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Hot pots. Shards from Eilat Mazar’s dig in Jerusalem are at the center of the heated debate.

Hebrew University in Jerusalem, contends that the discovery bolsters the traditional view that a powerful Jewish king reigned from a substantial city around 1000 B.C.E. “The news is that this huge construction was not built by ancient Canaanites,” she says, referring to the people who lived in the region before the Jews. And she goes a step further, arguing that the site is probably that of David’s palace. Mazar says she will soon publish new radiocarbon dates to back up her claim. But other archaeologists are hes- itant to assign the building’s identity, and some question the dating. The city was “a typical highland village” until a century or so later, says Tel Aviv University archaeolo- gist Israel Finkelstein, whose critique of ancient Jerusalem’s influence has made him a target of scholarly ire (see sidebar, p. 591). That would make the biblical accounts wildly exaggerated, at best. Academic spats about the dating of Iron Age cooking pots are not uncommon, but on March 12, 2012 this one spills over into political and religious disputes as well. “You have similar situations throughout the ancient Near East, but they don’t create the same level of emotion,” says Lawson Younger, an epigrapher at Trinity International University in Deerfield, Illinois. Many nationalist Israelis and devout Chris- tians are eager to prove the accuracy of the www.sciencemag.org stories about David and Solomon, whereas some Palestinians suspect that Jewish- funded excavations aim at legitimizing Israeli control of a city that to Muslims is second only to Mecca. The tension over Jerusalem’s past was evi- dent at recent meetings at Brown University and in Washington, D.C.,* where participants Downloaded from argued—sometimes loudly and angrily— about dating pottery shards, the influence of Jerusalem 3000 years ago, and the politics of Judging Jerusalem funding digs. Resolving the contentious mat- ter ultimately depends on refined dating tech- Has the palace of King David or Solomon been found? How big was niques and a wider array of artifacts and sites. “What took place in the 9th and 10th cen- their capital? New excavations and a bitter dispute over chronology turies B.C.E. all depends on who you talk to,” put Jerusalem in the archaeological spotlight says Anson Rainey, a Tel Aviv University archaeologist. “It’s all up in the air.” PERCHED ON A NARROW AND WINDSWEPT from which King David and his son hillside and remote from a major trade route, Solomon presided over a wealthy empire No simple site the Jerusalem of 3 millennia ago was from the Nile to the Euphrates. Jerusalem sits squarely in the center of the ignored by Mesopotamian archives and Now, new excavation of a massive build- Levant region, which connects Africa and rated only a brief mention in Egyptian ing in Jerusalem has intensified an acrimo- Asia. But most of the ancient traffic of chronicles. And despite a century and a half nious debate among archaeologists and bib- * of excavations, archaeologists have yet to lical scholars over how to date and interpret “The Jerusalem Perspective: 150 Years of Archaeological Research” at Brown University, 12–14 November 2006, uncover incontrovertible evidence of the finds from that early era. The excavating and the American Schools of Oriental Research annual

impressive capital described in biblical texts team, led by archaeologist Eilat Mazar of meeting, Washington, D.C., 15–18 November 2006. OF THE SHALEM CENTER COURTESY CREDIT:

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merchants and armies passed to the west, palace. She announced her initial finds last Solomon, whereas others question whether hugging the flat and well-watered year, making headlines around the world. In the complex can ever be accurately dated, Mediterranean coast (see map, p. 590). 2005, her team started digging at the top of a given its poor state of preservation. “The Deep in the hills between the Judean large stepped-stone structure located at the building is in bad shape, and so far she has desert and the coast, Jerusalem is much narrowest point of the hill that makes up the not found a floor,” notes Gabriel Barkai, an younger than other sites in the region such City of David. That structure, an impressive archaeologist at Bar-Ilan University in as Megiddo or Jericho. Likely named for a 37 meters high, is made up of stone terraces Ramat Gan who recently visited the site. Syrian god, the town is mentioned as early that many archaeologists date to the 12th cen- That means “we have to rely on a chronolog- as the 19th century B.C.E. in Egyptian tury B.C.E., prior to the arrival of the Jews. ical sandwich,” adds Amihai Mazar, who writings. Excavations show that 5 cen- Mazar, whose work is largely funded by a also is familiar with the dig. turies later the site was fortified by a peo- Jewish-American investment banker, has ple called the Jebusites, who are associ- uncovered a large building on top of the Time troubles ated with the Hittites of Anatolia. structure, and she believes both structures The key, then, is dating the elaborate pottery According to biblical texts, Jewish tribes were erected at the same time. “It’s very on the top and the coarse pottery on the bot- began to infiltrate the region by that time, set- clear this is one huge construction,” she tom of that sandwich. And that is no easy ting up the southern kingdom of Judea and says. Her current excavation shows a build- matter, because no Jerusalem samples were the northern kingdom of Israel radiocarbon-dated prior to and finally conquering independ- Mazar’s recent finds. Earlier ent Jerusalem under King David archaeologists had not bothered around what textual scholars esti- to gather organic samples mate was the year 1000 B.C.E. because radiocarbon dates for David united the two kingdoms, historical time periods were and the Old Testament relates that imprecise, with error bars of his son Solomon turned the town 1 or 2 centuries. Newer calibra- into a showplace of the united tions can sometimes pinpoint monarchy, building several lavish dates to within 50 years (Science, on March 12, 2012 buildings in Jerusalem and 15 September 2006, p. 1560), nearby cities. His empire col- but it has taken time to adopt lapsed shortly after his death, them. “Using radiocarbon in his- however, and the two kingdoms torical times is quite a young split. Jerusalem remained the subject,” Amihai Mazar says. As capital of Judea for another 4 cen- a result, archaeologists here turies but was destroyed by Baby- have dated sites based solely on lon’s King Nebuchadnezzar, who pottery styles. www.sciencemag.org took many Jews into captivity. Eilat Mazar dates the com- There is, however, no direct plex to about 1000 B.C.E., a date archaeological evidence for the based both on new radiocarbon existence of the brief united data as well as her interpretation monarchy and its empire. of the pottery found at the site. Decades of excavations in the Although many others see the City of David—located just plain ware as typical of the early south of the later city and just Iron Age—that is, around the Downloaded from below what Muslims call the 12th century B.C.E.—she Harim al-Sharif and Jews dub believes it was used in Jebusite the Temple Mount—provide an David’s city. Mazar’s dig is south of the Dome of the Rock (top left) and in the Jerusalem right up to the time of intriguing glimpse into the neck of the teardrop-shaped hill that is the site of early Jerusalem. the Jews’ arrival. Mazar has also ancient town. But the data are taken three new radiocarbon difficult to interpret. “Jerusalem is not a ing that covered as much as 2000 square samples of bone and olive pits from under simple archaeological site,” explains meters. She adds that the complex appears to the building—the first samples in Jerusalem Amihai Mazar, an archaeologist at Hebrew stand outside the original Jebusite city, and to be subjected to radiocarbon dating. University. Stone was quarried and reused both the new building and more elaborate These were associated with the plain pot- over millennia, erosion has taken a toll on pottery left after the building’s construction tery, and they date from 1050 B.C.E. to the steep hillsides, and excavations since mark a clear break with the past. The site, 1000 B.C.E., give or take a half-century— the 1800s have sometimes added to the con- Mazar notes, also matches biblical verses just prior to the time of David, she says. She fusion. And some of ancient Jerusalem is that talk of King David descending from his also found a fourth sample at a later level off-limits to archaeology because of politi- palace, indicating that it was on a high place. associated with more elaborate pottery with cal and religious sensitivities. Other archaeologists, although united in Phoenician and Cypriot influence, in what Now Eilat Mazar—a cousin to Amihai their conviction that Mazar’s find is appears to be an addition to the building. Mazar in the intimate world of Israeli archae- extremely important, are skeptical. Some That material, which she believes was used ology—has wrapped up her second season of maintain that it is more likely to be a Jebusite by the early Jews in Jerusalem, dates to

CREDIT: CITY OF DAVID SOCIETY CITY OF DAVID CREDIT: digging at what she argues is likely David’s citadel rather than a palace built by David or between 1050 B.C.E. and 780 B.C.E., with

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one analysis pinpointing the most likely at best and foolish at worst. They say the date to about 930 B.C.E. early Jewish city was well-fortified, included The radiocarbon data have yet to be monumental buildings and structures, and published, but even without them, Barkai, operated as an important regional power, if Amihai Mazar, and most other archaeolo- not as the large empire imagined by biblical gists who work in the area say that writers. Mazar’s find provides additional evi- Jerusalem’s pottery-based chronology is dence of a significant city, says Jane Cahill, good enough, if inexact. Others—including an archaeologist based in Houston, Texas, Finkelstein—vehemently disagree and are who is associated with Hebrew University agitating for a more accurate system that and has dug in the City of David: “The anchors the pottery firmly to radiocarbon stepped-stone structure is the most impres- dates. They point to the many carbon-14 sive monument in Israel until classical samples obtained to the north of Jerusalem in times.” Cahill estimates that 10th century the old kingdom of Israel. A team of Israeli B.C.E. Jerusalem, extending over 12 acres or scientists has taken more than 500 radio- 5 hectares, was home to 1200 to 1500 peo- carbon measurements from more than ple—small compared to contemporary cities 150 samples from 25 sites, primarily in the such as Babylon, but large for the Judean north. Those results, says team member Ilan highlands of the era. Sharon of Hebrew University, provide com- Finkelstein’s and Greenberg’s views are pelling evidence that the conventional itics rather than historical accuracy. Archae- angrily challenged by many Jerusalem chronology is off by a century, placing ologist Rafi Greenberg of Tel Aviv Univer- archaeologists, who accuse them of taking events earlier than they occurred. sity adds that the countryside around an extreme “minimalist” view that the Bible After visiting Mazar’s dig this week, Jerusalem lacks the villages one would offers little or no guidance for historians. “I Finkelstein says the building may be as late expect to support a substantial town or city. believe in the accuracy of the biblical as the 6th century B.C.E. If so, the picture of “In the late 8th century B.C.E., there was accounts—I don’t think they invented King a 10th century united monarchy with monu- rapid development, but we find zilch before Solomon,” declares Barkai. Cahill takes on March 12, 2012 mental buildings falls apart. “There is no evi- then,” he says. “Jerusalem is the worst possi- Finkelstein to task for mixing northern and dence for a glamorous capital of Jerusalem,” ble site for agriculture and can only sustain— southern pottery, which she says are cultur- he maintains. For him, the biblical accounts optimistically—about 500 people.” ally distinct. She also notes that Cypriot and of Solomon’s golden age were written cen- But those who back the conventional other foreign pottery in Eilat Mazar’s build- turies later, with an eye to contemporary pol- chronology dismiss this view as uninformed ing tie it neatly to the 10th century B.C.E.

other. But she insists her attachment is purely scholarly: “I’ve never felt a All in the Family www.sciencemag.org religious connection to my work.” As a young archaeologist digging in the City of David, an ancient site just The connection, however, is deeply felt. She was outraged in 2000 when south of walled Jerusalem, Eilat Mazar unearthed huge pottery vessels she learned of building activities on the Temple Mount, an important site buried just before Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, destroyed that is called the Harim al-Sharif by Muslims, who have controlled it for Jerusalem 2500 years ago. The pots were stamped with ancient Hebrew most of the last millennium. Mazar formed a committee to protest destruc- writing—and she could read it. The moment crystallized her sense of tion of antiquities on the site but was disappointed when Israeli authorities belonging to the contested city. “This was my language, not some foreign took little action. She adds that her protest is not religious or political:

tongue, and it speaks to who I am today and where I was born,” Mazar says. “Islamic monuments are being destroyed too. This is a site important to the Downloaded from Today, at 50, Hebrew University archaeologist Mazar is wrapping up a world’s cultural heritage.” second season uncovering what could be the most significant archaeolog- But some Palestinians find that hard to square with Israel’s own ical find in Jerusalem’s history: the palace of the king policy about excavations. Hamed Salem, a Birzeit who, according to biblical texts, united the ancient University archaeologist who lives near Mazar’s cur- Israelites (see main text). For her, excavating in rent dig, explains that “the Palestinian view is that Jerusalem is more than a purely scientific endeavor; it this dig is illegal” because the territory is consid- is also a family affair, heavily steeped in the complex ered occupied by the Israelis under international history, politics, and religion of the place. law. “Archaeology is supposed to be neutral,” says Mazar grew up in a secular home which nonethe- Salem. “The conclusions which come out of this less included innumerable editions of the Bible and excavation will not be on a purely scientific basis.” commentaries on it. She still prizes the Bible once And a few Israeli archaeologists fear that her fund- owned by her grandfather, Benjamin Mazar, a ing, which comes through Jerusalem’s Shalem Center, renowned archaeologist and Polish emigrant. “He was a Jewish research institute, creates at least my main teacher relative to thinking and methodol- the appearance of a nationalist rather than purely ogy, and how to combine historical sources with scientific endeavor. archaeology,” she says. Mazar’s attachment to those Palace puzzle. Mazar at Mazar, however, insists that she is not digging to sources is legendary; she is fond of saying that she her Jerusalem complex. prove anyone’s preconceived notions. “I’m trying my digs with one hand while holding the Bible in the best,” she says, “to keep an open mind.” –A.L. CREDIT: KATHERINE AMRANI KATHERINE CREDIT:

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And other archaeologists note that the lack of evidence for neighboring villages could be due to their establishment on exposed Holy Land Prophet or Enfant Terrible? bedrock, leaving few traces behind. By suggesting that biblical figures such as David and Solomon were, at most, unimposing tribal When pressed, however, Jerusalem chieftains ruling from a nondescript hill town, Israel Finkelstein has made himself a lightning archaeologists admit that their dating rod. His controversial views about what took place 3000 years ago touch a nerve among many remains maddeningly imprecise. “We don’t nonacademic Israelis, evoking angry letters in the country’s newspapers from people question- have firm dates until we get to [Assyrian ing his patriotism. King] Sennacherib in 701 B.C.E.,” says It’s an ironic position for a self-described “mainstream Zionist” who grew up in the first Zion- Rainey. “The question is whether radio- ist settlement in what is today Israel. The 57-year-old Tel Aviv University professor is the ringleader carbon dating can solve anything.” Barkai is of a small number of researchers who dispute the way archaeologists date their finds in the area deeply skeptical. “Given the margin of error, around Jerusalem (see main text). If these scholarly renegades are correct, then the military radiocarbon allows everyone to argue exploits of Joshua, the brave deeds of David, and the wisdom of Solomon may be no more histor- the position they already hold,” he says. ical than the medieval tales of King Arthur. Finkelstein says “Carbon-14 is like a prostitute.” But others he wants to bring modern techniques to a rather fusty field acknowledge that resolving the conflict ulti- that in his view depends too heavily on biblical texts—but his mately depends on more samples to provide critics suspect his real goal is to grab the media spotlight. absolute dating—which means firmly Finkelstein insists he didn’t go looking for trouble. He anchoring the pottery to radiocarbon dates. recalls a “perfectly normal” childhood in which he pestered his “There is no other way,” says Ayelet Gilboa, parents to take him to archaeological sites. And until the a Haifa University archaeologist who is part 1980s, he published papers backing the conventional archae- of the radiocarbon team. ological chronology. He used pottery to date sites and assumed Amid the dispute, which at times appears that the biblical texts provided a good road map for excava- bitter and deeply personal, there are signs of a tors. But that changed in the early 1990s, when Palestinian convergence. “We all agree Jerusalem was uprisings forced him to give up digs in the highlands north of not a major city, it was a small town,” says Jerusalem. He moved to the lowland city of Megiddo, 150 kilo- on March 12, 2012 Amihai Mazar. Adds Herschel Shanks, editor meters north. Famed as the New Testament site of Armaged- of Biblical Archaeological Review: “It wasn’t don, the ancient town was the home of an impressive gate and this big wonderful thing … but a capital of a palace long considered Solomonic. few small villages.” Cahill agrees that At Megiddo, Finkelstein sensed something fundamental although Jerusalem was “a splendid city” was wrong with the dating, so he plunged into carbon-14 sam- Bad boy. Finkelstein is nearly as compared to other highland towns, it was “a ple gathering, which at the time was rarely used at historical controversial as his theories. poor and sad place” compared to the metrop- sites. “Radiocarbon opened the way to put ourselves on solid olises of its day. For his part, Finkelstein ground, free of all these arguments about the Bible,” he says. At about the same time, a team of www.sciencemag.org acknowledges that Jerusalem may have researchers from several Israeli universities independently began to conduct carbon-14 analyses. expanded starting as early as 970 B.C.E.—in They say they have good—although not conclusive—evidence that the conventional dating in the the late 10th century and only 50 years later north of Israel is off by a century. That would mean the Megiddo structures were built after than the position held by Cahill. Solomon—and after the biblical united kingdom—by local rulers. Divisive agendas, however, are inherent The radiocarbon data fueled Finkelstein’s interest in, and suspicions of, the biblical accounts. in the debate. Eilat Mazar’s work is done in After in-depth study, he says he decided that much of what was written about the era of David and partnership with the Ir David Foundation, Solomon was done long after the fact for political purposes. That conclusion led him to question which says it is dedicated to “strengthening archaeological work in Jerusalem, where he has never excavated. And it also created a political and Downloaded from Israel’s current and historic connection to religious as well as an academic firestorm. Jerusalem.” Mahmoud Hawari, a Palestin- In the wake of the Holocaust, Israeli leaders, although secular, drew on the stories of fierce fight- ian archaeologist at Oxford University, ers and wise kings to create what Finkelstein calls “the myth of the new Jew, the fighting Jew.” His warns that “you cannot avoid a political and critics—at meetings, in books, and in newspapers—railed against him as irresponsible and sensa- ideological motivation in discussing David tionalistic. “He’s a radical, politically and otherwise,” says William Dever, an archaeologist emeritus and Solomon. Biblical archaeology has at the University of Arizona, Tucson. Dever has worked in Israel for 50 years and has known tried to prove that link and has served mod- Finkelstein since he was a high school student. “Even then, he was insufferable,” Dever maintains. ern Zionism.” But Mazar defends her fund- “For him, this is a kind of game and an ego trip. … He has become too outrageous.” ing. “I’m doing pure research, and no one Jane Cahill, an archaeologist associated with Hebrew University, agrees that Finkelstein tells me what to do or write.” “requires his detractors to carry the burden of proof” and that he “resorts to bellicose rhetoric.” Ultimately, better data from tools such as Finkelstein dismisses the criticism as the last gasp of a conservative establishment that is suspi- radiocarbon dating could provide a clearer pic- cious of new techniques, fears undercutting the Bible, and is jealous of someone who works well ture of the ancient city. Gilboa believes a wave with the media; Finkelstein is a frequent television commentator, and his book sales are brisk. But of data could lead to “a new and more vigorous he admits that he can come across as something of a bully. “I have a big mouth, and I know how biblical archaeology” that uses the Bible as a to protect myself—I’m streetwise.” guide rather than diktat. That approach might But even Finkelstein feels the heat sometimes. At a recent conference in Washington, D.C., he allow archaeologists to shed more light— purposely avoided a session on 10th century B.C.E. Jerusalem. “It’s not good for my health,” he and generate less heat—on Jerusalem’s Iron explained with a hint of embarrassment. “I have daughters, and I have to try to survive.” –A.L.

CREDIT: JEREMY JOSEPHS CREDIT: Age predecessor. –ANDREW LAWLER

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