Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: the Late Bronze Age Author(S): Albert Leonard, Jr

Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Late Bronze Age Author(s): Albert Leonard, Jr. Reviewed work(s): Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 52, No. 1, The Late Bronze Age in Palestine (Mar., 1989), pp. 4-39 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210180 . Accessed: 04/01/2012 03:14

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http://www.jstor.org ArchaeologicalSources for the History of Palestine

Te ate Bronzege

by Albert Leonard, Jr. heLate Bronze Age in both events and help illuminate the will discuss each of the subphases of Canaan began and ended more than three centuries of cul- the Late Bronze Age in Canaan- with large-scalepopula- tural development that took place in first in terms of the history revealed tion shifts: the Egyptian Canaan between them. In fact, Syro- by Egyptiansources and then in repulsion of the so-called Hyksos Palestine can be seen better against view of Canaan'sceramic, architec- around1550 B.C.E. andthe incursion the backdropof these Egyptianrec- tural, and funeraryevidence. By this of the multinational Sea Peoples just ords than at any other time in its juxtaposition of local archaeological after1200 B.C.E. Egyptianrecords prior history. datawith contemporaneousEgyptian from this period provide details of Thus, in the following pages I historical materials, I hope to show

4 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 that the texture of Canaan'smaterial culture in the Late Bronze Age varied in response to Egyptianpolitical and economic initiatives, which, iron- ically, were often directed towardthe larger and more formidable states to the north and east of Canaan.

Late Bronze IA Late Bronze IA coveredroughly one hundred years. Its beginning corresponded with the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egyptby Amosis, first pharaohof the Eighteenth Dynasty,1 and its end came with the attack of Tuthmosis III,sixth pharaoh of the dynasty, on the Canaanite fortress of Megiddo.This is a very confusing period in the archaeological record, marked by destructions and partial abandonments. EgyptianHistorical Evidence. For the hundred years prior to 1550 B.C.E. much of Egyptwas ruled by a group of foreigners.Later known as the Hyksos and designated as the Fif- teenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, this group,probably Asiatics, had its capital at Avaris (Telled-Dabca) in the eastern Delta (Bietak 1986). It was the Seventeenth Dynasty pharaoh, Kamose, or possibly his predecessor Sekenenre,who first rebelled against the Hyksos (Pritchard1950: 232). An account of the Egyptian attack on Avarisand its subsequent destruction was found in the tomb

Above:Although small religious structures with a single cult focus appear to have been the norm during Late BronzeIB, a rambling religious precinct in stratum IX at Beth Shan can now be dated to this period. Called the "T7thmoseIII Temple"by its excavators,the precinct, probably dedicated to numerous deities, has yielded many steles, including this one. In the upperregister a dog and a male lion of similar size wrestle while standing on their back legs. In the bottom register a dog bites the hindquartersof a striding lion. It is doubtful that such a costly monument was erected as a memorial to the hunting dog, but loftier interpretationshave not been offered.From an artistic standpoint, the stele is as good a piece of stone sculpture as anything from Late Bronze Syro-Palestine.Photograph courtesy of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. Left: "Seventimes and seven times, I bow down on my back and belly,"is one of the claims made in the Amarna letters by Canaanite vassals expressing their subservience and loyalty to Egyptianrulers during Late BronzeIIA (el-Amarnaletter 323; Mercer 1939: 771).On this relief from the Memphite tomb of Horemheb,last pharaoh of the EighteenthDynasty, a mixed groupof foreignersseems to be acting out their devotion beforeone of the pharaoh'sservants. The groupconsists of five full-beardedSyrians, each wearing a long-sleeved garment with a shoulder cape; an additional Syrian whose wavy hair is tied up like a hat and who wears a kilt with long tassels; two Libyans distinguished by their sharppointy beards and the feather protrudingfrom their long straight hair; and a beardless figure,possibly that of an African. Photographcourtesy of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 5 Dividing the Late Bronze Age

Albright Wright Amiran Weinstein Kenyon Thearchaeological 1570 Pharaoh 1949 1965b 1970 1981 1973 recordfor the Amosis LateBronze Age 1550 in Palestineis A , oftenuncertain. Amenophis I 1525 Scholarshave LB IA ? ,' ? offeredvarying Tuthmosis I chronologiesof Tuthmosis II LB IA ------its phases. 1500o - ,' B Hatshepsut LB IA

ess than forty years ago William F. L Albright (1949)made the first intelli- 1475 gent attempts to synthesize our under- standing of the late Bronze Age at more STuthmosis III than one Palestinian site. At that time there wasn't much material for the criti- cal to use. For Late archaeologist instance, 1450 ------LBIALBB Bronze I was simply subdivided into an LB IB early phase (Late Bronze IA), which Al- saw as level at Tell bright representedby II Amenophis II c el-cAjjuland stratum IX at Megiddo,with their characteristic elaborate Bichrome - Warepottery. A second phase (LateBronze 1425 ------LBIB IB) was considered "somewhat of a step- Tuthmosis IV child" until the excavation of the lowest 7 stratum (StructureI) of the Fosse Temple at Lachish provided Albright with what he considered suitable archaeological 1400 deposits. Albright admitted that the sub- Amenophis III division of Late Bronze II was difficult to achieve with accuracy,but he offered an LB IIA LB IIA early subphase, Late Bronze IIA, which S roughly corresponded to the fourteenth ------LB IIA LB IIA Gap? 1375 century B.C.E.(the Amarnaperiod and the Amenophis IV shift from the Eighteenth to the Nine- (Akhenaten) ------teenth Dynasties), and a later subphase, Smenhare- Late Bronze IIB,which dated to the thir- AmenphisaIre teenth century B.C.E.(the Ramesside The sequenceof majorEgyptian pharaohs of the NewKingdom and the chronological subdivisions period). His rule of thumb for placing of the LateBronze Age as proposedby William E Albright(1949), G. ErnestWright (1965b), within this skele- RuthAmiran (1970), and James M. Weinstein(1981). Dame Kathleen Kenyon's (1973) Late homogeneous deposits Bronze also areincluded. Absolute dates are those followed the ton was on Agegroups by Cambridge overly reliant, however, Myce- AncientHistory. Conversion to the newdates proposed by K.A. Kitchen(1987) can be achieved naean Greek and Cypriot imports whose by consultingthe reignsof specificpharaohs given in the text. Whenan authorhas given an

6 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 Albright Wright Amiran Weinstein Kenyon chronological sequences were just then 1360 Pharaoh 1949 1965b 1970 1981 1973 becoming known (Leonard1987b; Hankey In his later writings Albright con- Tutankhamun 1987). 1350 Gap? tinued to refine his original categories, 1350 w ~ Ay and most scholars follow at least a modi- fied version of his chronology. Both G. LB IIA LB IIA D Ernest Wright (1965b)and Ruth Amiran for have divided the Horemheb (1970), instance, peri- ,., Horemheb LB IIA LBIIA od into LateBronze I, LateBronze IIA, and 1325 - Late BronzeIIB. The other major attempt to create a Ramesses I chronological yardstick for the Late Bronze Age material from Syro-Palestine Sethos I was made by the British archaeologist 1300 E Dame Kathleen Kenyon, who devised a E system based on a reevaluation of the excavatedmaterial from Megiddo,Hazor, Lachish, and other sites (1973: 527-30). Kenyon selected only those individual deposits that she was convinced displayed 1275 sufficient archaeological (that is, strati- Ramesses II graphical)integrity for chronological purposes, and she arrangedthem into seven groups (A through G). In Albright'sterms LBIIB LBIIB these groups can be summarized as Late SF Bronze A and Late Bronze 1250 LB IIB LB IIB IA (Groups B), IB (GroupC), Late Bronze IIA (latter part of GroupC, a gap,and Group D), and Late Bronze IIB(Groups E, F,and G). In spite of her keen eye for strati- Merneptah graphical detail and her implicit caveat 1225 against placing too much emphasis on Amnenmesses sites that were poorly excavated during Sethos II Gap? the infancy of the discipline, Kenyon's Siptah system has not been widely accepted. This is most probablythe result of prac- Tewosret 1200 tical matters such as confusion over the Sethnakhte relationship between Groups A and B, the fifty-yearhiatus between Groups C and D (given the absolute dates with which she was this covers almost the Ramesses III working, gap e entire Amarna and another sub- 0G G period), 1175 stantial gap between Groups F and G at ------the end of the Late Bronze Age. In 1981James M. Weinstein produced an important synthesis of the archaeological and literary material bearing on absolutedate that date has been used in the chart;when a datehas been expressed in termsof a the chronology of the Late Bronze Age. pharaoh'sreign, the datehas been extrapolated to the CambridgeAncient History dates; when After reviewing the Egyptian as well as has as botha pharaoh'sreign and an absolutedate are offered, the pharaoh'sreign beenused, the Weinstein this is most to reflectthe viewsof the author.This chartattempts only to be an Syro-Palestinianevidence, likely original relative that is approximationby the author. arrivedat the chronology used in this article.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 7 The so-called Midgal Temple(number 2048) in area BB at Megiddo had its origin in Middle Bronze(left) but continued in use during Late BronzeIA (middle) and IIA (right).The final phase, however, was much less impressive. With walls about half their original thickness, the structurein stratum VIIAhardly deserves the use of the epithet "migdal,"meaning fortified. Drawing by Lois A. Kain.

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-iii Z: ii:iigii iii-iliQi _-i:iii ilii?ii :ij::::::_::: ::.::~: i-iS-:iii'i* ii?i:i.si-iiiiiia- -::::a?-i-iLii-i-si:ii-i ilii-i.::-':'::' i---:-i-i-il':?:=:: - --*-i:::'--:-:::-:?:-:~:::::-:* ::-:: a ii~:c?ii ':- :I-:_:-:::r-::::::li?::??::::::-:~:--:- - -::::::~ -~::::~::::::-:-,:::-: :-::a::::-:::::: 4 iiL'iii L:iii iilii~i : :~::: :::il--::: ::a-i:i- D::-:: :: ~:: :~Q..-: ~i iiiiii:~iiiiiiiigiiii:F ir"iiiiir-i.-iiiiili :~--iii:i:b- . ii~:i::::::~-: : i:a:-ii.- :s::::::-a::,_:::::,:i: :-:~::::i::-:_?:-:?:.i::J::_ i-iii~--ii-ixii:i:?i~iiiii:i~i il_.itiii- i:it-::-:~:::' :;:-::--?:::'''--::--::: ':-;::::"::':' ~-i':i- -ai i-iD i-: -: - ii:i~i:ii:sii-iiiis i-iiieiiitiiii--iilii iiiiiiii?iisii~i iii~iiiiiiili -i-ii~i?i:i:mi?ii-iii~iii?i- :icaiii*ii?~iiiiii;i~-~-i?i?iii~i :..Ziiiiii9:-:-- i~ii:-ii`i~ iiii~iiiiiiii~i :iii:--~-::i:?:*-, i:i iiiai ii'::--~-- :s iii,~i ii isi . ~i-::--:-r::j::?:: :::::: :. -- :~:::-----i-~-'--_-i-i~i:--:i_.:-gi::----L:?:::;::- -::~ i:: fi-i~~ of an Egyptianofficer, Ahmose son emphasis on his prowess in maneu- of Eben, at el-Kabin southern Egypt. Small vering the swift horse-drawn,spoke- It was left to the next pharaoh, city-states wheeled chariot. In PapyrusAnastasi Amosis,2to complete the rebellion in Syro-Palestine I, which dates to the Nineteenth by leading a three-yearsiege against Dynasty, the royal scribe Hori taunts Sharuhen,the Hyksos stronghold in bandedtogether his rival Amen-em-Opet:"Give me in orderthat I southern Palestine. Thus, the Hyk- in LateBronze IA (thy)report may ... sos were expelled from the Delta and speak proudly to others of thy desig- ultimately driven back into Palestine to defendthem- nation 'maryan.'"To which Hori and then Syria (Dever 1987). replies: "Iknow how to hold the The military career of Ahmose selvesagainst reins more skillfully than thou, son of Eben continued through the what saw there is no warriorwho is my equal" reign of pharaohAmenophis I4 and they (Albright 1930-1931: 217; Pritchard into that of Tuthmosis I,5whom he as a bigger 1950: 475-79). claimed to have accompanied as far The Mitannian capital, Washu- north into Syria as the great bend in threat,Egypt. kanni, was located somewhere in the EuphratesRiver. This does not the region of the headwaters of the seem to have been an idle boast, for Habur River,but its exact location is the later pharaohTuthmosis IIIre- of Indo-Europeansruling a substra- still unknown and its suggested corded that his grandfatherTuth- tum of Hurrians (Merrillees 1986). association with Tell Fakhariyehhas mosis I had erected a victory stele on The chariot-owningnobility who yet to be proven either by excavation the east bank of that great river (Prit- formed the upper crust of Mitanni or neutron-activation analysis of per- chard 1950: 239; see also Spalinger were called mariyanna, a term al- tinent cuneiform tablets that were in 1978). This would have brought the most certainly to be equated with suspected to have been written Egyptiansface to face with the king- the Indo-Europeanword marya, Washukannion local clays (McEwan dom of Mitanni, a North Syrian which means "youngman" or "young 1958; Dobel, Asaro, and Michel group made up of a small aristocracy warrior"(Drower 1973: 420), with 1976). At this time Mitanni was the

8 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 only military threat to Egypt in the region, but Tuthmosis I was apparently not overly disturbed by the fact; he ended his campaign relaxing and hunting elephants in the Niya Lands of the Orontes Valley. A gap exists in our knowledge of Acco Syro-Palestineduring the reigns of Tuthmosis 116and Queen Hatshepsut7 Based on the subsequent actions of Tuthmosis IIIwhen he became sole ruler of Egypt,we can assume it was a period in which small local city- states were working out their differ- ences and joining into alliances Mevorakh against what they perceived as a greaterthreat, Egypt.This situation is surprising, since at this time the Egyptians appearto have been rather benevolent. Egypt displayed no desire for permanent economic or political/military control over the area and was apparentlycontent with the occasional raid into the territories to demonstrate its strength (Weinstein 1981;but see also Rainey 1987 and Redford1987). Archaeological Evidence in Canaan. The archaeological record is unclear as to the manner in which the political transition from the Middle Bronze IIC/MiddleBronze IIIto Late Bronze IA took place in Canaan. For instance, did the city-states of Syro- Palestine simply transfertheir allegiance from the Hyksos to the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty (the beginning of the so-called New Kingdom),as YohananAharoni suggested (1967: 138), or do the destructions and partial abandonments (Dever 1987; Weinstein 1981)indicate a sharper,more hostile break, described by Kathleen Kenyon (1979: 184) as a "considerable dislocation of life in Palestine"? Ceramic record. From the standpoint of ceramics, the transition from

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 9 the Middle to the Late Bronze Age - tive enough to be used by archae- 1969): Base Ring Ware, a black or if it can be seen at all - is marked by ologists as the type-fossils of the brownish gray fabric with raised a surprising degree of continuity in Late Bronze IA. These are Bichrome decoration (designated BR I), which most of the popular local forms and Ware,Black/Grey Lustrous Ware, and appeared almost exclusively in fabrics. Many vessel types of the Chocolate on White Ware(for a de- closed forms such as the jug or the Late Bronze I exhibit an ancestry tailed description of these, see the small distinctively shaped bilbil that that can be traced to the very begin- accompanying sidebar). must have been traded for the sake nings of the Middle Bronze. Three There also appearedduring Late of its contents (perhaps opium, an "new" fabric types appeared in the Bronze IA the first examples of two important painkiller in antiquity- ceramic repertoire near the transi- handmade Cypriot fabrics that en- Merrillees 1962, 1986: 154); and tion, however, and they are distinc- joyed a long history in Canaan (Oren White Slip Ware (WS I), which dur-

BichromeWare BichromeWare

Bichrome Ware thought to be the productof a single artist number of workshops.Neutron activation Production of this pottery, often called called the Tell el-cAjjulPainter (Heurtley analysis has shown that some of these ElaborateBichrome Ware, may actually 1939). Subsequent study has suggested workshops were located in Cyprus (Artzy, have begun at the very end of Middle that this might be too narrowan interpre- Perlman, and Asaro 1973), but at least a Bronze IIC, since fragments of it have tation of the material, but the restricted portion of the Bichrome Ware vessels been found in deposits dating to that range of mainstream forms-jug with found at Megiddo was made from local periodat Tell el-cAjjuland Megiddo(Wood shoulder handle, cylindrical juglet, one- clays (Artzy,Perlman, and Asaro 1978). 1982;Kassis 1973).It is still consideredto handled juglet and krater-in concert be a harbingerof LateBronze IA, however. with its distinctive decoration suggest Black/GreyLustrous Ware Characterizedby a limited repertoire that a limited number of workshopswere Like the other IA speciality wares, Black/ of decorative motifs, such as birds, fish, engagedin producingthis ware.Attempts Grey LustrousWare appeared on the cusp Union Jacks,and the like, executed in red to attribute this pottery to a specific eth- of the transition from Middle Bronze IIC and black paint on a pale buff slip, this nic group, such as the Hurrians, as pro- and Late Bronze IA, having been found in pottery is so distinctive in both vessel- posed by Claire Epstein (1966), present the earlier deposits at Tell el-cAjjul and form and the artistic of its decora- that do not arise el-Farcah 1973: Its quality chronological problems Te11 (South) (Oren 77). tion that when it was first "isolated"it was if we think of it as the productof a limited greatest popularity came in the years just

10 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 BichromeWare, Black/Grey Lustrous Ware,and Chocolate on WhiteWare are the type-fossilsof LateBronze IA.

ing this period was restricted to the hint can be gatheredat some of the of the city's character.It has been hemispherical, wishbone-handled larger sites where archaeologists claimed that area AA originated in "milk bowl"that must have been have made substantial horizontal ex- the Middle Bronze;similar survivals brought to Canaan as appealing posures. In area AA at the northern of town plans from the Middle Bronze tablewareand not as containers for end of Megiddo (Tellel-Mutesellim), into the Late Bronze I have been sug- some luxury commodity. the city-gate of stratum IX (Loud gested at Tell el-Hesi ("BlissCity II") Architectural evidence. As for 1948: 5) and a portion of the adjacent and Tell el-cAjjul (City I, Palace II), the plan and appearanceof the and contemporary"Palace" (Loud presenting us with a feeling of con- Canaanite city-states in which this 1948: 16 and 33) were uncovered,but tinuity that is difficult to reconcile pottery was used, we are unfortu- so much had been destroyedby later with the discontinuity apparentat nately ignorant; only an occasional rebuildings that we are not certain so many other sites (see Weinstein 1981: 1-5). Our knowledge of religious architecture, however,seems to be on much firmer ground (G. R. H. ;e Wright 1971, 1985; Gray 1964). Temple 2048 at Megiddo (stratum x VIIB),with its thick walls, single ro long-room, and staired towers in ~ front, would have continued in use ~ 3 during this period, as possibly would a related structure, FortressTemple c, IB at Shechem (TellBalatah; Wright 1965a: 122 and At Hazor c following). Black/Grey (Tellel-Qedah), the only Palestinian L LustrousWare site to offer a true paradigmfor the -,x religious architecture of Late Bronze, s continuity between the Middle Bronze IIC and Late Bronze I is suggested by the "LongTemple" in area Chocolateon WhiteWare A (Yadin1972: 103) and the "Ortho- state Temple"in area H; the latter beforethe reignof TuthmosisIII. The ex- were coveredwith a thick, cream-colored was constructed during Middle ampleswe haveare well constructedof a slip that was burnishedto a light luster be- Bronze II but survived through Late finelylevigated (washed) grey clay covered fore the geometric decoration was added Bronze IA and into Late Bronze II. with a grey or black slip that was sub- in a shade of paint to the red side of At Tell Kittan a single-room temple sequentlypolished, often to a luster.This chocolate-brown. Also appearing just with at least two previous phases fabricoccurred in a form:a before the LateBronze I Chocolate single globular- period, from Middle Bronze (strataV and IV) bodied, tall-necked juglet with handle on White Waremay have had its origins at was Late Bronze I from the shoulder to below the rim. The sites close to the since the enlargedduring JordanRiver, and rooms were added.The presence petal-like appearanceof the upper handle white katarrah marls could have been attachment is a hallmark of the form. used in the At Kataret of "chocolateware" on the floors of slip. es-Samra,just this latest to the north of the Wadi Zerqa, I building (stratumIII) sug- (1986: to the excavatorthat it had Chocolateon WhiteWare 167)have found, in secondary association gested Morphologically, vessels of this ware with Middle BronzeII, rolled-rim cooking been destroyedduring one of the echo the mainstream shapes of the period pots that appear to be "kiln-wasters"of campaigns of Tuthmosis III,when but are technically superior to the stan- this ware. the Egyptianswere beginning to dardwares in almost every way. Surfaces tighten their control over the Beth Shanvalley (Eisenberg1977). [Editor's

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 11 note: The author prefersthe spelling as the keynote of the Late Bronze IB cover the northern and southern "BethShan" as opposed to "Beth- period. approaches. shean"-a preferencehe shares with That the Egyptianfrontier in As described in the Egyptian the authors of the major publica- Palestine had been coming increas- records,the Battle of Megiddo was a tions of the Bronze Age strata at this ingly under outside pressure during rout, and the Egyptianforces quick- site (Rowe1930, 1940; James 1966; the reign of Hatshepsut is suggested ly began looting while the army of Oren 1973).] by the speed with which Tuthmosis the Syrian confederation "fledhead- Funeraryevidence. Most tombs III,provoked by news of the revolt of long to Megiddo with faces of fear. of LateBronze IA appearto have been a confederation of Syrianprinces They abandonedtheir horses and shaft tombs from earlier epochs (in gathered at Megiddo,moved out of their chariots of gold and silver, so some cases as early as Early Bronze Egypt after her death. This affront to that someone might draw them up IV/MiddleBronze I) that were par- Egyptianpower, prestige, and nation- into this town by hoisting on their tially cleared and reused. Their fune- al ego was led by the prince of Kadesh garments"(Pritchard 1950: 236). The raryassemblages have been assigned (TellNebi Mend) in Syria and was pharaohimmediately surrounded to this period largely on the presence aided and abetted by "individualsof Megiddo with a moat and a wall or absence of the Late Bronze IA every foreign country,waiting in made of local timber. The city re- ceramic type-fossils mentioned their chariots -330 princes [mar- mained enclosed for seven months above. Rich examples have been yanna] every one of them having until "the princes . . . came on their found in Tomb 1100 at Megiddo their army"(Pritchard 1950: 238; bellies to kiss the ground ... and to (these are the hallmark of Kathleen Epstein 1963).Tuthmosis IIIwent beg breath for their nostrils" (Prit- Kenyon'sPottery Group A) and in forth at the head of an army claimed chard 1950: 237) or until "theycame Tomb42 at Beth Shan.Unfortunately, to number more than 20,000, ad- out ... pleading to (his) majesty, say- because of later disturbances suffered vancing across the Sinai at the in- ing: Give us breath, our Lord!The by most of these tombs, it has been credible pace of 15 miles per day. countries of Retinue will never re- impossible to recoverany significant North of Gaza, to Yehem south of peat rebellion another time!"(Prit- details about the funerarycult, or the Carmel range,the pace of the chard 1950: 238, Barkalstele). Even cults, of the period. soldiers and their baggagetrain considering the hyperbole of the era slowed to almost half this rate, per- the booty that the army of Tuth- Late Bronze IB haps because they needed to forage mosis IIIbrought back from Canaan, Late Bronze IB lasted approximately and consolidate as they went or per- which was enumerated and described 75 years, its beginning markedby haps because of local opposition. at length on Egyptian steles and the attack of Tuthmosis IIIon Upon reaching Yehem the Egyptian temple walls, was, in both kind and Megiddo and its end corresponding army had three options: to head for quantity, simply staggering.In addi- with the ascension of the pharaoh the coast and attack Megiddo from tion to mundane fare such as grain, Amenophis III.Archaeologically, the the northwest, to come upon Megid- cattle, and sheep (Ahituv 1978; period has often been considered do from the southeast via Taanach Na'aman 1981),they brought back suspect, its very existence even ques- (TellTacannek), or to take the direct abandonedhorses, which were still tioned (Weinstein 1981: 12). route through the exceedingly nar- relatively new to Egyptians,and EgyptianHistorical Evidence. In row Aruna Pass (WadicAra). The chariots worked with gold; bronze Egypt the death of Queen Hatshep- pharaoh'sfield officers, who were coats of armor;inlaid furniture;and sut brought Tuthmosis 1118to the fearfulof attempting the third option, intricately carvedwalking sticks. It throne. Tuthmosis IIIwas deter- pleaded with him not to take that should be noted that Tuthmosis III mined to pursue a vigorous set of route but he would not be deterred never claimed to have destroyedthe policies in Canaan. His tremendous (Pritchard1950: 235). Tuthmosis led city, a fact that accords well with the achievement at the Battle of Megid- his forces through the pass and out archaeological evidence, but he did do (1482 B.C.E.)and the major impact onto the Esdraelon Plain and sur- inflict a devastating defeat on those that event had on Egypt's foreign prised the Syrian coalition, which who were walled up there, and the policy toward Canaan could be seen had divided most of its forces to battle enabled him to dictate policy

12 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 Aftercrushing a Syrianconfederation at Megiddo,Tuthmosis III was able to dictatepolicy to the Canaaniteprinces. to the Canaanite lords from a posi- Sumur, possibly Tell Kazel on the Sharonwhile returning from his first tion of strength. He appointed new Syrian coast (Goetze 1975a:2; Wein- Asiatic campaign he intercepted a princes for each town-but not be- stein 1981: 12; Aharoni 1967: 152; messenger of the prince of Mitanni fore each took a loyalty oath-and Muhammad 1959). Claire Epstein's "carryinga letter of clay at his throat" Palestine soon became a giant store- (1963)reconsideration of the verso of (Pritchard1950: 246). We can only house for Egypt. PapyrusHermitage 1116A,an official guess what the subject matter of Tuthmosis continued his mili- Egyptiandocument composed dur- this epistle was, but it must not have tary campaigns, but with Palestine ing the reign of Amenophis II that had the Egyptians'best interests at firmly under his control he concen- lists rations of beer and grain for heart because the messenger was trated on Syria. During his sixth maryannu messengers from Djahy trotted southwardat the side of the campaign Kadesh-on-the-Orontes to Egypt (including specifically the king's own chariot. was finally captured;with its defeat sites of Megiddo,Taanach, and The young pharaohboasted of a new administrative policy was Hazor), indicates that during the personal valor as none had done be- enacted, the taking of royal hostages: reign of Tuthmosis IIIthe collection fore, and with him Egyptian foreign "Now the children of the princes and of tribute from western Asia was a policy took on a more severe mood. their brothers were brought as hos- highly structured affairdirectly con- Whereas Tuthmosis IIImay have tages to Egypt ... (and) ... whoever trolled by the court. This system was "crushedall rebellious countries"in of these princes died, his majesty apparentlysuccessful and remained Syro-Palestine,Amenophis II "trod was accustomed to make his son go relatively intact for more than a Naharin, which his bow had crushed to stand in his place"(Pritchard century, since it is still reflected in ... (and)... cut off the heads of the 1950: 239). Such a policy not only the Amarna letters of the fourteenth attackers"(Pritchard 1950: 245). assured the good behavior of rela- century B.C.E. Consider the plight of the town of tives who were left behind, but also Brilliant general that he was, Shamash-edom,possibly to be iden- providedan heir to the throne who Tuthmosis IIIalso had a softer side tified with Qurn Hattin near the Sea would be sympathetic at least to the that often escapes notice; he took of Galilee (Aharoni 1960).Ameno- correct, or Egyptian,way of doing interest in, and recorded,the strange phis II attacked it with "his face ... things when the Egyptianizedprince plants and animals he encountered terrible like that of Bastet, like Seth returned to rule his own area. on his many military campaigns. A in his moment of raging. ... He It appearsthat during the reign glimpse of the flora and fauna of hacked it up in a short moment like of Tuthmosis IIIEgypt's attitude Canaan during the Late Bronze Age a lion fierce of face when he treads towardthe people of Syro-Palestine can be seen today, carved in low the foreign countries"(Pritchard began to change as the Egyptians relief, on the walls of the Festival 1950: 245). Even more severe was the came to appreciatethe potential Hall he had built at the rear of the treatment of seven Syrian princes economic benefits of annual Ca- Temple of Amon at Karnak. who were capturedin the vicinity of naanite contributions to the coffers Tuthmosis IIIdied after a reign Damascus during the pharaoh'ssec- of the god Amon. Forthe bureau- of more than half a century and was ond Asiatic campaign. After killing cratic purposes of collecting tribute, succeeded by his son Amenophis II."1 them with his mace, the pharaoh Canaan was divided into three dis- A possible coregency with his father hung them upside down on the prow tricts, each with its own administra- while the crown prince campaigned of his boat all the way to Thebes, tive center strategically situated on in Asia creates problems with the where six of them were hanged on or near the major highway in the numbering of his military cam- the city-walls; further upstream, in region, the Via Maris (Aharoni 1967: paigns, but the general sequence of the land of Nubia, he hanged the 42). These centers, each of which them is clear (Rainey 1973;Yeivin seventh on the wall at Napata, all to was the seat of an Egyptian overseer 1967).That the King ("GreatOne") of show "his majesty's victories forever or commissioner,'0 were at Gaza, Naharin was continuing to involve and ever in all lands"(Pritchard probably modern Gaza or Rapha in Egypt in Canaanite affairs has been 1950: 248; see also Rainey 1973: 72). southern Palestine; Kumidu, Kamid shown by the fact that as Amenophis This more severe policy seems to el-Loz in the Beqaca Valley; and II was passing through the Plain of have had the desired effect. When in

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 13 Smallerreligious structures, evidently witha singlecult focus, apparently werethe normin LateBronze IB. his seventh year of rule Amenophis ent gap in occupation at many im- (Mycenaean)II kylix from Fosse II was conducting a military cam- portant Palestinian sites such as Temple I at Lachish, signaled what paign against a revolt in Syria, the Megiddo, Taanach,Tell Beit Mirsim, would become a brisk tradein Aegean peoples of the Niya lands came to and Tell el-Farcah(South). I believe goods during Late Bronze II.'a the walls of their towns to applaud this so-called gap in occupation can Architectural evidence. In spite him (Drower1973: 460), and when, be attributed as much to our lack of of the alleged gaps in occupation at at last, he reached Kadesh, long a knowledge of the pertinent subtleties these sites, our understandingof thorn in the side of his father, its in changes in the material culture as religious architecture in Late Bronze prince "cameout in peace to his to the radical depopulation of the IB is much better than that in Late majesty ... (andwas) made to take countryside. Bronze IA. The stratigraphyof the the oath of fealty, and all their chil- Ceramic record.The three rambling religious precinct at level dren as well" (Pritchard1950: 246). ceramic type-fossils noted in the dis- IX at Beth Shan (Rowe 1930, 1940), This new policy of cruel treatment cussion of Late Bronze IA appearto called the "Thutmose IIITemple" by of prisoners, obviously intended to have had their floruit during that its excavators,has been a source of deter rebelliousness, was accom- period. Their presence in strange confusion for more than half a cen- panied by a new concept of Canaan (late?),aberrant forms (forexample tury (Albright 1938: 76-77), but as a conquered land that was charac- at the MevorakhXI temple), or their there is now evidence to support a terized by an increase in political complete absence, is thought to Late Bronze IB date (McGovern1985: and economic control coupled with characterize deposits from the rest 13).This precinct housed a stele occasional military force (Weinstein of the fifteenthcentury dedicated by the Egyptianarchitect 1981: 12). is, Late Bronze IB.Kathleen B.C.E.--that Kenyon Amen-em-Opetand his son to "Mekal, Amenophis II was succeeded by filled this period with her Pottery Lordof Beth Shan"(Thompson 1970). Tuthmosis IV.12The extent of his Group C, which consists exclusively The beardedgod Mekal is pictured military activity in Syro-Palestineis of material from StructureI of the sitting on a throne wearing a conical debated (Malamat 1961;Weinstein Fosse Temple at Lachish. I don'tbe- headdress with horns in front and 1981: 13, with references),but at lieve, however,that this phase of the ribbons in back and holding the least one campaign can be inferred building is securely dated (since the Egyptian waz scepter and ankh, from the mention of captives from dating is based on a single scarabof illustrating the hybridization of Gezer on a stele from his mortuary Amenophis III),and it should not be Egypto-Canaanitereligious themes temple in Thebes. This may be the used to date Lachish itself, let alone (Pritchard1950: 249; 1969:plate 487). campaign representedon the dec- the entire region. With the exception of the temple orated panels of his chariot; these Part of our uncertainty over the complex at Beth Shan (stratumIX), show a divinely directed pharaoh development of pottery types during smaller religious structures, evident- driving forth to "trampledown all Late Bronze IB is the number of sites ly with a single cult focus, appearto northern countries, difficult of at which a gap in occupation follow- have been the norm in the LateBronze approach"(Giveon 1969: 56). The ing the campaigns of Tuthmosis III IB and beyond. This is evident at politics of his predecessors seem to has been recognized. One thing is Hazor where a two-room shrine (the have been sufficient to control the certain, however:In the substratum "OrthostateTemple") in area H sur- region, and the annual parades of nonspecialty wares a slow evolu- vived from Middle Bronze IIC with through Canaan, which had charac- tion began in the fifteenth century only a slight modification of the cult terized the early part of the dynasty, and continued into the fourteenth focus and an enlargement or regu- became less and less necessary.The and thirteenth centuries. "Milk larization of the forecourt (Yadin actual occupation of Canaan was bowls"from Cyprus painted with the 1972: 75-95). In Late Bronze IB this still in the future. "newer,"more schematic, patterns of court included an on-axis gateway Archaeological Evidence in Canaan. White Slip II continued to be im- and a raised platform, perhaps an As mentioned above,Late Bronze IB ported into Palestine, while the first altar. A bilobate pottery kiln con- has often been considered suspect. relatively complete import from the taining around 20 miniature bowls Such doubts are based on an appar- Aegean world, a Late Helladic suggests that the priests supplied

14 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 led During Late BronzeIB, ThthmosisIV eighth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, probably at least one military campaign into Syro-Palestine.This campaign may be depicted on the exteriorof his wooden chariot. In the panel left the pharaoh is shown chargingacross the battlefield with his bow drawn and the reigns of the lumbering eight-spokedchariot wrapped all securely around his waist. Below each panel is a frieze depicting his vanquished prisoners, of whom have the characteristic beards of Syro-Palestinians,bound together by a rope. Photographcourtesy of the EgyptianMuseum, Cairo.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 15 During the Late BronzeIB a small extramuraltemple was built at Lachish in the fill of a defensive ditch, or fosse, that had been in use in the Middle BronzeAge. StructureI, the earliest phase of the "FosseTemple," contained a tripartiteplatform with a raised altar for cult objects against the southern wall. The temple increased in size in subsequent StructuresII and III (shown here), suggestinggreater prosperity at the site, but it retained its original orientation and the location of the cult focus against the southern wall. Drawing by Lois A. Kain. worshipperswith some of the necessary cult paraphernalia(Stager and Wolff 1981:97-98; Yadin 1972: 76). That the forecourt was also used as an important and integral part of the sanctuary can be seen from the find- ? .. ing there of clay liver models bearing Akkadian inscriptions (Yadin 1972: 82-83). Archaeological evidence for the practice of hepatoscopy (divination through the inspection of animal livers), a well-known cus- tom in Mesopotamia, has also been found in the maison du pretre at i-_ii~s:-:ii~ii in northern \, Ugarit (RasShamra) .::io}.iiii Canaan (Courtois 1969). i I At Lachish, in the fill of the Iiiij- ....~iis Middle Bronze Age defensive ditch (fosse), a small extramuraltemple was discoveredin the 1930s. Struc- ture I, the earliest phase of the "FosseTemple," was a three-roomed structure with an entrance from the west that was hidden by a short screen wall. The main room, a north-south longroom, had as its cult focus a tripartite platform built against the southern wall. Tell Mevorakh,near the coast, was the site of a single-room temple. The excavatordated the temple, in edge of funerarypractices in Late Smenkhkare,Tutankhamun, Ay, and stratum XI to the Late Bronze I, Bronze IB is practically nonexistent, Horemheb, the final rulers of the probablyIB, a date strengthened by primarily because of our inability to Eighteenth Dynasty. It was a period the presence of three (late?)Bichrome date Late Bronze I deposits that do when Egypt lost much of its empire vessels among a scree of pottery not include ceramic specialty wares in Syro-Palestine.In Canaan the ar- found in situ on the floor of the from IA. Until we have a better chaeological record shows a decline building (Stern 1977, 1984). Evident- understandingof the development of in local ceramics, but religious ar- ly this temple had a long east-west the local domestic pottery we will chitecture is notable and funerary axis, low benches along two of the be unable to identify burials from evidence is rich. sides, and, as its focal point, a stepped this period with assurance or to de- EgyptianHistorical Evidence. Tuth- platform for cult objects. tect any patterns in the funerarycus- mosis IV was succeeded by his son What is striking about all of toms of the fifteenth century B.C.E. Amenophis I,14 who used diplomacy these Late Bronze IB temples is the as a powerful alternative, or adjunct, amount of variety in size, plan, and Late Bronze IIA to military campaigns in keeping orientation. Unfortunately, we are as Late Bronze IIA lasted more than the peace in Syro-Palestine.In his yet unable to associate these differ- one hundredyears and corresponded tenth year as pharaohhe strengthened ences with specific cults or deities. roughly with the reigns of Ameno- the Egyptianalliance with Mitanni Funeraryevidence. Our knowl- phis III,Amenophis IV (Akhenaten), by marrying Gilu-Khepa,daughter of

16 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 This drawing of a wall-painting from a tomb in Thebes, probably dating to the time of Amenophis III in Late BronzeIIA, shows several Canaanite ships docked in a congested Egyptianharbor. It thus suggests that the reign of this pharaoh was a period of relative calm in Syro-Palestine,with fruitful economic exchange. In the bottom scene left, sailors are unloading their cargo and barteringwith the local merchants. The figure dressed in a long garment is a Canaanite. He offers the contents of a heavy amphora while behind him sailors in short, Aegean-likekilts bringforth other ceramic containers, including, in the first sailor'sleft hand, a pilgrim flask most likely filled with some costly scented oil. Scenes such as this give us an idea of the international trade that flourished in the eastern Mediterraneanduring the Late BronzeAge. Drawing courtesy of The Committee of the EgyptExploration Society

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Shuttarna,the new king of that tate the movement of trade, tribute the Aten"or perhaps"Glorified Spirit empire. Gilu-Khepacame south to and communications" (Weinstein of the Aten"(Redford 1987: 141),re- Egyptwith her entourage of more 1981: 15).It also appearsthat during flecting the ardorof his new beliefs. than 300 women. This could not this pharaoh'sreign Egypt and Ugarit Akhenaten and his successors have been considered an ordinary (RasShamra) first came into diplo- Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun,the event, for it was proclaimed by the matic contact (Drower1975: 475). Amarna pharaohs,reigned during pharaohand his Egyptianwife, Queen The son of Amenophis IIIand one of the most interesting periods Tiy, on a large commemorative Queen Tiy is one of the most in- in the history of the Near East. They wedding scarab,copies of which triguing and controversialfigures in turned the barrenpiece of desert on have been found in Palestine at Beth- history.Ruling afterhis father'sdeath, which Akhetaten was built into a shemesh (cAin Shems) and Gezer the new pharaohAmenophis IV15 cosmopolitan center. (Rowe 1936: 128, 538, and 539). Later graduallylost faith in the cult of the One of the most important ar- in his reign Amenophis IIIacquired great god Amon and promulgated chaeological discoveries pertaining the princess Tadu-Khepa,daughter instead the worship of the gleaming to the history of Syro-Palestinedur- of the subsequent Mitannian king multirayed solar disk, the Aten. ing the Late Bronze Age was the Tushratta(Goetze 1975a: 5) as well The pharaoh soon found life at the hoard of more than 300 tablets that as the daughter of Kadashman-Enlil, Theban court too distracting for a was clandestinely excavatedby the the Kassite king of Babylon (el- man of religious fervor,so he moved local villagers of Tell el-Amarnain Amarna letters 1-5; Mercer 1939: his beautiful Queen Nefertiti, their 1887. These texts, called the Amarna 2-17; Campbell 1964: 44-45). family, and the court northwardto a tablets, are extant samples of actual Amenophis IIIapparently did new capital called Akhetaten ("the diplomatic correspondencebetween not feel the need to campaign in Horizon of the Aten")at the modern the pharaohs of the Amarna period Asia. His reign was a period of rela- site of Tell el-Amarna,which is lo- and the rulers of the great powers of tive calm in Syro-Palestine;the cated on the east bank of the Nile the day-Babylonia, Assyria,Mitanni, Egyptiangarrisons "functionedlarge- River about 200 miles south of Cairo Arzawa,Alasia, and Hatti - as well ly to halt intercity disputes, to keep (Aldred 1975). Amenophis IV also as the local vassal states of Syria and troublesome groups such as the changed his name to Akhenaten, Palestine. The majority of these cApiru under control, and to facili- which means "Hewho is useful to epistles date to the reigns of Akhe-

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 17 Late BronzeIIA was the time of Amenophis IV tenth pharaoh of the EighteenthDynasty and one of the most intriguing and controversial figuresin Near Easternhistory. Having lost faith in the traditional gods of Egypt,he promoted the exclusive worship of the gleaming solar disk, the Aten. As part of this, he changed his name to Akhenaten (meaning,perhaps, "hewho is useful to Aten")and moved the Egyptiancapital north of Thebes to a new capital, Akhetaten (meaning, "thehorizon of the Aten"),at the site of modern Tellel-Amarna. On this fragmentof a balustrade(now in the CairoMuseum) from a temple ramp at Tellel-Amarna, Akhenaten and his queen Nefertiti are shown presenting offerings to the Aten. The strange deformities apparenthere and in many depictions of this pharaohhave led to numerous speculations about his physical and mental well-being, and his religious obsessions have been blamed for the loss of much of the northernpart of Egypt'sempire during this period. Photographfrom Pritchard(1969), courtesy of The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. naten, Smenkhkare,and Tutankh- amun (Campbell 1964),but some are from the earlier correspondenceof Amenophis IIIand were brought from Thebes to Akhetaten when Akhenaten moved his court to the new capital. These letters describe, in inti- mate detail, the so-called presents and gifts that were constantly being exchangedbetween these foreign kings and their "brother"the pharaoh. Horses, chariots, inlaid furniture, lapis lazuli, and ivory objets d'art were the most common items ex- changed, but the most valuable and most sought after commodity was gold. That a tremendous quantity of this costly mineral was availableto the Egyptianswas never lost on their allies to the north. In el-Amarnaletter 16, Ashuruballit I of Assyria wrote to Akhenaten that "goldis in thy land like dust" (Mercer 1939: 59).16 There was also a serious diplomatic side to these exchanges. When BurraburiasII of Babylonwas dis- satisfied with the amount of gold he had received from Akhenaten, he wrote the pharaohto remind him of his country's past loyalty to Egypt, recalling that when the Canaanites wrote to his father Kurigalzuin an attempt to involve him in an anti- Egyptiancoalition Kurigalzuhad told them to "ceasemaking an alliance with me; if you cherish hostility against the King of Egypt, my brother, and wish to ally yourself with another shall I not come, and shall I not plunder you, for he is in alliance with me" (Mercer1939: 131). In contrastto the correspondence between Egypt and the kings of the powerful lands, letters to Canaan reveal a vast gap between king and vassal, especially in the formulaic salutations. In el-Amarna letter 323,

18 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 Mycenaean"stirrup jar" or for example, Waidaof Ashkelon does false-neckedamphora not refer to himself as the pharaoh's "brother"but as servant and the "thy pilgrim flask dust of thy feet" (Mercer1939: 771). The subject matter of their letters is also different. The lust for gold, so much on the minds of the pharaoh's"brothers," is replaced by a cookingpot with concern for their personal safety as evertedtriangular rim well as the safety of their villages. Such fears were not unfounded. To carinatedbowl the north the power of the Hittites was expanding unchecked by the 40 Egyptian army.In Syria several of the nominally loyal dynasts were be- ( 6-4 ginning to doubt the wisdom of an to a who was so allegiance pharaoh 0 distant, and they sometimes tilted their loyalty towardthe Hittites, d.H formed alliances with other princes shaved dipper Cypriotbilbil in the area, or simply struck out on juglet footedbowl or "chalice" their own policies of expansion, such as that followed by Abdi Ashirta of Amurru and his son Aziru. Concern- makers, they readily allied them- counterchargesof disloyalty, the ing the latter, the citizens of Tunip selves with the less loyal Egyptian scene presented in this correspon- in Syria (Drower1973: 427 and 453) vassals and threatened the staunch- dence repeats itself again and again, wrote to the pharaoh in desperation: est supportersof a pharaohwho ap- with apparentlylittle or no help "Butnow Tunip,the city, weeps, and pears to have been disinterested in from the pharaoh. her tears are running, and there is the concerns of the area. Wordof The Amarna letters offer a great not help for us. We have been sending their actions was common in the deal of insight into the daily events to the king.., of Egypt for twenty Amarna correspondence.Abdi-Hepa of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age, years;but not one word has come to of Jerusalem,described by Margaret but they unfortunately also call at- us from our lord"(el-Amarna letter Drower (1973:422) as a man who bore tention to the fact that we lack other 59; Mercer 1939: 247). "asemitic name but was a devotee of documented material to corroborate Complicating the situation in the Hurriangoddess," wrote several their revelations. As Kathleen Ken- the south was the appearance,in in- letters bemoaning the turmoil the yon (1973:556) noted, "theperiod of creasing numbers and strength, of a Habiru were causing in the hill destruction associated with the group of outlaws and outcasts called country of Palestine and pleading Khabiru [Habiru]in the Amarna CApiru(or cAbiru, Hapiru/Habiru; with the pharaohfor military sup- letters does not seem to be reflected in Sumerian, SA.GAZ).This group port: "The Habiru plunder all lands in the history of towns, though there has sometimes been identified with of the King. If archers are here this may be some indication of this in a the Hebrews (abri)of the Old Testa- year, then the lands of the King, my low level of material culture, as ment (Miller and Hayes 1986: 65-67; Lord,will remain; but if archersare shown by buildings, pottery and evi- Gottwald 1979:396-409). The CApiru not here, then the lands of the King, dence of art."Rivka Gonen (1984: were first encountered in Palestine my Lord,are lost" (el-Amarnaletter 69-70) has posited that the majority by Amenophis II, who claimed to 287; Mercer 1939: 709). of Palestinian sites, even those that have captured3,600 of them (Albright Amid protestations of loyalty were well defended in the Middle 1975: 115).Freebooters and trouble- and innocence, or charges and Bronze Age, were unfortified (that is,

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 19 SuperiorAegean and Cypriot imports helpedbring about the demiseof LateBronze IA specialty wares. unwalled) during the Late Bronze (Gardiner1953; Aldred 1975: 84; forms? Does it reflect a policy of Age, possibly as a result of an Egyp- Weinstein 1981: 17;Pritchard 1950: laissez-faire in which individual tian policy that restricted its vassals 250-51). Other supporting evidence Canaanite chieftains were allowed, from accumulating military strength might be found on the side of a and possibly encouraged,to feud and behind their city-walls. It is a per- small painted wooden trunk from fight with each other? Could it have plexing situation (Several1972). Tutankhamun'stomb where, in a been an intentional policy of divide- How are we to know, for instance, manner that would be used to dec- and-rule?To what extent was the whether the whining and doom- orate the massive gatewaysof the situation exacerbatedby the south- crying of the vassals really reflected great temples of the pharaohs in the ward expansion of the Hittites under a dramatic change in daily events or Nineteenth and TwentiethDynasties, Suppiluliumas or by internal pres- was merely the normal situation he is shown in his chariot leading sures supplied by the cApiru, the couched in hyperbole aimed at the Egyptianarmy into a jumble of Shasu bedouin, or others (Weinstein winning the pharaoh'sattention? alreadyvanquished Syrians. 1981: 15-16)?Whichever explanation Answers to questions such as this Whether Tutankhamunactually one selects it is indisputable that would give us a much better view of conducted such campaigns (compare during the Amarna period Egypt lost what was happening and would help Weinstein 1981with Schulman 1964) much of the northern part of its us decide whether Late Bronze IIA or if his claims should be treated as Asiatic empire to the Hittites under was a time of catastrophic loss of the "stylizedrecitations of cherished Suppiluliumas during his first Syrian Egyptiancontrol in Canaan, as schol- old formulae"(Wilson 1951:236) can war. The degree of loss further south ars have traditionally held, or simply be debated,but whatever the young in Palestine is still a matter of debate. a difficult period for the Egyptians, king tried to do his efforts were un- Archaeological Evidence in Canaan. as some scholars now believe (Wein- successful. Tutankhamun'searly In Canaan during Late Bronze IIA stein 1981: 15-16). death caused his young wife Ankh- there was a decline in the quality of There is no evidence to indicate esenamon to beg Suppiluliumas, local ceramics as imports from that either Akhenaten or his succes- son of TudhaliyasIII, king of Hatti Cyprus and the Aegean increased. sor Smenkhkare answeredthe calls (as the Hittites called their king- The architecture, exhibiting both of their Canaanite vassals or led the dom), to send her one of his sons so continuity and discontinuity, in- Egyptianarmy northwardin their that he might marry her and become cluded good examples of Canaanite defense. In fact, the only Amarna king over Egypt (Schulman 1979). religious structures. Some of the pharaohwho may have conducted We can only wonder how the sub- most impressive funeraryassem- such a campaign was young Tutankh- sequent history of Canaan would blages from all of Late Bronze date to amun, who claimed on his Restora- have evolved had this union suc- this period. tion Stele that when he ascended ceeded, but it did not. The Hittite Ceramic evidence. The pottery the throne everything was topsy- prince, Zannanzash, was intercepted by which we try to date the events of turvy and that "iftroops were sent to and murderedwhile passing through Late Bronze IIA can be seen more as Djahi to extend the bordersof Egypt, Palestine en route to Egypt (Aldred a degenerationthan as a development. their efforts came to naught"(Stein- 1975: 69). In the end the throne was With the demise of Late Bronze IA dorf and Seele 1957: 224). He may assumed by Horemheb, commander- specialty wares came a decline in actually have tried to do something in-chief of the Egyptianarmy (Redford fabric, form, and decoration, perhaps about the shameful state of affairs 1973),whose reign brought the Eigh- stimulated by the ever-increasing that existed in western Asia. His teenth Dynasty to a close, and with presence of Aegean and Cypriot im- field marshal, Horemheb, claimed to it came the end of Late Bronze IIA. ports that were of superior technical have brought back prisoners from The cause of the collapse of the quality and artistic merit. Palestine (Steindorfand Seele 1957: relationship between Egypt and Plain or slipped bowls with a 247) and is spoken of in his Mem- Canaan is a matter controversy. Was strong carination and cooking pots phite tomb as the "guardianof the it the result of a policy of benign with everted triangularrims were footsteps of his lord on the battlefield neglect attributable to Akhenaten's virtually ubiquitous during Late on his day of smiting the Asiatics" preoccupation with his religious re- Bronze II, whereas footed cups, a

20 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 During the fourteenth century B.C.E. the markets of the Canaanite V.0jug coast were flooded with pottery from biconiical Cyprus and the Aegean world. Typi- cal of the Cypriot imports were the Base Ring jug and bilbil, which were introduced to the region during Late Bronze IA. By the Late Bronze IIA the raised decoration of Base Ring I had given way to the white-painted, linear patterns of Base Ring II that may be associated, especially on the bilbil, with marks that recordedthe scoring of the opium poppy (Merril- lees 1968: 154). The White Slip Ware "milk bowl"shape, also introduced during Late Bronze IA, demonstrated less carefully executed White Slip II motifs during Late Bronze IIA but continued to be popular. Representativeof the exports Courtesyof The Oriental Institute,University of Chicago from the Mycenaean Greek world (the land of the Keftiu)were the Middle Bronze holdover,became onic metope patterns. Largervessels, narrow-necked"stirrup jar," which less common. The shape of a small plain and footed kraters,and one- was purposely designed and crafted juglet sometimes reflected the Late handled biconical mugs presented to transport and dispense costly Bronze IA Black/GreyLustrous Ware the pot-painterwith a broadercanvas, specialty oils, and both the pyxis and tradition, but the wider necked, and the largermetopes were often piriform jars,whose wide mouths ring-basedversion had become the filled with more elaborate geometric and strategically placed handles sug- norm. Dipper juglets whose graceful patterns. Occasionally, abstractele- gest an easy-to-sealcontainer for Middle Bronze silhouettes were lost ments were combined to form more scented unguents. Contemporary in the short, dumpy Late Bronze I representational subjects such as the Linear B texts from sites on the forms tended either to remain squat Tree of Life with its central tree and Greek mainland indicate that rose or return to the earlier, attenuated antithetic caprids,a motif that had or sage were primary ingredients in shapes. The pilgrim flask may have been popular in the Near East for these popular olive oil-based prod- had its inspiration in the Aegean millennia. A biconical jug found in ucts (Leonard1981). What commodi- world, but the most popular form in Tomb D912 at Megiddo goes far be- ties the Canaanites tradedfor these Palestine, with a body constructed by yond the norm of the period, not only costly ingredients is unclear, but joining two hemispherical bowls at in its scale but also in the number transport amphoraehave been found the rims, was strictly a local product. and natural depiction of creatures as far away as the Greek mainland Flasks dating to (anddiagnostic of) presented on it (Guy and Engberg: (Grace 1956;Akerstrom 1975; Bass Late Bronze IIA had a petal-like at- 1938:plate 134). Quite rarewas the 1987), and wall-paintings from Egyp- tachment of the handles to the neck. depiction of the human form, such tian tombs picture similar jars on The painted decoration of the as on two tiny fragments from Beth the decks of Canaanite merchant period was usually restricted to Shan or the tankardfrom Ras Shamra ships whose crews include long- groups of horizontal bands, either showing a beardedmale, possibly haired sailors from Keftiu. isolated or combined, with simple representing the Canaanite god Baal, Architectural evidence. The so- vertical elements to produce embry- enthroned (Culican 1966: 121). calledpalace in stratumIX at Megiddo

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 21 Thecosmopolitan character of the agecan be seenin the remarkable wealthdisplayed at someburial sites.

was enlargedduring this period, pro- plan that, in form and function, re- about 25 centimeters in length ducing a new version in stratum VIII sembled the Late Bronze IIBtemple (Stern 1984:33-35). On the basis of with fewer,but more spacious, from stratum VII at Beth Shan (Us- this serpent, also known from cult- rooms: a configuration that con- sishkin 1978: 10-25; Clamer and associated deposits at the Gezer tinued through the end of the Late Ussishkin 1977).The small finds High Place, Hazor, and the Hathor Bronze Age (Loud1948). Although recoveredfrom the Summit Temple Temple at Timna, the excavatorhas we are uncertain about the function may give us a clue to the deity or suggested that the temple belonged of individual rooms of the ground deities that were worshippedthere, to cAshtoret (Ishtar)and Baal (Stern floor, we know that a great deal of as a gold foil plaque found during 1984: 35). Pendants similar to the attention was paid to water removal excavations depicts a nude goddess one from Mevorakhhave been found in the form of sumps, drains,basins, standing on a horse. The goddess at other Canaanite sites. Those from and even a room pavedwith sea shells. wears a crown made of horns and Ras Shamra/Ugaritalso have been This building and the gateway en- vegetation and holds lotus flowers in interpretedas celestial emblems joyed a special relationship, which each hand. Christa Clamer (1980)has (shapash-shebis;see Isaiah 3:18-19; lasted through the end of the Late identified her as Qudshu (Astarte?). Schaeffer 1939a:62). Bronze Age. The complaints of Biri- A partnerfor this goddess may be At Hazor, area H continued to diya of Megiddo recordedin the depicted on a large stone slab incised retain its sanctity. Although it was Amarna correspondencedo not pre- with the form of a male (Resheph?) rebuilt partially on the remains of pare us for such a well-planned and who wears a tall conical hat with the Middle Bronze IIC/LateBronze I well-built city as shown in the pub- hanging streamers and who bran- structure, the temple from Late lished remains of Megiddo VIII. dishes a long spear over his head in Bronze IIAwas enlargedto three, on- Late Bronze IIA provides us both hands (Ussishkin 1978:figure 4 axis broadrooms.A pair of basalt with some of our best information and plate 7:1, 8). Clamer (1980: 161) blocks, each carvedwith a lion in on Canaanite religious architecture comparedhis crown with that worn relief, greetedvisitors as they entered and, once again, there was both con- by the god on "the MKLstela from the temple. One of these orthostats tinuity and discontinuity in temple Beth Shan."Architectural details of was found buried in a pit by the en- plan. At Megiddo the last phase of this temple suggest Egyptianinflu- trance to the shrine. The cult stele Temple 2048 was a much less im- ences, and the large quantity of found in the later, Late Bronze IIB, pressive structure with walls about Mycenaean IIIAand IIIBpottery phase of this building probablyorigi- half their original thickness; the found on its floors accents its cos- nated in the Late Bronze IIA struc- building hardly deserves the con- mopolitan nature, a nature that ture. A similar situation existed in tinued use of the epithet "migdal," characterizes all of Canaan in the the small temple in area C at Hazor, meaning fortified. Also less impres- Late Bronze Age (Ussishkin 1978: where original cult paraphernalia sive during this period was the simi- 19-20). was found reused in the slightly re- lar temple at Shechem (Fortress The Late Bronze IIA temple paired phase of the temple dating to Temple 2a) whose main chamber from stratum X (1375-1300 B.C.E.)at Late Bronze IIB. was changed from a longroom to a Tell Mevorakhalso was rebuilt over Funeraryevidence. Some of the broadroom(Wright 1965a: 95-101). its predecessorfrom stratum XI. most impressive funeraryassem- The Fosse Temple at Lachish was Cult objects found in situ, on or as- blages of the Late Bronze Age can be rebuilt and enlarged.Although the sociated with the cult platform, give assigned wholly or partially to its plan of StructureII was closer to a an indication of the type of worship IIA period. These large, often reused, broadroomsanctuary with offering that was practiced. In addition to sepulchers accommodated multiple benches on three sides, the new pottery vessels, glass pendants, and burials accompanied by a remark- "altar"was built against the south faience (Mitannianstyle) cylinder able display of material wealth that wall directly over its predecessor, seals, the deposit included a group of reflects the cosmopolitan character emphasizing the sanctity associated important bronzes: knives, a pair of of the age. A good example is Cave with the spot. In level VI on the tell cymbals, a circular pendant with a 10A at Gezer (Seger 1972). The cave at Lachish the Summit Temple had a star design, and a snake measuring was probably dug as a cistern but

22 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 I,. y) Q )Q) Q Ciirts~ _nvrit Ori?na oth 1nttub fChc

for a dozen other children. The last prus, it had a surprisingly wide dis- burial in Cave 10A was that of a tall tribution in Canaan, from Ugarit to female about 34 years of age (named Tell el-Farcah(South), and from the Sarahby the excavation staff) who coast as far inland as Amman and rl ??r? was interred in the entrance passage. Sahab (Leonard1987a; Hankey 1974; r.r to her hand of r Close lay one the Ibrahim 1975). ?( tL~R ?.( i r??.?? ~~1? ?~Z~Bd?;? finest and earliest examples of .. ... c. .. Egyptianglass vessels thus far found Late Bronze IIB .? ..?? mtr~? ~? I\ r? r, ?? ? in Palestine. Late BronzeIIB, a periodcharacterized r _::?:::~::--:::~i:: Originally, not secondarily, by conflict, lasted approximately 120

::::??;?:?:-?: :? :: :?:::::- ;::~::: planned as a burial place, Tomb years. During this time both Egyp- ii~~iii:_:iii~iiiiiiiDLiiiii-~:lii~:i~i:i: _:-::~; __::i:: :- .:~- :-:_: --:-: ::: :::: ::_:;a-:~::?:_-:_:-~:?::::-_:::::-:_:~: :::::_i-i-i:i:.i-i :~::::::: :a:i~ 8144-8145 was cut into bedrock in tian and Syro-Palestinianrulers were -::-:-:::::--: ::::r~::_:i::-:~;::::::-_-i::::::i:::?::::~::::::'"`::-:ici-i ::::::::::_:~:::::-:i;::-:-::-;~::::d4' -_-i?ai'- -li-ii:i'-i---.ii~--? ~:::::~:::::~i:::--;:-~::_:i::::l':::::::-: :-:-: ::::::: area F of the Lower of Hazor. forced to defend their territories ::::::::;: :::::~::::~i:i :::-:::~:--iii-i~:i---=:: --::::::-:::: ::,:.:: ,: : :,: ::i:::a City : --;::":::a::::::iii:ilii--:i~:- : i:~il -::_:-,:._i::::a-. i:izii:i:i:i~i------:nli-::a:_:-:__i:ni:_ -i:-i~-- ::-: _:~::_:_:-__-r_-i:~::- -- -i:~i:i-i:i~r-i:--i:~-i-:Ssi:~:i~iiixi~ia:i-~iii-ii-i:i-D::-i-ii-~iiaiiii~iQ:i:%,ii-il'~?,:i~i:i;i:: .:P: i This fourteenth-century shaft tomb against attacks by foreign intruders, i~:i:iii::~:: :-:i~::- :-:--::o: ::::I_: :-_:~:: :::::I:::::i:: : :-1-: ::::::::~: _:::i~:-: ::::s:-? : : _--i-' :g: :: :~:_ __--i-~-:- -:-.__~-- _- -::iiiiia-i-i-ili~ii~ii~iii~ii~iii~i~ii-i:i-si: :-:-:-::::::: contained an of most the Sea With -''-:'-":i:~litijii. -i~ii-i-iii~ii ~::__:_.".. ::::::~:: :::::a::i:::::-: ::::~::: ::: exceptional quantity notably Peoples. i:::":::::~::: :::::': :::-:':":~-- -' ::: :". :- :i~- _i-:'::::~:::~ii ?::-i:::~:i??:i- :~:--:::.:8:iciiiiilii?iii-iiiiii:i~ii i:i;i:~fi -iii:i~i iiiiili~i-: :::~:-:-:.:-"-- -i: iili: _i-ii-~i::- -:-::- : :-:'--?------, - ---::ii-i ii~iiiiiii9iiiiiii i~iiiiiiii~iiiii iiili-iiiii ii-i_iii:ii~?: i::::,::::::?:: :-::?::::-::::?:: i:iii:~:iiiiii~ii iiiiii:iiiiii.iiiiii . -;:_:_i~B' -:li: :~-r '-:- '":: ": -::::-'~--ii:-_-i9-:-:i 'riiiiiii:~iii-iiii~i-iii i:~:ii: ::-:-_:_l-s:-:;_:-:-;~::::_:::?a:::-;-:-:::::~::::_ more than their the Bronze i:i-i-~-i::-i:i-i-6ii-i:ii~.i:i-i-i~'i-i~i:i:si-i----ii~i:i-ii-ilJ:i-i:i-isi~.i- i-i:~-iii-i:i--ii-::~i:~ili .x.: :::::I:::::':-i(i-i.~i:i::- :il~i-~-i:i~:-::-:-ii-~-i:i grave goods, including passing Age slowly i-iiifiiiili-.:-i:i ii:iiaiiiiiii iiiCiii- -~-::: i?~-iii iii~i -i:i:iiE iiiiiirii-ii:ii~i - -:: iii~i_a iii~i iii-~i i-iii.~iii-i(::g:- i-ii~:i--ii-iili-:i_-?: ,:: _e%----_-:~::: :::-"-:-:::_::i~i::::::_:i~-:: -i~-i-i--iis :_~::--:-ii i-i3iliii?iiiii-i ::-:::~-::- -i--i:~ii-:- i~- -:::s:i::: :i:'i'i-- :::~:-:::::?:i~-:i i ~I .s. :g:i d. :i-i~i:ii:iii~ii:.:.j~:__.~ ~~:-_::-:-:~-:---~i~~:il::ii8:::---::lr:::::::~::::-::::~:::::::::i _:-_-:_:_:__:_-::: ::ii-::::: ::_~--:__:_-im:::: :::~:::-:-::- :~-:-;::::::~::::--: 500 restorablevessels that demon- came to a close. Egypt, then in the ::::__::::::::;-:-:-:--:::-:~::i:::-~:::::::::::1 -'"" :;:: ::::: :::- :::i:~:::ii::-:6-?iiii~jiji-i:i~:i::::::~i:Bi-::;': ::::-: -:::~::_:- _:_:: i:iii.3i-iiii?i~:i-i-ii-i:~ii-i: :9:i ;~:::-:::-::::::::,: i:::O--:: -':--::~::::-::- i-i:iiiHi:_ i:i?i:--I-i::?i:ii-~-iii-iil -?:: ; -:'::~::::--:::::: -:-:- ::::::~ ::-:: ?:---::: i-::: ::~-----i.-::~::: :::-:i:ai: ::::~::::-i~;:i::i~ii?i-i~?i--i_~::ii:?il:F::iii: _--:iiiiii.i:i : -.~i-ii-i- ::~-i:--:::--:-:-'D.'-ii-e'-:~:- strate the full of Late Bronze of its Twentieth ::":' :::"::: ::': :'::':: :::'::'-: :: :-: _'-~-i:i:::-~_;:: :::'::-i::i:::?:::::_-i~:i-ii I::i-iiii~i::::::--::':::?':: ii-iiii~ii-i-i~ii iii range early part Dynasty, ::,:: : i-id-iii~iii-i-~Eiii:i-i~i~ii~i-ii~iii:iii~iii-i:i-ili~i ---i-~ :.:.a: i--~-- -:-j-::---_-- - . i-ri i--i-i--i , :::,: -i; IIA local ceramics as well as imports was entering what would be a long from Cyprus and the Aegean (Myce- period of decline, and Syro-Palestine was subsequently used for funerary naean) world (Yadinand others 1960: was about to begin the period that purposes throughout most, if not all, 140-53, 159-60). archaeologistsrefer to as the IronAge. of the fifteenth century and part of The desire to be buried with an EgyptianHistorical Evidence. Egyp- the fourteenth century B.C.E. if one is arrayof imported luxury goods can tian kings in the Nineteenth Dynasty to judge from the more than one also be seen at Tel Dan (Tellel-Qadi) considered themselves the legiti- hundred complete vessels, local and where Tomb 387, a structure built of mate successors of the great pre- Cypriot, and other rich gravegoods fieldstone, contained a melange of Amarna pharaohs of the Eighteenth that it contained. Dating to Late 45 interments of men, women, and Dynasty. Horemheb was succeeded Bronze IIA or slightly earlier is a children and an arrayof funerary by Ramesses I,17an elderly vizier full-length coffin embellished with offerings of gold, silver, bronze, and who ruled for a little over a year rows of handles down the sides and ivory.The imported pottery included before his place was taken by his son along the lid. Similar larnax-burials an exceptionally well-preserved Sethos I.18In the manner of Amosis are known from Crete in the Middle Mycenaean "chariotvase." This large, and Tuthmosis III,Sethos I wasted to Late Minoan period (Buchholz well-made vessel is decoratedwith a no time in setting out for Canaan. In and Karageorghis1973: 82-83, paradeof horse-drawnchariots and the first year of his reign, which he number 1064),but this form is so far would have held a position of pride termed "the Renaissance,"he had unique in Palestine. This sarcopha- on the table - or in the tomb - of any alreadyventured into Palestine try- gus was apparently intended for the member of the maryanna. Although ing to reestablish the old Egyptian interment of an adult and child but the Mycenaean chariot krater has frontiers. No longer guided by the subsequently served as an ossuary been found more frequently in Cy- more ephemeral and placid Aton

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 23 Right: A small single-roomtemple was built in area C at Hazor during the Late BronzeIIA and was rebuilt duringIIB. A section of that temple shows a full complement of cult furnishings. The plan of the later phase shows the objects arrangedin a slight arc beforean oblong offering table in a niche along the western wall. Below: A basalt statue of a sitting male deity with an inverted,possibly lunar, crescent suspended from his neck was found among the objects. Also found in the niche were ten masseboth, or standing stones, the central one of which was carved with two hands reaching upward toward a crescent. These objects suggest that this broadroomshrine was the focus of a lunar cult. Drawing of plan by LoisA. Kain. Drawing of cult objects courtesy of J. C. B. Mohr (PaulSiebeck), Tubingen.

who "filledevery land with ... (possibly Tell el-Hammeh) in league ses II,19a younger son who pushed beauty"(Pritchard 1590: 370), Sethos with the people of Pella (Pahel,Tabaqat asidehis elderbrother the crownprince I proceedednorthward guided and Fahel)in Transjordan.Sethos I and to become the longest ruling pharaoh protectedby the god Amon, whose his forces defeated the alliance in a (sixty-sevenyears) in Egyptianhis- "heartis satisfied at the sight of single day and set up a basalt stele at tory. Forthe first few years of his blood ... (who) cuts off the heads of Beth Shan to commemorate his reign Ramesses II - King Ozyman- the perverse of heart ... (who) loves achievements (Pritchard1950: 253- dias of Percy Shelley's poetry- con- an instant of trampling more than a 54). He then continued northward solidated his position at home. To day of jubilation"(Pritchard 1950: through Kadesh, northwest of Lake the north, the Hittites consolidated 254). Although the ultimate goal of Huleh (Aharoni 1967: 166), through their power in northern Syria under this ferocious pair was to confront the LebanonValley, and on to the King Muwatallis, who had moved the the Hittites in northern Syria, the coast near Tyrewhere cedar was cut Hittite capital south to Tattashsha Egyptianarmy had to begin fighting for the glory of the god Amon. Upon (Goetze 1975b: 129)to be nearer to as close to home as the southern his return to Egypt the country his Syrian interests. (Fora different Sinai where the Shasu bedouin were turned out in celebration, for it had reason for the move, see Bittel 1970: disrupting the smooth flow of travel- not seen such a victorious pharaoh 20-22.) In his fourth year, however, ers and material along the approxi- in more than half a century. Sethos I's Ramesses II reached the Nahr el-Kalb mately 120-mile roadwayknown as good start in regaining control over (Dog River)near Beirut and left his the Wayof Horus that led from Syro-Palestinewas only a beginning inscription on the neighboring rock Egypt to Gaza. for, as we have learned from a second cliffs; in the following year he headed Fighting continued as the army stele erected by Sethos I at Beth Shan, north to face the largest coalition of moved northwardthrough Palestine even the Habiru continued to be a Syrian forces that the Hittites had to retake Beth Shan from a confeder- problem for the Egyptians. yet been able to muster. ation led by the Prince of Hammath Sethos I was succeededby Rames- Tension had been building be-

24 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 w*** and that the pharaoh'svictory was at best a draw. i r i In subsequent years Ramesses II continued to find it neccessary to campaign in Asia to keep the Egyp- tian image strong (Cerny 1958; Giveon Kitchen not 6134 1965; 1964), only at distant Syrian sites such as Qatna (Misrife)but also much closer to home at Acco/Acreand even nearby :...... Ashkelon when "itbecame wicked" (Pritchard1950: 256). New evidence I MAIL~4 suggests, however,that the scene of -4 the siege of Ashkelon in the temple Is 1 Mill WH of Karnak,which is usually attrib- MOP., uted to Ramesses II, may actually WINE have belonged to his son Merneptah (Yurco1978 and quoted in Stager 1985). The endless warfaremust have taken a tremendous amount of energy on both sides, and with Lib- yan and Sherdenpressure building on Egypt'swestern flank, plus the growing power of Assyria on the Hittite's southern border,the stage was finally set for a true peace between the two belligerents. Sixteen years after the Battle of Kadesh a tween the two superpowersfor some throughout Egypt (Karnak,Luxor, peace treaty between Ramesses II time, but the real cause of the con- Abu Simbel), but the pharaoh'sboast and Hattusilis III,then king of the flict was the defection of the king of of total, single-handedvictory seems Hittites, was inscribed on silver Amurru from the Hittite to the to be somewhat overstated.Docu- tablets that bore the imprint of the Egyptian side (Bittel 1970: 124). The ments from the Hittite capital of two royal seals. A cuneiform text of two sides met at Kadesh-on-the- Hattusha (nearmodern Bogazk6y) the treaty was preservedin the ar- Orontes where the Egyptian army, give another version: "Atthe time chives at Bogazk6y,and hieroglyphic led by Ramesses II, was ambushed when king Muwatallis made war versions of it appearat the Temple of by an estimated force of 17,000 sol- against the king of Egypt,when he Amon at Karnakand in the mortuary diers who lay in wait for him on the defeated the king of Egypt, the Egyp- temple of Ramesses II (the "Rames- northeastern side of the city. Accord- tian king went back to the country seum")on the opposite bank of the ing to the Egyptianversion, it was of Aba. But then king Muwatalli Nile (Pritchard1950: 199-203; Lang- the personal valor of Ramesses II defeated the country of Aba, then he don and Gardiner 1920). Thirteen that countered the Hittite treachery. marched back to the country of years after the treaty was signed it "He cast them into the water like Hatti" (Bittel 1970: 125). If Ramesses was commemorated by the marriage crocodiles, and he slew whomever was pressed as far south as Aba, just of Ramesses II to the daughter of he desired"(Steindorf and Seele to the north of Damascus (Steindorf Hattusilis IIIwho was personally 1957: 251). The events of the day are and Seele 1957: 251), it would seem escorted to Egypt during the rainy depicted in surprisingly accurate that the Hittite version was the months of winter by her father the topographicaldetail on temple walls more truthful of the two accounts Great King of Hatti (Bittel 1970: 127).

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 25 Some of the most impressive funeraryassem- blages of the Late BronzeAge can be assigned to the IIA period. Below: This sarcophagus from Cave 10OAat Gezer contains the remains of a single adult and twelve young children. Evidently the adult's coffin served as a protected repositoryfor the remains of the children in subsequent burials in the tomb. Right: The last burial found in the entrance tunnel to Cave 10OAat Gezer was that of a tall female, about 34 years of age, named Sarah by the excavation staff. The woman's remains were found just inside the entryway. Close to her head was a magnificent Egyptian "sandcore" glass vessel, one of the finest and earliest examples of Egyptianglass found to date in Palestine. Photographsby Theodore A. Rosen, courtesy of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati.

26 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 Multiple burials were common during the Late BronzeIIA. At Gezer,for example, the scattered skeletal remains of eighty-nine individuals were found in Cave IOA.Also found in situ was this full-length coffin embellished with rows of handles down the sides and along the lid. Although this sarcophagusis similar to larnax-burialsfrom Minoan Crete,the form is unique in Palestine. Photographby TheodoreA. Rosen, courtesy of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati. This event must have been important to the pharaohbecause he included it among the scenes he had carved on temples as far south as Abu Simbel in Nubia. Ramesses was succeeded by his thirteenth son Merneptah,20 who must have been older than 50 at the time of his coronation. The major threat to Egyptduring his reign came from the west where a large army from Libya,abetted by an assortment of future Sea Peoples was pressing hard against his territories in the western Delta. Merneptah was successful in battle against these intruders during his fifth year, and to celebrate he erected in his mortuary temple at Thebes a stele inscribed with a victory hymn that ended with a song of triumph over his Asiatic enemies. Some scholars contend that the Victory Hymn of Merneptah, also known as the Israel Stele, is the earliest recordidentifying Israelas an unsettled people in Palestine, since of all the countries mentioned on the stele Israel alone is written with the word/term"Israel" for "Shasu" the hieroglyphic determinative for a bedouin. Such an interpretation people rather than for a land (Miller would suggest that whatever Israel and Hayes 1986: 68-69). This stele is was at this time, it was not com- important to biblical scholarship in pletely understood by the Egyptians. any event because it is the only men- Within five years of this suspect tion of Israel in Egyptianrecords. victory, Merneptahhad died and The text is full of examples of scrib- been buried in Thebes where his al carelessness, however,and the mummy has survived. With his reference to a "pacified"Hatti was death a disruption close to anarchy simply not true, although under enveloped Egypt (Faulkner1975: ArnuwandashIII the Hittites did ob- 235-39; Cerny 1975).Kings Amen- serve the treaty that existed between messes and Siptah left no apparent the two nations. Donald B. Redford mark on western Asia, but the car- (1986)has completely denied the of Yellowand white festoons decoratethe neck of veracity Merneptah'sboasts of an the blue-grayglass (unguent?)container found Asiatic campaign during the early near Sarah'shead in Cave 10OAat Gezer.Late part of his reign, that the BronzeIIA burials were often accompanied claiming by a remarkable display of wealth that re- Victory Hymn was actually plagia- flects the cosmopolitan characterof the age. rized from an inscription of Ramesses Photographby TheodoreA. Rosen, courtesy II at Karnakwith the substitution of of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 27 i: : :._: i-'-:ii--:iii:~:::_ : ::_-; ii--i :-:i:.-. - I:-:~ '. ( ::_- _~; i: -:I -~ii: ?-~ I:-- i -~i-i~i- i-::: -::---- - .::----: -:--:b ii :i~i::i~-i-- :i:r:i:iii~ iiii~iiii- -i~i:--.:- -i-;--- :; ii ~ i~-i4 i ~-i:-;: ii i--l-_ i: : ,: --:ii.i_-:i ~: g _1_ :,1:''-:_-;:- - ii~i'-'~ iiiii:iiii--'--.: ii~ii:i~ i-ii~ii::~-- ii iiiiciil -- -: i-~:i:-?ii -i-?i-iii~ii_-i ia- -i-s-:i- (:.:__ _?:,_:-:_ I::~~ii:iiisi--::li-::-iiiii~ --iii~iiiii ii~iia:i-ii: i:~-iii: ?i~i:_i-::??oii :::r:-Liii--s-i::~--i :-~:--i-:iii .:?i~ i--i:~-: ---:; : - i:i- i;i ~_ ~: i~ n.i- : ?,:_:::~: :,-;-::--?--=- i:-: iiiii~iii: :i~ii-i--i:~i:i- iii~ii:iiiiri----~- a: biiiiii~: -i~: : -: ~ii : - ~-i $ ii,:: . iii~.~~~~ia~ ~~ i:- -""": -fii ~-:i::-: :~i:iiii:::_~i- .::. _-"-- . -iiii:- -ii i; - i i : _ i i~i- -i'ii ' i~l-- a:... i-~ _ _i~:_iiii-~i_-- -i-1~-:-:isi-iii -ig: -~:-i-i:ia:i_-_:~ii:,. . :::: :i i:-: i~ -~iii- i:-,i: ~i::i:i:~i--Cii_:ii~iii s i.ii~:i-i-i:ir-i- -~~: :~__:- :i-ii:a -~iii-iiiii~: ::-~ --_-_~- -- --i~: :-i:_ - :..~_--: s. :::iii i-i ii_:l:i--:iiiifiii;- ii;i:- ;Zir i:iii*iii'-'-ii iiii-gia-i ~iiiii :'~1- ?s ': : :I--::::-:' -:-:: :-iiii~iiiii:ie-i iB i-ig:. i.; :ii- - - .. --- i; ---- i-i~i-i~i - ': _?i~ iliii-iF iii~iiijii ii~i-ii'ifii:_ .Di-ii-i:~:i i:i1- i iii_ i:i I ' : - - : . : --:ii iiii iii ;iii:ii:ii~i i:liiii:~?ii?iiliiii -i:Di -:~- iiibi:iii~i -:':''": -i-i-:~i??i:: -iil:: ifti-i: ?ilS 1; ~- :--- - -i~ii--- :i:-?-i ii~iiii:iiii~~-i'a I':~'?E-?P ?i-?:.I-'?.5 I '~ iiiiiiii,: _~_ *-::-:-~---:-". -:--_:iiisii- .B- --:-:?- -~- ::i -,:-:-~_-_?:j _:?.?ii-i--:~-i::__:~ i-:iiaiiiiiiC:~:i::iEiiiii~ia:ill;l':i____.-:----: ~-:: i_i- i i iiiii:i~.?i O ~i ?i_~ii~ii~iiii:i iii~i ii~iiiiiiiii~iiiiiii~ C ::i9i-ii:i -i~_--_-----i i iiii~iii: _.: i-i:- :jiii~ :-;- i - - - - ir:-- : -i: i--ii _-":;::-:::::::-:::::. -~--: i----:_-:----:i .:':-;---__:_:- : :_-::;- .;.: ,i: -:;-_-_:': ;: i -_ -:: ;: - :E.'--i~i-ii: :i-i~ii:iii~i:::-i~:iii~-~ii:i?ii~iii:iiL-_i-i ii-iii:i~iiiiiiiiii~i wiz:iiiii :ii-~:i:i-----:--6_-:?:--: :iill:iili-i-i-:- :-- -: ;: :, : ii:--:-:~-: i~---iii~i:::igiiiii-i_: :::2--ii- t: 5 Bljiii i-i:-i i -i i : i --'C: - :i~:i-i:- -~i-i_:i:B i-i-i -~i. -i:ri- ii.M_.: i-~_ -ia -i-i .~-i: ?i~-iii :i~-i-:::~::i:: AY r.: ii.--iiii ii---::i-i-,i- iiii - : - : I ~_:i:::i~ii_:j~i ::~- i~_ii~i:-~:- -i~: :-i: -:~:-::_::F_:::-i:_.~:::: -- :: ::~:: : -:~_:::__:-:-i~:: :::,: ::i:::~::: :. -::2a:::::~: :::~::::: = 3 i:iri-:iiLii-..:::- ::9 : ii~ii:i~ii_ ii_-i:'.. ii~iiii-ii:--- :::. i~ - :-- :' --..i~ii:iiii~ _ :_, iiii~,~,_-:iciiii- i~ii,:,:.-ii iili iiii:~iiiiiiii~ii iii-:'-:-.g: i::li:-::':-:: i ii:isi~i ii?nii--iiiBi:i-~ -: iii~i --id-- I::--~: --, : : -' ::ii~iiiii ii~iiii:im ii :i~:-: Ei : iiiiai:_:-:--:i:i Dii ~-:: i:ii~i:: . i-~:::::::: iii ::":;::iii: : +;::1: --: iiij~i-:i?: _i~:--::li~il;i-_i:iia- _ii-iiisi'8ii-: ii iii:i ; Right: This Mycenaean "chariotvase" from :.1~-':F_ .~ - 3-i-ii-i~- ?-i-~i?:iF :'-~i:;:1:~-' :ii~~:-:.:i, :::::: Idri' :i:-- i ~n :::::*:'ii-iil:i:::liii~- li:::~i:::~:ilii~? . Tomb387 at TelDan, decorated with a parade :i~:ii_i?~iiiiiii:;- - ii~i-i-?r:i~:i-, a,::i~ii R ... ii~,-iiii~i- iii~i-iiii~ii:: :::~?-i;i-jii~ of horse-drawnchariots, would have held a _iQ~liiiiaii: =~ on the table-or in the tomb- =--?'-"------: i-----ii~-i::i~i:i:i ii:i:i'~:iziii:i-iil::i:I: -::i';_i--:ii~-iiiiii-~:-ii::-~ ii' ..:%. -:i-_-i- i place of pride ee, iiii:-- ii, - i, : r~ Canaanite or member the .~cf r: ~,,;,,. of any prince of r i ::i?~iiiliiii~iii : : ::::--:-: -~- _-i:--:__::s_ _s::,a-_ i-ii:;-i--i--i:i:si-i:i :iip r~r rj~~ maryanna(the chariot-owningnobility). ~ O:~:8~~.8? Importedluxury goods are a common feature ?i~i--iii~;i ii~iii iiic~:--- ::~-s-- :i~:::?:i~----- I:~.--:-:r::-:.:,: ~:::::::;:::: :::;::::::: of burials from the Late BronzeIIA. Drawing -::::ii:iiiiiii:iii~:i i:ii-i:~i-i-ii~i:i-i -isi - i:ii i:i~--- i~. i:mii-i- iii~-i-:i:i from Biran(1970), courtesy of the Hebrew ~qT: ~r Union College, Jerusalem.Below right: The I :~:: :~: ::-::~ : :--: ::,::: /A rv Late BronzeIIB was a period of seemingly ;tr?ll~ :~:i:ii~iiii li~i. ii:i~i:i iii~i~i:i~- i-i.:l:~-iZi-~-i?ii~:~i-':"-: ?5:-:--'-:-:-?~i - ?; o ::- endless warfareas Egyptianrulers of the ?:.ei:?:?ri~;rLI'I~~?i?~~'iLL __ rerrc i? i?i, ii-:i:i-i--ii;-- : : Nineteenth Dynasty venturedinto Syro- ~: 3;i3r clL~ Palestine in an attempt to regain control of Q \?`f r ?~' :"'7 P~ areas that had been lost during the Amarna ~-iiiBi-:i- cS O~ In-f,t rr i period. In this drawing of a relief from the ?*~~ ; ;TC??- ?-P.. F. ~??~~ . .-- Ramesses II at Karnak,the coastal iii-Pi.-ii:r.;-:iii~i--i iiiLii-:iiii~ii-ii-ii: i; Templeof i-i--iiiiiiiiiL-:,i-ii-iifiiiiiiiibi:i:'''-'~"'-.- - '~:i.~i-i:i-i-~-iii ~L'- j_~i_::a::: ii~l*j-_-: : :;-E: i:jii::i_ i:---:_:::-_ - city of Ashkelon is being attacked and over- i c: :-----_iiir:_i_:i:iai-ii-i?i-i~iia-i-iii~ii ii~i- iii~ii:s:i:uii -~_i? : -- taken by Egyptianforces. This victory scene is usually attributed to Ramesses II, but new data suggest that it should be dated to the reign of his son Merneptah,fourth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Drawing from Stager(1985), courtesy of the Israel Explora- tion Society

touche, or royal seal, of Sethos I121 has been found impressed on a pot- sherd at Tell el Farcah(South) (Wein- stein 1981:22) and a faience vessel bearingthe name of Queen Tewosret22 was discoveredat Deir cAlla in the Transjordan(Franken 1961; Dorne- iii-B-iiii mann 1983: 20, 44; Faulkner 1975: 235-39; Yoyotte 1962). During this period of uncertainty it appearsthat a Syrian prince was actually able to claim title to the throne of Egypt (Pritchard1950: 260). Putting an end to this state of chaos, which bordered on civil war, was Sethnakhte,23 a man of uncertain origin who became the first king of the Twentieth Dynasty. Although he ruled for only a year, Sethnakhte seems to have placed the country back on track before leaving the kingship to his son Ramesses III.4 Forthe first few years of his reign Ramesses IIIwas faced with continued threats from the Libyansand their allies in the western Delta, similar to the situation that his

28 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 TheSea Peoples posed the greatestthreat to the regionsince the movementsof the Hyksosmore than three centuries earlier. predecessor Merneptahhad faced. Brug 1985; Dothan 1982b;Barnett ranean since the movements of the To the north and east of Egypt,how- 1975). In his eighth year Ramesses Hyksos more than three centuries ever, trouble in the form of the Sea IIIwas forced to deploy the Egyptian earlier: "They were coming forward Peoples was almost literally on the army and navy in an attempt to towardEgypt, while the flame was horizon. This international coali- thwart the progressof the Sea Peo- preparedbefore them. Their con- tion was quickly moving into the ples who representedthe greatest federationwas the Philistines, Tjeker, Egyptian orb, bringing with them threat to the stability of the coun- Shekelesh, Denye[n], and Weshesh, death and destruction (Sandars1978; tries of the southeastern Mediter- lands united. They laid their hands

In the eighth year of his reign, during Late BronzeIIB in Palestine, Ramesses III was forced to deploy his army and navy to thwart the eastward progressof the Sea Peoples, an international confederation that represented the greatest threat to the region since the movements of the Hyksos more than three centuries earlier. In the land battle shown here, left, taken from the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu in Thebes, confusion reigns as the pharaoh'sforces, assisted by Sherdenmercenaries wearing horned helmets (top row center), battle the invaders'infantry somewhere along the Syro- Palestinian coast. The Sea Peoples, some of whom are characterizedby tall, featherlike helmets, must have been severely hampered by the presence of their families and their slow, ox-drawnwagons with heavy solid wheels. In the naval scene below, also taken from Medinet Habu, the lion-headed prows on the Egyptianfleet bear down on the ships of the Sea Peoples somewhere along the eastern shore of the Nile Delta. The Sea Peoples'ships have high, duck-headedprows and sterns but no oars, the absence of which might mean that the Egyptianfleet had caught them by surprise.Sherden mercenaries are depicted as fighting on both sides of the fray. Drawings from Dothan (1982b),courtesy of The Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 29 RamessesIII defeated the SeaPeoples on landand sea, butthe victorydepleted Egyptof muchof its revenueand resolve. upon the lands as far as the circuit of victorious, but it must have been a the disruptions mentioned in the the earth, their hearts confident and Pyrrhic victory at best. It so ex- kiln tablets with the eastern move- trusting: 'Ourplans will succeed!'" hausted the nation in both revenue ments of the Sea Peoples (compare, (Dothan 1982b:3). and resolve that Egypt entered into a however,Schaeffer's changing views: RamessesIl and his forcesfought period of steep decline that lasted for 1939b:45-46, 1968: 760-68). this international confederation on centuries. Archaeological Evidence in Canaan. two fronts. Somewhere along the At Ras Shamra (Ugarit)the The archaeological recordfor Late coast of Palestine his army met the remarkablediscovery of a kiln for Bronze IIBin Canaan is mixed. Local infantry and chariotry of their land baking clay tablets that was filled pottery continued to decline; sur- forces. The Egyptianswere victorious with about 100 pieces of foreign cor- prisingly, the quality of Cypriot over the invaders,who must surely respondence that had been translated imports also deteriorated,and even- have been severely hamperedby the into Ugaritic, a Semitic language tually these imports disappeared; necessity of protecting their families closely related to Phoenician and Mycenaean goods were still popular, who accompanied them in slow ox- Biblical Hebrew,indicates that this but they were also less well made drawn wagons with heavy solid area also faced impending danger, than before, perhapsproduced out- wheels: "Those who came on [land imminent doom. Before the ancient side the traditional Aegean produc- were overthrownand killed]. Amon- scribes could return to remove these tion centers. In architecture, we are Re was after them, destroying them. tablets, disaster struck the city, and beginning to learn more about the Those who entered the river-mouths the palace was destroyed.Fortunate- administrative centers in the south, were like birds ensnared in the ly, the tablets survived to tell their which possibly relate to an Egyptian net. ... Their leaders were carried story (well summarized in Drower presence; cult architecture shows off and slain. They were cast down 1975: 145-47; see also Astour 1965). continuity with the past; and we and pinioned"(Dothan 1982b:3). They tell how in parts of Great Hatti, know little of Canaanite domestic Much closer to home, some- for example, famine was described architecture.Burial customs during where off the eastern shores of the as being a "matterof life and death," the period were strange and varied. Delta, a sea battle raged.Oar-driven causing the Hittite king Suppilu- Ceramic record.The quality of Egyptian ships with reefed sails, liumas II to call on his vassal in Late Bronze IIBpottery continued often identified by their lion-headed Ugarit to send a shipment of 2,000 the decline alreadynoted in the pre- prows, clashed with the ships of the measures of grain to Cilicia. Pagan, ceding periods. The shapes of cari- Sea Peoples, which were charac- ruler of Alasiya/Cyprus,also wrote nated bowls, cooking pots, kraters, terized by high duck-headedprows to Ugarit requesting food supplies. and mugs remained about the same, and sterns. The absence of any de- But how could Ugarit help? Its army but a carelessness of execution and piction of oars on the ships of these had alreadybeen sent northwardto of decoration seems to have been the intruders may indicate that they help the Hittites, and its navy had hallmark of Palestinian pottery in were caught by surprise by the Egyp- been stationed off the Lycian (Lykka) the thirteenth century B.C.E. tian fleet (Dothan 1982b: 7), but in coast; stripped of its defenses, it had The only morphological differ- any case they were undoubtedly alreadybeen ravaged.As Ammurapi ences in the local repertoire,other overwhelmed by the pharaoh'snavy: of Ugarit respondedto the Cypriot than size and proportion,were in the "Those who came forwardtogether request, "behold,the enemy's ships dipper juglet and flask. Dipper jug- on the sea, the full flame was in came here; my cities(?) were burned, lets dating to this period often had a front of them at the river mouths, and they did evil things in my coun- pinched lip and vertically shaved while a stockadeof lances surrounded try"(Astour 1965: 255). Marauders body. Shavedjuglets became popular them on the shore. They were dragged were everywhere. Soon the city of in Cyprus as well at this time; their in, enclosed, and prostratedon the Ugarit was completely destroyedand fabric and distinctive manner of beach, killed, and made into heaps its ruins "mined" for valuables. pushing the base of the handle from tail to head. Their ships and Afterwards, a different, much less through the vessel wall pointed to their goods were as if fallen into the sophisticated people settled on the their having been manufactured on water" (Dothan 1982b: 3). Egypt was site. It is difficult not to associate the island. A similar technique was

30 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 This clay tablet contains the 30-charactercuneiform alphabet of Ugaritic, a Semitic language closely related to Phoenician and Biblical Hebrew.At Ras Shamra(Ugarit) a kiln for baking clay tablets was found containing about 100 pieces of foreign correspondencethat had been translated into Ugaritic. These texts tell their own story of destruction at the hands of foreign invaders.Although the kiln tablets do not mention the intruders by name, it is hard not to associate the events recordedon them with the onslaught of the Sea Peoplesinto Syro-Palestine during Late BronzeIIB. Photographby MarwanMusselmany, courtesy of Ali Abou-Assaf, directorgeneral of Antiquities and Museums, Damascus.

...... IY -

used in the production of shaved Palestine (forexample, Tell esh- many features including an indirect juglets made from local Palestinian Sharicah/TelSerca, Tell el-Hesi, Tell entrance and a large broadroom clays towardthe end of Late Bronze el-Farcah(South), and Aphek/Ras el- sanctuary with two Egyptianlotus II. Pilgrim flasks continued to be CAin).To these West Bank sites may columns beyond which was the cult popular,but during this period they now be addedTell es-Sacidiyeh in focus. These features set the two tended to exhibit a direct (non-petal- Transjordan(Tubb 1988a). In fact, temples markedly apart from the like) attachment of the handle to the the traditional view of Transjordan reoriented (fromnorth-south to east- neck of the vessel. as a cultural backwater during the west) temples in Beth Shan stratum V, Strangely enough, Cypriot Late Bronze Age, based in part on which definitely should be dated to imports, which were so popular in Nelson Glueck's early survey work, the Iron Age. The degree of Egyptian the earlier centuries, declined in is slowly being changed as more influence on the plans of the temples quantity and finally ceased to be sites are excavated (Yassine1988; in strataVII-VI has also been a topic imported to Canaan (Gittlen 1981). Dornemann 1983;Kafafi 1977; for discussion (forexample, Kenyon, Mycenaean goods took up the slack Leonard1987a). These governor's 1979), but the intensity of the Egyp- and continued to be popular, al- residencies were square buildings tian presence at Beth Shan in the though many were of lesser quality; with rooms groupedaround a small Nineteenth and early Twentieth both they and their contents could central hall in a manner reminiscent Dynasties is demonstrated by the have been made outside the tradi- of certain New Kingdom structures. presence there of two stone steles tional Aegean production centers. It is thought that the Canaanite erected by Sethos I and a life-sized The copying of many of the Aegean buildings represent the thirteenth basalt statue of Ramesses III. forms, often quite unsuccessfully by century B.C.E.administrative centers At Lachish the Fosse Temple the local Canaanite potters, might through which the Egyptianscon- from Late Bronze II B (StructureIII) have been a reflection of increasing trolled their Asiatic empire, and this continued with very little modifica- difficulty in long-rangeseaborne theory is supportedby the concen- tion. The temple at Hazor also commerce. It is possible that before tration of this architectural type showed considerable continuity of the end of the period Mycenaean (with the exception of Sacidiyeh)in cult. In areaH the thirteenth-century- pottery was actually made on the the southern part of the country B.C.E.temple essentially continued coast out of local Syro-Palestinian where such control was strongest. the plan of its predecessor.The floor clays (Stager1985; Asaro, Perlman, The date of the stratum VII of the thirteenth-century temple and Dothan 1971). "AmenhotepIII" temple at Beth Shan contained a fire-blackenedrectangu- Architectural evidence. Our has been the subject of some debate, lar piece of basalt described by the knowledge of Canaanite domestic but a thirteenth-century-B.C.E.date excavatorsas an incense altar. A architecture from the Late BronzeIIB seems to fit the evidence best symbol consisting of a circle with a period is slight, but Eliezer Oren (McGovern1985: 13).It and the cross inside it was carved on the face (1984)has called attention to a dis- temple in stratum VI (the excavators' of this block. Nearby,but evidently tinctive type of well-built, mudbrick "SetiI" temple), whose floruit ex- related to this structure, was a frag- structure termed the Governor'sResi- tended into the twelfth century mentary statue of a male deity dency at several sites in southern B.C.E.(James 1966: 25-26), shared standing on a bull-shaped base; a

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 31 The plans of these four buildings-from Aphek, Tellel-Farcah (South), Beth Shan, and Tell esh-Sharicah- exemplify a distinctive type of well-built, mudbrick structuretermed the Governor'sResidency. Because of the similarity of their plans and interiorroom arrangement, both with suggested Egyptianaffinities, these buildings are thought to have been the administrative centers throughwhich Egyptexercised political control over Syro-Palestinein the Nine- teenth and early Twentieth Dynasties. Drawings by LoisA. Kain. similar circle and cross was carved on his chest. This deity has been identified as the storm-godHadad, and it is thought that the area H temple was dedicated to him (Yadin on.- 1972: 95). The small single-room temple in area C, first noted in Late Bronze IIA, was rebuilt in this period. The cult focus of this broadroomshrine was a niche in its western wall that '111larah(SAlth11 contained a full complement of cult Woo furnishings arrangedin a slight arc before an offering table. In the niche was a large basalt statue of a beardless, seated male holding a cup or rR bowl in his right hand; he wears no identifying headdress,but an inverted (lunar?)crescent is suspended from his neck. The niche also contained ten basalt masseboth (standing stones), one of which has a carv- ing on it of a pair of outstretched human arms/handsapparently reach towarda disc and crescent. ing WN4K:iKTl--i~--- Yadin the motif on Yigael compared St MiiIN-Si:i- this massebah with one on a (stone) a R.~i i 4 stele from Zinjirli inscribed with a :..u g dedication to Baal of Harranand suggested that the area C shrine was the focus of a lunar cult (Yadinand others 1958: 89; Yadin 1970). Although they were originally constructed as early as the Middle Bronze Age (Schaeffer1936: 11),the temples to Dagan and his son Baal at Ras Shamramost probablysurvived into the Late Bronze IIBperiod to ingly rich in imported Mycenaean Funeraryevidence. That strange judge from a Nineteenth Dynasty(?) vessels (Hennessy 1966; Hankey and variedburial customs were stele of the Egyptian"royal scribe 1974).The structure has been vari- practiced during the Late Bronze IIB and chief treasurer"Mami dedicated ously identified as a temple for a fire period has been demonstrated at to "Baalof the North,"the great god cult, human sacrifice, or tribal cove- many sites. The cemetery at Tell es- of Ugarit, that was found just inside nants, but a recent investigation Sacidiyeh, which has been partially his temple (Schaeffer1939a: 24). (Herr 1981)viewed it as a mortuary dated by its Aegean imports, pro- When the Amman airport in institution that practiced, in part, duced two tombs (Numbers 102, Jordan was being expanded in 1955, a rites of cremation, demonstrating 117)in which the deceased were stone building, square in plan, was possible ties with the Hittite lands wrappedin cloth and subsequently discovered and found to be exceed- to the north. coated with bitumen, possibly in

32 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 This aerial view of a building at Tell es-Sacidiyehin the Transjordanreveals the characteristic plan of the Governor'sResidency, with its square shape and rooms groupedaround a small central hall. Photographcourtesy of JonathanN. Thbb,The British Museum.

by neutron activation analysis of clay samples from the Deir el-Balah sarcophagi (Perlman,Asaro, and Dothan 1973).Although plain un- decoratedcoffins have been found, they are rare;on most sarcophagithe face and/orupper torso of the deceased has been modelled on the lid. Paintedaccents also have been found. The maker of the clay coffin found in Tomb 570 at Lachish attempted to paint a prayerin hieroglyphs along with a representation of the goddess Isis and her sister Nephtys, two of the four female deities closely associated with the rites of mummification in Egypt. Funeraryofferings that were buried in these anthropoid coffins, both in Canaan and Egypt, were truly international, including pottery and other artifacts from as far awayas Cyprusand the AegeanWorld. TrudeDothan has identified two main phases in which these anthropoid sarcophagiwere used. In the first phase, which took place during the late fourteenth and into the thirteenth century B.C.E., they appearto have been the choice of high-rankingEgyptian officials, imitation of, or as a substitute for, population. (Forthese tombs, see either civilian or military, who more standardEgyptian rites of Pritchard 1964, 1965, 1980; also see served at Egyptiangarrisons in mummification. In a third tomb, Tubb 1988b for more intriguing Canaan. To this group might be which was lined with mudbrick, the burials from the new excavations at added Egyptianizedlocals of similar deceased was interred in a more nor- the site.) status and foreign mercenaries of mal manner, but the wealth of the Another manifestation of the some rank. Coffins dating to this individual was evidenced by the rich degree of Egyptian influence on the first phase have been uncovered at supply of graveofferings; these burial practices of at least one Deir el-Balah,Beth Shan,Tell el-Farcah items consisted of an assortment of segment of Canaanite society can (South), and, if it is correct to assign bronzes including a wine set (laver, be seen in the use of anthropoid sar- Tomb 570 to stratum VI, at Lachish bowl, strainer, and juglet) that was cophagi at sites such as Deir el- (see Dothan 1982b:252-88). The kept close at hand for use in the Balah (Dothan 1979, 1982a).These practice of using clay anthropoid afterlife. Inasmuch as burial prac- large clay coffins representeda type coffins outlived the Late Bronze Age, tices are a conservative part of one's of middle-class burial practiced in as seen in examples from Dothan's personal and religious beliefs, the the EgyptianDelta during the New second phase of sarcophagi, which mixture of such diverse burial types Kingdom, but their size and friability dates to the twelfth and eleventh at Tell es-Sacidiyeh must indicate a suggest that those found in Palestine centuries B.C.E.after the groups of similar diversity within the general were locally made, a fact supported vanquished Sea Peoples had settled-

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 33 Previouslyaffluent Canaanites were unableto maintaina highstandard of livingat the endof the LateBronze Age.

or had been settled - along the coast of Canaan (Dothan, 1982b:252-88). Conclusion The end of the Late Bronze Age in Canaan came less with a bang than with a whimper. Ramesses IIIhad stopped the Sea Peoples. Egypt and its Asiatic empire were saved- for a while. The pharaoh settled some of the vanquished intruders along the coast of southern Palestine, but other survivors simply staked out any relatively secure piece of land and built new homes. The Bible speaks of Philistines settling along the southern but in fact coast, they Right: Although originally constructed as were probablya hybrid lot. They early as the Middle BronzeAge, the Templeof could easily have included an admix- Baal at Ras Shamra(Ugarit) most probably ture of other Sea such as the survived into the Late BronzeIIB period. The Peoples temple plan is strictly oriented along a north- Sherden or the Tjeker who were south axis and an altar was placed in the encountered by Wen Amun around courtyard,as it was in the "SetiI" temple in 1100 B.C.E.on his ill-fated to stratum VI at Beth Shan. Drawing by LoisA. trip Kain. Above: One of the strange burialprac- Byblos to purchase cedar wood (Prit- tices found in Syro-Palestiniantombs dating chard 1950: 25-29). The victim of to the Late BronzeIIB is the "doublepithos" and Wen Amun burial, in which the deceased was placed treachery robbery, inside two large storage jars that had been found that his position as "Seniorof broken and joined at the shoulders to form a the Forecourtof the House of Am- kind of coffin. The burial pictured here, grave mon"had little influence on Zakar- 45 at Telles-Sacidiyeh, illustrates a variant of this burial type. Here the neck of a jar was Baal, an eleventh-century prince of brokenoff to accept the head and uppertorso Byblos who forced him to camp on of the deceased while the lower torso was the beach for almost a month while covered with large flat sherds from similar pithoi. Photographcourtesy of JonathanN. sending him daily messages to "get Tubb,The British Museum. out of my harbor!"It is difficult to imagine a Canaanite prince respond- towns suffered one or more destruc- ing in such a way to an Egyptianoffi- tions in the second quarterof the cial during the reign of Tuthmosis III, twelfth century B.C.E. (summarized Ramesses II, or practically any other by Fritz 1987) between the reigns of non-Amarnapharaoh during the Ramesses IIIand Ramesses VI or halcyon days of Egypt'sLate Bronze possibly a little later. No single cul- chants were unable to maintain the Age empire in Canaan. prit or culprits can be identified with high standardof living they had The archaeologicalrecord is often certainty, although the pharaohs,the come to enjoy.No longer could they uncertain and, at times, confusing Habiru, and/orthe Sea Peoples/Phi- barterfor the exotic products of dis- and difficult to read, but we get the listines, acting individually or in con- tant lands or commission craftsmen impression that the lessening of cert, must share the blame for bring- to produce objets d'artwhose eclec- Egyptian control was a slow and ing the Late Bronze Age to a close. ticism and hybridization were the gradual one (Weinstein 1981). Many Life became markedly different. very essence of the Late Bronze Age. of the major Palestinian cities and Previously affluent Canaanite mer- A much different flavorbegan to

34 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 Left: This human male skeleton found in grave 251 at Telles-Sacidiyeh shows distorted bone displacement due to the tightness of the wrappingof the body. The bronze javelin head on the chest of the skeleton preservedthe imprint of two differently woven cloths, indicating that it had been placed on the cloth-wrappedbody of the deceased and then covered with a burial shroud. Upper left: A fish-shaped ivory "cosmeticbox" was found inside a bronze bowl that had been placed over the pelvis of a man who was buried face down in grave 232 at Tell es-Sacidiyeh.The significance of the fish theme is still a matter of speculation, but it apparently had some meaning because a deposit of fish bones was placed on the back of the deceased's skull at the time of interment, evidently as part of the funeral ceremony Upper right: Indica- tive of the high standard of living that was attainable during the Late BronzeAge is this bronze wine set, which was found at Telles-Sacidiyeh in the burial of a wealthy individual. Included in the set are a laver, juglet, and handled strainer. Photographscourtesy of Jonathan N. Thbb,The British Museum.

fresh from their own island ports. It K. A. Kitchen (1987),which assigns an would be almost a millennium, not accession date of 1479 B.C.E.for Tuth- until the passing of the armies of mosis III and 1279 B.C.E.for Ramesses II. Alexander the Great, before such an I also have accepted that the Sothic international spirit would return to datum of the ninth year of Amenophis I, these ancient shores. given in the EbersPapyrus, was taken at Thebes rather than at either Memphis or Elephantine,thereby producing an initial Notes date of 1550 B.C.E.for Amosis and the pervade the cities and towns. Road- 'Absolutedates for the New Kingdom beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty. rulers ways were empty of the pharaoh's Egyptian (Eighteenththrough Forthe sake of convenience, both the Twentieth remain a matter of dates from the Ancient His- messengers, tinkers from Hatti, and Dynasties) Cambridge debate. Perhapsthe most readily avail- tory as and Kitchen's Cretan artisans enjoying the travels (abbreviated CAH) able chronologies are those of the Cam- dates are presentedhere. Dates in both of their trade. Things were quieter. bridge Ancient History, but they are of these publications are as The once ceased given "B.C.," prosperous seaports based on views dating back to the 1950s as they are in the present author'sorigi- to with the of ban- ring cacophany (see Hayes and much work has nal manuscript. The use of is the 1959) "B.C.E." tering Canaanite longshoremen, been done on the subject since then. For editorial policy of Biblical Archaeologist. Cypriot sailors, and Aegean seamen better or worse, I have used the system of 2Kitchen: 1550-1525 B.C.E.;CAH:

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1989 35 New 1570-1546 B.C.E. 24Kitchen: 1184-1153 B.C.E.;CAH: Brunswick,NJ: Rutgers Press. 30r was it three successive campaigns 1198-1166 B.C.E. University and E it? See B. Pritchard Artzy, M., Perlman,I., Asaro, against James (1950: 1973 The of the "Palestinian" and Hans Goedicke Origin 233) (1974: 40-41). Bibliography BichromeWare. Journal of the Sharuhen is now identified more plausibly Aharoni,Y. American Oriental Society 93: with Tell el-cAjjul (Weinstein 1981: 6; 1960 Some GeographicalRemarks 446-61. Kempinski 1974) than with nearby Tell el- Concerning the Campaignsof 1978 Importedand LocalBichrome Ware Farcah (South) (Kenyon 1973: 526, 555). Amenhotep II. Journalof Near in Megiddo.Levant 10: 99-111. 4Kitchen: 1525-1504 B.C.E.;CAH: Eastern Studies 19: 177-83. 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