Matteo Bernasconi Phd Thesis

THE USE OF ACTIVE SONAR TO STUDY CETACEANS Matteo Bernasconi A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2012 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/2580 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons Licence The use of active sonar to study cetaceans Matteo Bernasconi Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of St Andrews July 2011 The use of active sonar to study cetaceans Matteo Bernasconi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATIONS V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS VII ABSTRACT IX 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. UNDERWATER ACTIVE ACOUSTIC 13 2.1 Historical notes 15 2.2 Sound: basic concepts 17 2.2.1 Sound propagation 18 2.2.2 Sound pressure and intensity 20 2.2.3 The decibel 21 2.2.4 Transmission Loss 22 2.2.5 Sound Speed 25 2.3 Transducers and beams 26 2.3.1 The beam pattern 28 2.3.2 The equivalent beam angle 29 2.3.3 Pulse and Ranging 30 2.4 Acoustic scattering 31 2.4.1 Target Strength 32 2.4.2 Target shape and orientation 33 2.4.3 Volume/area scattering coefficient 34 2.5 The sonar equation 35 3. CALIBRATION 39 3.1 The on‐axis sensitivity 41 3.2 Nearfield and Farfield 42 3.3 The TVG function 43 3.4 Standard experimental procedure 44 3.5 Calibration spheres 46 3.6 Calibration test of omnidirectional Sonar 47 3.6.1 Introduction 48 3.6.2 Method 49 3.6.3 Results & Discussion 51 3.6.4 Conclusion 57 4. METHODS FOR MEASURING CETACEAN TARGET STRENGTH 59 4.1 Overview of Past studies 61 4.2 Coordinated ecosystem survey of the Norwegian Sea 64 4.3 Instruments 67 4.3.1 Scientific echosounder: Simrad EK500 and EK60 67 4.3.2 Omnidirectional Sonars: SIMRAD SH80 and SX90 68 4.3.3 CTD samples and the Lybin ray tracing model 70 4.4 Omnidirectional sonar signal processing: basic MATLAB codes 72 III 5. ACOUSTIC OBSERVATIONS OF DUSKY DOLPHINS (LAGENORHYNCUS OBSCURUS) HUNTING CAPE HORSE MACKEREL (TRACHURUS CAPENSIS) OFF NAMIBIA. 77 5.1 Introduction 79 5.2 Methods 82 5.2.1 Dolphin behavior 82 5.2.2 Predator response reactions 83 5.3 Results 85 5.4 Discussion 87 6. FIN WHALE (BALAENOPTERA PHYSALUS) TARGET STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS 95 6.1 Introduction 97 6.2 Methods 99 6.2.1 Data collection 99 A. Acoustic data 99 B. Whale position data 100 C. Vertical CTD cast 100 6.2.2 Data analysis 101 6.3 Results and discussion 103 6.3.1 TS measurements 103 6.3.2 TS variation with breathing 105 6.3.3 TS variation with swimming motion and depth 106 6.3.4 Behavioral patterns observed in sonar screen video sequences and raw data 109 6.4 Conclusions 110 7. THE EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY AND DEPTH ON TARGET STRENGTH OF THE HUMPBACK WHALE (MEGAPTERA NOVAEANGLIAE) 111 7.1 Introduction 113 7.2 Methods 114 7.3 Results and Discussion 116 7.3.1 Omnidirectional sonar TS measurements 116 7.3.2 TS variation with depth 118 7.3.3 Cetaceans TS frequency response 119 7.4 Conclusions 120 8. GENERAL DISCUSSION 123 REFERENCES 135 LIST OF SYMBOLS 149 APPENDIX A 153 IV DECLARATIONS I, Matteo Bernasconi hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 43000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in [September, 2007] and as a candidate for the degree of PhD in [September, 2008]; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between [2007] and [2011]. Date …….................... Signature of candidate ………............................................ I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. Date …….................... Signature of supervisor ………............................................ In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. I have obtained any third‐party copyright permissions that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have requested the appropriate embargo below. The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the electronic publication of this thesis. Embargo on both [for the all thesis] of printed copy and electronic copy for a period of 2 years on the following grounds: publication would be commercially damaging to the researcher, or to the supervisor, or the University; publication would preclude future publication; Date ……............................ Signature of candidate ……........................................... Date ……............................ Signature of supervisor ………....................................... V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I thank my family: my wife Salome’, my father Francesco, my mother Liviana, my brother Federico, without forgetting my pets Comi, Maui and Tobi, for their constant patience and love in good and bad times since I started to work with science and conservation issues. To be fair I have to make a long list of colleagues who helped me through the past five years to evolve my research interests into a PhD and grow as a scientist, but more important as a honest man. I thanks and express all my deep respect to my present and former colleagues at the Institute of Marine Research (Havforskningsinstituttet) in Bergen, Norway: Ruben Patel, Terje Torkelsen, Lucio Calise, Geir Pedersen, Reidun Heggø Sørensen, Hector Peña, Egil Ona, Olav Rune Godø, Jens‐Otto Krakstad, Bjørn Erik Axelsen, Marianne Holm, Øyvind Tangen, Valantine Anthonypillai and Rolf Korneliussen. I also thank my colleagues at the University of St Andrews Martin Cox, Clint Blight and Carl Donovan and Prof. Riccardo Groppali (Universita’ degli studi di Pavia) for their support. A special mention goes to both the crew onboard M/V “Eros” and “Libas” who always gave me high professional assistance during the field work but more important they gave me a true friendship that makes everything presented in this work actually real. I also thank for their cooperation and technical advises: Matt Wilson and Toby Jarvis (MYRIAX), Ole Bernt Gammelsæter, Frank Reier Knudsen and Lars Nonboe Andersen (Simrad AS) for sharing information and for the technical support that made me cross the finish line of this PhD. Special thanks go to my supervisors Dr. Leif Nøttestad (Institute of Marine Research / Havforskningsinstituttet) and Prof. Andrew S Brierley (University of St Andrews) that trusted and supported me even when failure could be a hypothetical conclusion of my PhD pilot project. This thesis work is dedicated to my beloved grandparents and in memory of my great friend and mentor Professor Sergio Frugis (Universita’ degli studi di Pavia) who would all be so proud of this important step of my life and are the reasons why I never quit something in which I strongly believe in. Ciò che seminai nell’ira crebbe in una notte rigogliosamente ma la pioggia lo distrusse. Ciò che seminai con amore germinò lentamente maturò tardi ma in benedetta abbondanza. PETER ROSEGGER VII ABSTRACT Cetacean species face serious challenges worldwide due to the increasing noise pollution brought to their environment by human activities such as seismic exploration. Regulation of these activities is vaguely defined and uncoordinated. Visual observations and passive listening devices, aimed at preventing conflicts between human wealth and cetaceans’ health have some fundamental limitations and may consequently fail their mitigation purposes. Active sonar technology could be the optimal solution to implement mitigation of such human activities. In my thesis, the proper sonar unit was used to test the feasibility to detect cetaceans in situ. Omnidirectional sonars could be the optimal solution to monitor the presence of cetaceans in the proximity of potential danger areas. To use this class of sonar in a quantitative manner, the first step was to develop a calibration method. This thesis links in situ measurements of target strength (TS) with variation trends linked to the behavior, morphology and physiology of cetacean. The butterfly effect of a cetacean’s body was described for a fin whale insonified from different angles. A relationship between whale respiration and TS energy peaks was tested through a simple prediction model which seems very promising for further implementation. The effect of lung compression on cetacean TS due to increasing depth was tested through a basic mathematical model. The model fit the in situ TS measurements. TS measurements at depth of a humpback whale, when post‐ processed, correspond to TS measurements recorded at the surface. Sonar technology is clearly capable of detecting whale foot prints around an operating vessel. Sonar frequency response shows that frequencies between 18 and 38 kHz should be employed.

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