A GUIDE TO OBESITY AND THE METABOLIC SYNDROME ORIGINS AND TREAT MENT GEORG E A. BRA Y Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4398-1457-4 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bray, George A. A guide to obesity and the metabolic syndrome : origins and treatment / by George A. Bray. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4398-1457-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Obesity. 2. Metabolic syndrome. I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Obesity--etiology. 2. Metabolic Syndrome X--etiology. 3. Metabolic Syndrome X--therapy. 4. Obesity--therapy. WD 210] RC628.B6529 2011 616.3’98--dc22 2010033565 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Contents Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv Introduction .....................................................................................................................................xxi PART I Origins of Obesity Chapter 1 Origins of Obesity in the Scientific Era: AD 1500 to the Present ...............................3 Introduction ..................................................................................................................3 Sixteenth Century .........................................................................................................7 Seventeenth Century .................................................................................................. 10 Eighteenth Century .................................................................................................... 16 Nineteenth Century .................................................................................................... 21 Twentieth Century: An Age of Specialization in Science and Medicine ................... 31 Chapter 2 Definition, Measurement, and Prevalence ................................................................. 33 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 33 Definitions .................................................................................................................. 33 Describing Body Composition ................................................................................... 33 Whole Body (Level I) ............................................................................................34 Organ and Tissue Composition (Level II) ............................................................. 35 Cellular Composition (Level III) ...........................................................................36 Molecular Composition (Level IV) .......................................................................36 Atomic Composition (Level V) .............................................................................38 Methods of Measuring Body Weight and Body Fat ...................................................38 Weight, Height, and Body Mass Index ..................................................................38 Central Adiposity...................................................................................................42 Instruments Used to Measure Body Composition ..................................................... 43 Dual X-Ray Absorptiometry ................................................................................. 43 Underwater Weight (Hydrodensitometry) .............................................................44 Whole Body Plethysmography (Bod Pod) .............................................................44 Isotope Dilution ....................................................................................................45 Bioelectrical Impedance ........................................................................................45 Infrared Reactance ................................................................................................45 Total Body Electrical Conductivity ......................................................................45 Instrumental Methods for Measuring Visceral Fat ....................................................45 Body Fat through the Life Span .................................................................................46 Body Fat and Body Energy Stores ............................................................................. 47 Criteria for the Metabolic Syndrome ......................................................................... 47 Prevalence of Obesity .................................................................................................49 Prevalence in Adults in the United States .............................................................49 Prevalence of Overweight in Women: Effects of Ethnicity and Poverty Level .... 53 Prevalence of Obesity around the World ...............................................................54 Prevalence of Obesity and Overweight in Children .............................................. 55 vii © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC viii Contents Metabolic Syndrome ..................................................................................................56 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................57 Chapter 3 Genetic, Metabolic, and Social Origins of Obesity ...................................................59 Introduction ................................................................................................................59 Genetic Factors ...........................................................................................................60 Epigenetic and Intrauterine Imprinting ......................................................................63 Environmental Agents and Obesity: An Epidemiologic Approach ...........................64 Food as an Environmental Agent for Obesity .......................................................64 Costs of Food ....................................................................................................64 Quantity of Food Eaten Is Enough to Produce the Obesity Epidemic .............65 Portion Size .......................................................................................................65 Energy Density .................................................................................................66 Styles of Eating .................................................................................................67 Restaurants and Fast-Food Establishments ......................................................67 Breakfast ...........................................................................................................68 Food Components .............................................................................................69 Calorically Sweetened Soft Drinks ..................................................................69 Dietary Fat ........................................................................................................72 Gut Microbes ....................................................................................................72 Diet ........................................................................................................................73