rapp 2013; National Policy on combatants with disabilities through the Disability for Sri Lanka 2003; The Disabled study of the events, situations and their People's International 1982, Oliver 1996; experiences are these involved with or WHO 2014). This definition helps us to engage everyday activities in. Since ex think about the influences of social, physical combatants issues have become a central and material conditions on the social identity part of the development and social work construction of combatants with disabilities. discourse in the post- war Tamil society, I There are a few approaches to understand hope that this research will contribute to about the combatants with disabilities. They policy formation for people with disabilities are; the religious model of disability, the and the effective implications of the post - medical/genetic model of disability, the war reintegration process and development social model of disability and the rights- process. Finally, it is hoped that the study based model of disability' (Clapton & will create social awareness and mobilize Fitzgerald 2014).According to religious ex-combatants with disabilities and model of disability, disability does not just strengthen the disabled in society. relate present life. It connects with influences of gods' and evils, karma, past 2. LITERATURE REVIEW lives, past good and bad behaviors (Clapton This study question is how the Sri Lankan & Fitzgerald 2014; Dalal 2002). Medical Ex-LTTE combatants with disabilities model focus as on individual body, construct their social identities amidst rehabilitation, labelling, sense of personal varying social responses in the post war tragedy, and highlights the personal defects period in Sri Lanka? Therefore, disability, and emphasizes social control and masculine and warrior identity and identity correction for people with disabilities (Chen construction are important concepts in my &Shu 2012; Corker & French 1999; Oliver research. 1996; Swain et al., 1999, cited from Hussain 2005). Anthony Giddens (2009) defines this 2.1 Approaches to disability studies and medical model as individual model of influences of disability disability. The medical model has been criticized by the social model. The social Existent literature shows that disability has model of disability presents that the been defined based on several factors. disability as a social construction, not as a Disability is defined as not just a health personal biological deficit (Corker & French problem. It relates with impairments, 1999; Oliver 1996; Swain et al., 1999, cited opportunities and activity limitations, and from Hussain 2005; Chappell et al. 2001; participation restrictions for the normal life Sunderland et al. 2009; cites from Chen of the community on an equal level with &Shu 2012: 241). This social model also has others due to physical and social barriers been criticized by scholars. Pinder(1995)

337 argues that the social model takes a situations and promote the people's rights disembodied approach to solving problems. (Clapton & Fitzgerald 2014). More recently, Social arrangements (e.g. the environment) post-structuralists have pointed to the can be overemphasized, since disability is limitations of social models and have tried to not simply a social construction, but may, at bring back the impaired body to the least partly, reside in an 'objective' discussions on disability. These approaches impairment and not just the complex in are useful for me to understand the intentions which a person is situated. and responses of peoples, institutions, and states on ex combatants with disabilities. It is said that the social model ignores bodily change and decay' (Pinder 1995 &Willians Disability is a multi-dimensional and & Busby 2000, cited from Freund 2001: complex construct, and there is no single 690). These criticisms regarding the social universally accepted, an unproblematic model have been challenged by some definition of disability. Also, understanding scholars. Freund (2001) mentions that 'it is of disability through religion, charity, equally important to not to neglect the development, cultural- centered and socially constructed nature of categories, kinship- based models have begun to take such as impairment and disabilities, and the shape (Miles, 2002; Dalal, 2002; Mehrotra, contexts that can ameliorate or significantly 2004a, 2006; Baldwin, 2006; Staples, 2007). decrease the transformation of impairments These findings are useful to understand how into disabilities' (Freund 2001: 691). Priestly the disabilities affect to bring the (1999) also states that 'the discourses or sociological and psychological changes of public narratives that an individual the ex-combatants with disabilities. Because encounters on a daily basis will influence this research focuses on how the society has self-concept and understanding of disability created the social identity of the combatants as a social construct' (Priestly 1999, cites with disabilities, these discourses guides this from Bunning & Steel 2006: 44). The rights- study to think about the medical approaches, based model of disability, as Jayne Clapton its influences, the individual definitions and, and Jennifer Fitzgerald (2014) mention, public narratives, discourses, social embraces the conceptual shift from construction of the social identity regarding disability being seen as an individualized the combatants with disability in post war 'medical problem' to rather being about period in Sri Lanka. community membership and participation, and access to regular societal activities such as employment, education, recreation and so 2.2 Social Identity on. Where access is inappropriate, Social identity is a term used to refer to an inadequate, difficult or ignored, advocacy individual personal or the collective identity processes have been initiated to address

338 of a group of persons. It refers to the Many studies highlight that disabilities constructions that define individuality and influence to bring the changes in the life. The sense of self (Bunning & Steel 2006: 43; bringing negative changers of disabilities Lane 1962, Hooper 1976: 154). Social are; changing the actives, bringing inactive Identity construction is based on several and incapable life, losing the confidence, complex factors. They are; family emerging frustration and desperation, relationships, gender roles, responsibilities, bringing burden on care-partner and family, group membership, stigma, cultural control the sexuality, the body and real belonging, membership of a community, marriage prospects, oppose to access to context, self-knowledge, the act of speaking collective religious practices, becoming about the selves, particular behavioral societal deviants, useless people and characteristics, skills deficits, speech isolation (Green 2006; Becker 1993; difficulties, racial identity, social class, Barnard et al. 2010; Krummel 2001; cites occupation, social welfare, loss of functional from Anderson & Whitfield 2012; Anderson abilities, social roles and Cultural belief & Whitfield 2012; Hussain 2005; Chen (Taylor 2000; Goffman 1963, Dhu 2012; &Shu 2012). These findings are useful to Bunning and Steel 2006; Priestly understand how the disabilities affect to 1999,Hooper 1976; Anderson & Whitfield bring the sociological and psychological 2012; Yong et al. 2007;2008; Chen & Shu changes of the ex-combatants with 2012). disabilities.

Existence literatures demonstrate that there 2.3 Identity wheel are positive and negative social identity Based on the research questions have been constructions in the society. Positive social constructed by identity wheel for this study. identity can be built with the help of social positioning, respectful recognition, respectful social relationships, self-organization and direct action, in making 'personal troubles' into 'public issues', living in a multi-cultural society and acknowledging, and accepting the memberships in multiple in-groups (Anderson & Whitfield 2012; Roccas & Brewer 2002; Shakespear 1993). These ideas are important for me to see the army soldiers with disabilities as not only individuals but also a group, which were considered as war heroes in during the war period and in post war period in Sri Lanka.

339 This social identity wheel is helpful for me to 2.5 People with Disabilities in Sri see the ex-combatants with disabilities Lankan Context identity construction in during the war Academically, there are little literatures period and in the post-war period in northern available on post-war Sri Lanka. These Sri Lanka. literature shows that people with disabilities are identified as a marginalized group and 2.4 Stigmatization and Identity also show how people with disabilities Stigmatization also related to the disability perform everyday life in the post war society and identity construction. According to (De Mel, 2007; Campbell, 2009, 2010; Erving Goffman (1963) stigmatization Miriyagalla, 2014; Samararatna, 2014; emerges when there is a discrepancy Somasundaram, 2010; Dejongaz et al., between virtual social identity and actual 2002; Wijesinghe et al., 2007; Kasturiratchi social identity (Goffman 1963: 2).Regarding & Jayawardene, 2004; Krishnan, 2011; the discourses of the disabilities and social Misra, 2004; Gunawardena, 2010; Korf, identity construction, stigmatization also 2004; Samaraweera, 2003; Weerasinghe et has become one of study area. Link and al., 2015; Abeyasinghe et al., 2011; Phelan (2006) mentions that 'stigmatization Fernando et al., 2006). However, According involves several components: labeling, to Peiris John et al (2014) over the past 30 stereotyping, cognitive separation, years, published literature on disability in Sri emotional reaction, status loss and exercise Lanka has primarily focused on mental of power' (Link & Phelan 2006, Chen &Shu health, visual impairment and healthcare 2012: 247).From Social perspective, delivery. Also the above mentioned stigmatization regarding people with literatures are specially focused on ordinary disabilities occurs because of the influences people with disabilities. But, the conditions of the medial model on social institutions of the army soldiers with disabilities in Sri such as social welfare, education system, Lanka are different than other ordinary health care services and rehabilitation. people with disabilities. Identity is most threatened in health and social care services because of overprotec- 3. RESEARCH QUESTION tion, professional domination and lack of In this study, I especially focus on two major autonomy (Barnard et al. 2010; Clanan et al. components such as disability and social 2006, Anderson & Whitfield 2012).These identity construction. This study main findings help in understanding the research question is how the society has influences of stigmatization, health care created the social identity of the army services and other social welfare services on soldiers with disability in the post war period the social identity construction of ex- in Sri Lanka? Under this research question I combatants with disabilities. try to study how the discourses of disability

340 have been created with regarding ex- construction of the soldiers with disabilities combatants with disability in post war period in the post-war period in northern Sri Lanka. in Sri Lanka. Under these components, I especially try to answer the following sub 4.2 Sampling research questions: From the above mentioned research site, according to the purposeful sampling 1. How do Sri Lankan nation state method, I selected total 38 samples included Politicians, media, primary social 33 the ex-combatants with disabilities (18 groups, secondary social groups, men, 15women), and 05 civilians. Under the religious institution, community, purposeful sampling method, 'the researcher public places and public transport actively selects the most productive sample respond towards the ex-LTTE to answer the research question' (Marshall combatants with disabilities during and 1996: 523). Therefore, accordingly a total after the war? number of 38 participants have been 2. How does the transformation of social interviewed for the study. The participations responses and social context affect to were selected from a list of those who were construct and continue the masculine registered as having disabilities by the and warrior identity of combatants with divisional secretariat in Jaffna. Also based disabilities? on my personal contact, I select 33 ex-LTTE combatants those who are living with 4. RESEARCH DESIGN civilians in Jaffna district. I selected these METHODOLOGY combatants according to their nature of 4.1 Research Site disabilities, various age groups, marital This main objective of this study is status, levels of education and ranks In attempted to understand the socialidentity addition to these combatants. Further, I construction of these soldiers in the post war selected 05 civilians, because their period in Sri Lanka. It focuses on a specific experience, attitude, and responses also place of Northern Province of Jaffna district influence on the identity construction of ex- to access to the houses of the combatants combatants in during the war period and in with disabilities, those who are living with the post-war period in Sri Lanka. civilians. Then, I studied about how the residential area effects to the identity 4.3 Methods of Data Collection construction of these soldiers, because these This study relies largely on qualitative data. combatants neighbors may belong to Qualitative research very much related to different social classes, ethnicities, narrative and narrative story telling method. religions, educational, political and Therefore, is on through the narrative occupations affect to the social identity understanding of disabilities. The study will use mainly qualitative information collected

341 by methods such as case studies. Case participants. As a methodological approach studies with purpose sampling of selected it allows researchers a great level of people with disabilities in the area. As a flexibility in the analytical process, to build primary data collection method of this study mid-range theories in new and novel examining a real situation, the best research contexts. To this method is based on methodology is the case study approach (Yin narrative storytelling. Disability stories play 2004:1) Further, the study is an explanatory the entire informant role in the method of one looking at the process of people with qualitative analysis, because this analysis disabilities in post war public spaces. tells us about the meaning of interpretation Therefore, use of some kinds of secondary of their lives in disabled people's own data, collected from divisional secretariats, stories, feelings, emotion and experiences. Paradeshiya Sabha, Girama Niladhari However, this methodology is very much Divisions (GND) particularly government related to the substantives descriptive in the and non government organizational reports, broad sense that includes description of media sources as well as important. This data disabilities, concepts and beliefs. helped me in this research. It was very much related to not only my insider status 5. FINDING OF THE RESEARCH but also outsider perspective, to select field The information provided by the visit related government and non participants is organized and discussed government reports of disabilities, and then around themes that emerged from the data. key informant interview (official, people), It These themes are following: The collective is expected to use data collected through identity of an ethnic minority, body documents, archival records, direct and acceptance the idea of hybrid identities. The participant observations had been made data were only edited for the sake of clarity strategically. and brevity and, in the most part, are presented here briefly. 4.4 Methods of Data Analysis Data for this study has been collected 5.1 The Collective Identity of an Ethnic through qualitative methods and analysis is Minority also through qualitative method of data The collective identity of an ethnic minority analysis. This research for this work has was a strong theme in this study. According been carrying out within a framework of to this theme, it is very important for in this grounded theory. Grounded theory is a study to see the ex-combatants with particularly qualitative methodology which disabilities as not only individuals but also a seeks to develop conceptual knowledge and group, which were considered as Tamil war frameworks that are grounded in the heroes during the period in Sri Lanka. Also, individual experience of research it was a positive identity. According to the

342 participations experiences, the ex- civilians and ex- LTTE combatants who combatants with disabilities also receive remain permanently affected by injuries positive social responses and respectful during the war (Perera 2015). social position in during the war period, Sri Lanka. But post-war identity is the negative In this context, as I mentioned above two aspect of social identity. communities in Sri Lanka, the Tamils and Sinhala, received different benefits from the This theme includes the influences of social state towards the people with disabilities and model of disability and the social institutions also Tamil community is determined by effected to create the stigmatization. caste, gender relationship, minority ethnic Situation of ex-combatants with disabilities group identity. So, ex-combatants with demonstrate that disability is a social disabilities and their identity construction construction than a physical problem. Also, are based on the ethnic minority. In such a in contrast to this theme according to all the social identity context, the mobilization and data experiences, during the war period and reintegration process of ex-combatant with in the post-war period in Sri Lanka, other disabilities is problematic in the post- war institutions such as political institution, and northern Sri Lanka. religious organization played crucial roles to create the positive social reputation 5.2 The Idea of Hybrid Identity regarding the army soldiers including the The idea of hybrid identity has emerged after army soldiers Disabled are identified as an analyzing the data. This theme is useful to ethnic minority people with disabilities by understand how the disabilities affect to Sri Lankan nation and politicians in post-war bring the sociological and psychological Sri Lanka. Therefore, ex- combatants changes of the people with disabilities. The sacrificed their life for the idea of creating a ex-LTTE combatants suddenly became the country. As a researcher, I must point out that people with disabilities. Thus, disabilities particular issue of disabilities within the bring 'new changes' in their lives. Therefore, minority community and also how respect this then assists us to think about how these for disability is ethnically determined by changes affect to bring new social identities these them. Thus, construction of identity to the ex-combatants with disabilities. Also, does not happen at least within the people with disabilities were considered as community. The government responds with the burden to the social relationships. But, a project of rehabilitation through state according to Tamils societal experiences, the welfare benefits. Government soldiers can combatants with disabilities in during the receive assistance packages for injuries war period were considered as war Tamil sustained in service, including the heroes. Thus, they were not considered as a continuation of salaries for severely burden to the society. But their social disabled. But there is no program to help conditions are different than other ordinary

343 people with disabilities in post-war. In Sri body shape, size, and form which is Lanka, the social identity of ex-combatants influenced by a variety of historical, cultural, is changed by the time. The changes in social social, individual and biological factors attitudes after the war changed the social which operate varying time spans, position and identity of former combatants recognizes the impact of environmental with disabilities in the post-war Sri Lanka. factors (Taleporos, 2002). Therefore, a body is influenced by individuals and These changes in the social context for ex- environmental factors. The current study combatants with disabilities in the post-war borrows this idea of body in the context of period in Sri Lanka are problematic. post-war Jaffna society wherein the above According to this study's data and described factors shape the understanding experiences during the war period and in regarding the disabled body. post-war period Tamil institutions, primarily, played a crucial role to create the Basically, this theme focuses on the LTTE ideas regarding the nationalism and combatants with disabilities and describes organized religious activities for the people their masculinity and warrior identity during with disabilities including ex-combatants and after the war in Northern Sri Lanka. with the disability. Before the injuries, they Before the LTTE period, one could see received respect (positive identity) from young women and unmarried women in their communities, their family, friends, LTTE fatigues patrolling in the Jaffna neighborhood, and local community-based streets. It was the stark contrast to the organizations but after the injuries, they are historical image of demure, long hair, Tamil identified as 'dangers goods' in society due women in saris and other dresses, which was their body impairment. What is especially the death knell of the tradition and a threat to significant about LTTE period was that the their culture". Under the LTTE rule, unlike disabled combatants were given positive the previous period, disabled body got new identity as they sacrificed for the Tamil kind of status. It used to honor them during nationalism. However, after the war, Tamil war time and women had the equal rights society has created the new social identity with men during the combat. That achieved for the ex-combatants with disability in status was needed for the struggle of LTTE. negative terms. Thus, it can be identified as a There were concessions and privileges 'hybrid identity' in the post-war period in provided to combatants by LTTE. Hence, northern Sri Lanka. LTTE honored them during the events.

5.3. Body Acceptance However, negative social attitudes are a Many scholars have pointed out that the strong influence on the identity construction body is a loose mental representation of of the combatants with disabilities in post-

344 war society. If they have disabilities, they are the ex male combatants with disabilities treated very differently than others by the reflect this, society. A disabled women's body face "People don't allow me to their house and additional obstacles compared to men. The shop. Sometimes if I go to the temple, I get narrative of an exfemale combatant with some benefits in the festival time. However, disabilities reflect this, people of the village have some bad attitude about me. But I want to tell one thing if I "They don't care about ex- combats with seem to be begging but please don't include disabled of Tamil. They feel that we are me in the frame. I am able to do work, but I untouchables. Even, if they speak to us, they don't know any way to go on. Therefore, I am feel that they will get any effect from us. So, an able person now"(ex-male combatant). two of my children along with myself are also eliminated from the society". However, Disability leads to stigmatization. People do not see people with disabilities as "I am a physically challenged person, and I capable persons. They are seen as became a sex worker, so my body is excluded dependents, helpless, childlike and useless from society in many ways. But my body people. Therefore, it is difficult for people don't exclude through sexuality". with disabilities to claim and continue their masculine identity, as masculine identity is Also, another ex-female combatant with based on the characteristics such as able disabilities reflected, male body, strong, powerful, autonomous, "Before I joined the LTTE, I had many virile and independent, naturally friends in the village, but now they don't authoritative and violent. After LTTE, the speak to me. According to them, I am not able bodied were able to claim and continue women but male dominating women." their masculine identity while disabled were In the post-war context, ex- combatant's unable to claim and continue their masculine bodies are identified by the society as identity. Especially, for ex-combatants, the something to be avoided, useless, mangled, LTTE created conditions which formed their lifeless, unlucky people and unhappy positive social identity as warriors and people. Therefore, if disabled ex- heroes. combatants participated in an auspicious event then it is identified as a crime for the 6. CONCLUSION sacred event. Therefore, disabled ex- This study concludes that the society has combatants avoid it themselves. However, created the social identity of the ex- LTTE this study found some positive attitude of combatant with disabilities in post-war. former combatants with disabilities. They These discourses related to the disability have to face day to day life looking for new approaches, its influences, the individual opportunities and changes. The narrative of

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