Intervening Material in Sight-Lines Towards Grbs and Qsos

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Intervening Material in Sight-Lines Towards Grbs and Qsos Programa de Doctorado en F´ısica y Matem´aticas Universidad de Granada Cosmic Lighthouses at High Redshift: Intervening material in sight-lines towards GRBs and QSOs Rub´en S´anchez Ram´ırez Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 10 June 2016 Supervisors: Prof. Javier Gorosabel Urkia, Dr. Antonio de Ugarte Postigo, and Prof. Alberto J. Castro Tirado Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Andaluc´ıa Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient´ıficas Para todos aquellos que caminaron a mi lado, a´unsin yo mismo entender hacia d´ondeme dirig´ıa... ii In Memoriam Javier Gorosabel Urquia (1969 - 2015) “El polvo de las estrellas se convirti´oun dia en germen de vida. Y de ´elsurgimos nosotros en algun momento. Y asi vivimos, creando y recreando nuestro ambito. Sin descanso. Trabajando pervivimos. Y a esa dura cadena estamos todos atados.” — Izarren Hautsa, Mikel Laboa “La vida son estos momentos que luego se te olvidan”. Esa fue la conclusi´on a la que lleg´oJavier al final de uno de esos fant´asticos d´ıas intensos y maratonianos a los que me ten´ıa acostumbrado. Vi´endolo ahora con perspectiva estaba en lo cierto, porque por m´as que me esfuerce en recordar y explicar lo que era el d´ıa a d´ıa con ´el, no puedo transmitir con justicia lo que realmente fue. La reconstrucci´on de esos momentos es inevitablemente incompleta. Contaros c´omo era Javier como jefe es muy sencillo: ´el nunca se comport´ocomo un jefe conmigo. Nunca orden´o. Siempre me dec´ıa, lleno de orgullo, que no le hac´ıa ni caso. Javier era para mi un l´ıder, uno de los mejores modelos a seguir que he conocido, tanto como profesional como persona. El´ no sol´ıa pedir si no daba antes. Es m´as, no sol´ıa pedir. Eras t´umismo qui´en ped´ıa echarle una mano al ver su fren´etico ritmo de trabajo y como iii In Memoriam se dejaba el alma por ti. Eras t´uquien quer´ıa estar a su lado para que te contagiase esa ilusi´on y ansia por descubrir y aprender. Javier entend´ıa la direcci´on de una tesis doctoral como una responsabilidad suya hacia el doctorando, hacia mi, no como una oportunidad para poner a trabajar a alguien en sus proyectos. Pese a que siempre estaba involucrado en incontables estudios, solo me ofrec´ıa la posibilidad de colaborar en aquellos que ´el consideraba interesantes para mi carrera cient´ıfica. Pese a que las horas que he invertido en mi tesis es escandalosa, pero no m´as de las que dedicaba ´el al trabajo, apenas he hecho nada que finalmente haya ca´ıdo en saco roto. Javier nunca quiso darme las cosas hechas, disfrutaba ayud´andome a buscar y entender las ideas m´as b´asicas y profundas involucradas en el problema que trabaj´abamos para que yo aprendiese a encontrar las soluciones (y consecuentemente m´as problemas) por m´ı mismo. Es por ello que hoy me siento preparado para resolver cualquier problema laboral o incluso personal que se me pueda presentar cuya soluci´on no se encuentre con Google. Javier nunca quiso imponer su visi´on y opini´on como hip´otesis de trabajo, sino que disfrutaba explorando, escuchando y discutiendo conmigo todas las posibilidades que se nos pod´ıan ocurrir. El´ nunca quiso que se le viese como el cient´ıfico excepcional que fue, sino como la persona humilde, alegre y accesible que tambi´en era. Javier no solo me llev´opor la ciencia que conoc´ıa, en la que era una de las personas m´as respetadas y valorada de la comunidad. En los ´ultimos a˜nos, tambi´en me anim´oy apoy´o, invirtiendo una fracci´on muy importante de su tiempo y recursos, a finalizar un trabajo en el que ´el mismo no esperaba estar involucrado. El´ solo pens´oen el impacto que tendr´ıa en mi carrera cient´ıfica, y solo busc´ocomo recompensa disfrutar aprendiendo conmigo esa nueva ciencia para nosotros, para al final poder serme ´util en lo que pudiese, que siempre era much´ısimo. Sinceramente, me siento una persona extremadamente afortunada por haber podido aprender de mis 3 directores de tesis. He tenido el privilegio de poder buscar y recibir aquello que cient´ıficamente pod´ıa esperar de cada uno. Antonio y Alberto son dos investi- gadores extraordinarios y a la vez diferentes, lo que a mi punto de vista se traduce en que son complementarios, y por tanto su suma enriquecedora. Con Javier ten´ıa las virtudes que m´as valoro de los dos en uno solo. ¿C´omo me siento ahora que empiezo mi etapa post-doctoral sin Javier? Hu´erfano. S´eque Alberto y Antonio seguir´an ah´ı. Seguir´an siendo de mi tito y mi yayo siempre. Tambi´en s´eque muchos de vosotros seguir´eis ech´andome un ojo para ver c´omo me va todo y me apoyar´eis en lo que est´een vuestra mano. Pero es innegable que ya no voy a iv In Memoriam poder afrontar el futuro, ya sea en ciencia o no, con la misma ilusi´on y confianza con que lo hubiese hecho teni´endolo a mi lado. Gracias Javier por haberme regalado estos inolvidables a˜nos. Siempre te echar´een falta. v In Memoriam vi Resumen Pese al gran avance que durante las ´ultimas d´ecadas ha habido en nuestro entendimiento del Universo, todav´ıa quedan innumerables cuestiones tanto te´oricas como observacionales pendientes de respuesta. En este sentido, la reciente construcci´on de telescopios de 8-10 m, junto al desarrollo de nuevos y mejores detectores, nos han permitido observar el Universo de manera mucho m´as profunda o, lo que es lo mismo, observarlo cuando era mucho m´as joven. En lo referente a la cosmolog´ıa observacional, en las ´ultimas d´ecadas se han hecho cartografiados del cielo en los que se detectan galaxias muy lejanas, muy j´ovenes o en proceso de formaci´on. Gracias a ello, nuestra visi´on del Universo a gran escala y a grandes distancias ha mejorado significativamente, aunque todav´ıa no hemos hecho m´as que ara˜nar su superficie. Debido a las limitaciones instrumentales, los cartografiados celestes que permiten la detecci´on de la emisi´on de luz de galaxias lejanas y el tratamiento estad´ıstico de los datos no son suficientes para establecer las caracter´ısticas del Universo cuando ten´ıa menos de 1 Ga, ya que la luz que somos capaces de captar desde sitios tan remotos en el Cosmos se limita a las fuentes m´as luminosas que existieron, lo que nos dice muy poco acerca de lo que era “normal” en dicho periodo. El uso de la espectroscop´ıa de absorci´on signific´ouna revoluci´on para la cosmolog´ıa observacional. Esta t´ecnica aprovecha fuentes muy luminosas para su uso como “linter- nas” que alumbran el medio entre la fuente y la Tierra. Las propiedades de dicho medio las podemos inferir no por detectar su luz, sino a trav´es de sus sombras. Dichas linternas fueron originalmente estrellas j´ovenes y masivas, que nos permitieron estudiar nuestra propia Galaxia. Sin embargo, si lo que buscamos es salir de nuestro entorno m´as cer- cano, necesitamos en este caso no s´olo linternas, sino potentes “faros” situados a grandes distancias. Afortunadamente, nuestro Universo dista mucho de ser un lugar tranquilo y en ´el tienen lugar fen´omenos, tanto permanentes como transitorios, lo suficientemente energ´eticos como para generar fuentes de radiaci´on electromagn´eticas lo suficientemente luminosas vii RESUMEN como para que act´uen de “faros c´osmicos” incluso desde el Universo m´as remoto. Los dos tipos de objetos que tradicionalmente se han venido usando como fuentes retroilumi- nadoras son los cu´asares o QSOs, que son fuentes permanentes, y los estallidos de rayos gamma (GRBs), que pese a ser mucho m´as luminosos son eventos transitorios y por tanto s´olo observables durante un breve periodo de tiempo. Los GRBs son los fen´omenos m´as violentos que se conocen en el Universo, y son en s´ımismos fuentes con suficiente inter´es cient´ıfico como para dedicar a ellos una parte de esta Tesis. Desde su descubrimiento casual durante la Guerra Fr´ıa, la naturaleza extrema de estos breves pero intensos estallidos de emisi´on gamma ha fascinado a los astr´onomos. Al inicio, poco pod´ıa saberse de ellos con la instrumentaci´on y los conocimientos de que entonces se dispon´ıa. No obstante, desde finales de los 80 comenzaron a sucederse una serie de trepidantes y apasionantes descubrimientos que culminaron con el descubrimiento de contrapartidas electromagn´eticas (postluminiscencia) que segu´ıan a las fulguraciones en gamma, y la determinaci´on de su car´acter cosmol´ogico. Actualmente se dispone de archivos observacionales y desarrollo te´orico suficientes como para explicar la naturaleza de los GRBs. Dicho trabajo ha servido incluso para estudios cosm´ologicos, como la construcci´on del diagrama de Hubble a alto corrimiento al rojo o redshift. Sin embargo, todav´ıa siguen abiertas muchas cuestiones, tanto en la explicaci´on de eventos at´ıpicos, como en los detalles de los modelos que consiguen explicarlos tan s´olo de un modo gen´erico. En esta tesis se ha abordado, en una primera parte, el estudio multi-frecuencia de un evento que ejemplifica las limitaciones actuales en el conocimiento de la f´ısica de las postluminiscencias o afterglows asociados a GRBs. GRB110715A se detect´oel 15 de julio de 2011 (el nombre de los GRBs se forma a partir de la fecha del evento) y su evoluci´on fue seguida desde m´ultiples observatorios, tanto espaciales como terrestres y en longitudes de onda desde radio hasta rayos gamma.
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