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Clostridium Perfringens Extracellular Toxins and Enzymes: 20 and Counting

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Clostridium Perfringens Extracellular Toxins and Enzymes: 20 and Counting Under the Microscope Clostridium perfringens extracellular toxins and enzymes: 20 and counting Sarah A Revitt-Mills A, Julian I Rood A and Vicki Adams A,B AMonash University, 19 Innovation Drive, Clayton, Vic. 3800, Australia, Tel: +61 3 9902 9139, Fax: +61 3 9902 2222 BEmail: [email protected] Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, anaerobic bac- toxins (alpha, beta, epsilon and iota)4,9. This typing scheme is now terium that is widely distributed in the environment; it is very much outdated, but it has been useful for classification as the found in soil and commonly inhabits the gastrointestinal different toxinotypes are often associated with specific diseases4,10 tract of humans and animals1,2. The ubiquitous nature of (Table 1). For example, clostridial myonecrosis and human food this bacterium has resulted in it becoming a major cause of poisoning are associated with type A strains, whereas type B, C histotoxic and enteric diseases3. The success of C. perfrin- and D strains are most strongly associated with enteric diseases of gens as both a pathogen and a commensal bacterium lies in livestock4. its ability to produce a large number of potent toxins and extracellular enzymes4. This diverse toxin repertoire results Toxins and toxin gene location in a broad range of diseases including gas gangrene, various The number of characterised C. perfringens toxins is ever enterotoxaemias, food poisoning and necrotic enteritis4–6. increasing; with more than 20 different toxins and enzymes classi- Since 2007, six new toxins have been identified, adding to the fied to date, see Table 13,5,9,11. With a few important exceptions, – ever-increasing range of potential C. perfringens virulence these toxins are encoded on large conjugative plasmids4,10,12 18, determinants. This paper briefly reviews the plethora of which allows for potential toxin gene transfer between different toxins and extracellular enzymes produced by C. perfrin- C. perfringens strains in the gastrointestinal tract and may prolong gens, highlighting their importance in disease and strain disease10. C. perfringens utilises chromosomally encoded toxins, classification as well as introducing the latest additions to such as alpha-toxin and perfringolysin O, during human histotoxic the ever increasing C. perfringens toxin family. infections or human food poisoning (C. perfringens enterotoxin, CPE)3. However, for reasons that are probably related to disease Toxinotype strain classification epidemiology, plasmid-encoded toxins are critical for non-food- Like many clostridial species, the virulence of C. perfringens is borne human gastrointestinal diseases, human enteritis necroticans dependent on the production of toxins7. Not all toxins are produced and gastrointestinal diseases of animals3,10. by any one strain, instead individual isolates vary in toxin carriage and production8. This toxin expression profile forms the basis of a The toxin categories of C. perfringens toxinotype classification scheme; in which strains are classified into The toxins of C. perfringens can be functionally classified into four five toxinotypes (A–E) based on the production of four different broad categories: membrane damaging enzymes, pore-forming 114 10.1071/MA15039 MICROBIOLOGY AUSTRALIA * SEPTEMBER 2015 Under the Microscope Table 1. Properties of Clostridium perfringens toxins. Toxin/Enzyme Gene Activity Associated disease Gene location Alpha-toxin plc or cpa Phospholipase C and CM: humans and animals Chm Sphingomyelinase Beta-toxin cpb Pore-forming toxin NE in humans and animals Plasmid Epsilon-toxin etx Pore-forming toxin ET in sheep and goats Plasmid Iota-toxin iap/ibp Actin-specific ADP E in sheep and cattle, ET in Plasmid ribosyltransferase rabbits Enterotoxin cpe Pore-forming toxin C and E in domestic ungulates, Chm or Plasmid FP and GI in humans Theta-toxin or perfringolysin O pfoA Pore-forming toxin, cholesterol- CM: humans and animals Chm dependent cytolysin Beta2-toxin cpb2 Putative pore-forming toxin No confirmed association with Plasmid disease TpeL tpeL Ras-specific mono- No confirmed association with Plasmid glucosyltransferase disease NetB netB Pore-forming toxin NE in poultry Plasmid BecA, BecB becA/B Actin-specific ADP- GE in humans Plasmid ribosyltransferase NetE netE Putative pore-forming toxin No confirmed association with Plasmid disease NetF netF Pore-forming toxin HE and NEC of dogs and foals Plasmid NetG netG Putative pore-forming toxin No confirmed association with Plasmid disease NanI nanI Sialidase Accessory role Chm Kappa-toxin colA Collagenase No confirmed association with Chm disease Mu-toxin nagH Hyaluronidase No confirmed association with Chm disease Lambda-toxin lam Protease No confirmed association with Plasmid disease a-clostripain ccp Cysteine Protease No confirmed association with Chm disease NanJ nanJ Sialidase No confirmed association with Chm disease Delta-toxin cpd Pore-forming toxin No confirmed association with Plasmid disease Chm, denotes a chromosomal gene location; CM, clostridial mynecrosis; C, colitis; E, enteritis; FP, food poisoning; GI, non-food borne gastrointestinal disease; NE, necrotising enteritis; ED, enteric disease; ET, enterotoxaemia; GE, gastroenteritis; HE, haemorrhagic enteritis; NEC, necrotising enterocolitis). toxins, intracellular toxins, and hydrolytic enzymes4. Membrane comprise the largest toxin category and function to disrupt mem- damaging toxins such as alpha-toxin are enzymes that damage target brane permeability and ion transport by inserting into the mem- cell membranes through their ability to breakdown the constituents brane and forming a permeable channel or pore20. This category of the mammalian cell membrane19. The pore-forming toxins includes toxins such as perfringolysin O, beta-toxin, CPE, NetB and MICROBIOLOGY AUSTRALIA * SEPTEMBER 2015 115 Under the Microscope epsilon-toxin. Intracellular toxins, such as TpeL, BEC and iota-toxin, extracellular enzymes to cause a myriad of diseases. Note that the are internalised into target host cells where they act to disrupt the primary function of these toxins is most likely not to cause disease, cellular cytoskeleton21. Hydrolytic enzymes, such as sialidases and but to provide nutrients for the growth of C. perfringens cells, which hyaluronidases, are secreted by C. perfringens and degrade surface have limited capability to synthesise amino acids and essential associated glycans or glycoproteins4,22. These enzymes are not co-factors. Many of the toxins that are crucial contributors to disease, essential for disease; however, they may still contribute to the for example NetB, are encoded on conjugative plasmids10, and overall virulence of the bacterium23. therefore may be readily disseminated to other strains. Recent findings support the theory that C. perfringens strains have a tight Recent toxin discoveries association with the species in which they cause disease; for exam- In recent years, the number of characterised C. perfringens toxins ple, NetB-producing strains in birds and NetF-producers in foals and has increased significantly. The latest editions to the C. perfringens dogs. Just about everywhere we look, if there is an unclassified arsenal are the six novel toxins or putative toxins: NetB, BEC, TpeL, disease from which lots of C. perfringens cells can be isolated, the NetE, NetF and NetG. chances are good that another toxin is waiting to be discovered ... stay tuned! NetB is a beta-barrel pore-forming toxin and, like many other C. perfringens toxins, it is encoded on large conjugative plasmids24,25. Since its discovery, NetB-encoding plasmids have been identified in Acknowledgements many avian necrotic enteritis isolates; and netB deletion studies SAR-M is the recipient of an Australian Postgraduate Scholarship. have indicated that NetB toxin, is required for the development of necrotic enteritis in chickens26. References BEC is a novel binary toxin, composed of two distinct components, 1. McClane, B. et al. (2013) Clostridium perfringens.InFood microbiology: funda- BECa and BECb and it appears to function in a similar fashion to iota- mentals and frontiers, Fourth edn, pp. 465–489. ASM Press, Washington, DC. toxin15, with the BECa component having actin-specific ADP-ribo- 2. McClane, B.A. (2014) Clostridium perfringens.InEncyclopedia of Toxicology, Third edn (Wexler, P., ed.), pp. 987–988. Academic Press. syltranferase activity. BEC was discovered after two unrelated food 3. Uzal, F.A. et al. (2014) Towards an understanding of the role of Clostri- poisoning outbreaks that were caused by C. perfringens strains that dium perfringens toxins in human and animal disease. Future Microbiol. 9, did not encode CPE; the toxin typically associated with human food 361–377. doi:10.2217/fmb.13.168 poisoning15. Further studies showed that these strains produced a 4. Petit, L. et al. (1999) Clostridium perfringens: toxinotype and genotype. Trends Microbiol. 7, 104–110. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01430-9 novel binary toxin, designated as BEC, suggesting that this new toxin 5. Uzal, F.A. et al. (2010) Clostridium perfringens toxins involved in mammalian was responsible for the enteric symptoms observed during these veterinary diseases. Open Toxinology J. 2,24–42. doi:10.2174/1875414701003 020024 outbreaks15. 6. Brynestad, S. et al. (2001) Enterotoxin plasmid from Clostridium perfringens is – TpeL is a member of the clostridial monoglycosyltransferase toxin conjugative. Infect. Immun. 69, 3483 3487. doi:10.1128/IAI.69.5.3483-3487.2001 7. Hatheway, C.L. (1990) Toxigenic clostridia. Clin. Microbiol.
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