Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Douglas L

WILEY SERIES IN RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems

Douglas L. Karlen

Editor

Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems

Wiley Series in
Renewable Resources

Series Editor

Christian V . S tevens – Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Titles in the Series

Wood Modiﬁcation – Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes

Callum A. S. Hill

Renewables – Based Technology – Sustainability Assessment

Jo Dewulf & Herman Van Langenhove

Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass

James H. Clark & Fabien E.I. Deswarte

Biofuels

Wim Soetaert & Erick Vandamme

Handbook of Natural Colorants

Thomas Bechtold & Rita Mussak

Surfactants from Renewable Resources

Mikael Kjellin & Ingega¨rd Johansson

Industrial Application of Natural Fibres – Structure, Properties and Technical Applications

Jo¨rg Mu¨ssig

Thermochemical Processing of Biomass – Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power

Robert C. Brown

Bioreﬁnery Co-Products: Phytochemicals, Primary Metabolites and Value-Added Biomass Processing

Chantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier & Shri Ramaswamy

Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and Chemicals

Charles E. Wyman

Bio-Based Plastics: Materials and Applications

Stephan Kabasci

Introduction to Wood and Natural Fiber Composites

Douglas Stokke, Qinglin Wu & Guangping Han

Forthcoming Titles

Cellulose Nanocrystals: Properties, Production and Applications

Wadood Hamad

Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass, 2^ndedition

James Clark & Fabien Deswarte

Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials: Chemistry, Technology and Applications

Francisco Garc´ıa Calvo-Flores, Jose´ A. Dobado, Joaqu´ın Isac Garc´ıa & Francisco J. Martin-Martinez

Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems

Editor

DOUGLAS L. KARLEN

USDA, Agricultural Research Service,
National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, U.S.A.

This edition ﬁrst published 2014

ꢀC

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Karlen, D. L. (Douglas L.) Cellulosic energy cropping systems / editor, Douglas L. Karlen. pages cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-119-99194-6 (cloth)
1. Energy crops. 2. Biomass energy. 3. Cellulose–Biotechnology. 4. Cellulose–Chemistry. I. Title. SB288.K37 2014 333.95^ꢁ39–dc23
2013037386

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 9781119991946 Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

1

2014

This book was conceived and initiated by Dr. David I. Bransby, and it is to him that the final product is dedicated. David is a professor in the Agronomy and Soils Department in the College of Agriculture at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A. A native of South Africa, David arrived at Auburn in 1987 to teach and conduct research in forage and livestock management. Shortly thereafter, he was asked to provide oversight and leadership for a federal, multistate grant focused on high-yielding, low-input herbaceous plants that could be converted to bioenergy. David insisted he was not qualified because he knew nothing about converting biomass to energy and even thought “it was a crazy idea.” He was quickly reassured that “nobody else knew anything about it, either; renewable energy was a totally new area.”
David immediately began learning all he could about the production of energy from biomass while simultaneously educating himself, as an immigrant, about U.S. agriculture. Suddenly he realized that the two topics could provide a nearly perfect union. He surmised that the major commodities were often being overproduced and that the government response through decades of farm programs had created “stagnation in U.S. agriculture by discouraging new ideas and change.”
Nearly three decades later, David has built two research and outreach programs, one in forage and livestock management and one in energy crops and bioenergy, that have both received national and international recognition. A cornerstone of these programs has been David’s emphasis on outreach, built on a philosophy that “the ultimate goal of applied research should be to benefit society, and this goal cannot be achieved without getting involved in outreach.” Through his personal involvement with many different stakeholder groups, David concludes that he has “gathered valuable information that has helped me design more relevant research and improve the content of the courses I teach.”
David is convinced that biofuels made from switchgrass and other agricultural crops and by-products can reduce America’s dependence on foreign oil, strengthen farm economies and revitalize rural communities. “Energy crops, while not a total solution, would help by giving farmers new markets and reducing their dependence on farm subsidies.” He has continued his endeavors because “I believe this is really important stuff. It’s going to play a major role in our country’s future.”

Contents

Foreword

xvii

xix

Series Preface

Preface

xxi

List of Contributors

xxiii

1

Introduction to Cellulosic Energy Crops

1

Mark Laser and Lee Lynd

1.1 Cellulosic Biomass: Deﬁnition, Photosynthesis, and Composition 1.2 Cellulosic Biomass Properties and Their Relevance to Downstream
Processing
14

4

1.2.1 Moisture Content

1.2.2 Energy Density

6

1.2.3 Fixed Carbon/Volatile Matter Ratio 1.2.4 Ash Content
66

1.2.5 Alkali Metal Content

7

1.2.6 Carbohydrate/Lignin Ratio
1.3 Desirable Traits and Potential Supply of Cellulosic Energy Crops 1.4 The Case for Cellulosic Energy Crops References
778
11

2

Conversion Technologies for the Production of Liquid

Fuels and Biochemicals

15

Soﬁe Dobbelaere, Tom Anthonis, and Wim Soetaert

2.1 Introduction

15

16 17 17 19
2.2 Biomass Conversion Technologies 2.3 (Bio)Chemical Conversion Route
2.3.1 Pretreatment 2.3.2 Hydrolysis

viii Contents

2.3.3 Fermentation 2.3.4 Biocatalysis 2.3.5 Catalysis
21 22 22 23 23 24 26 26 27 27 27
2.4 Thermochemical Conversion Route
2.4.1 Pyrolysis 2.4.2 Gasiﬁcation 2.4.3 Liquefaction 2.4.4 Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU) Process
2.5 Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgement References

3

Technologies for Production of Heat and Electricity

Jacob J. Jacobson and Kara G. Cafferty

3.1 Introduction

31

31 33 33 34 35 35 35 37 37 38 39 39
3.2 Combustion
3.2.1 Direct-Fired Combustion 3.2.2 Co-Fired Combustion
3.3 Repowering 3.4 Gasiﬁcation 3.5 Pyrolysis 3.6 Direct Hydrothermal Liquefaction 3.7 Anaerobic Digestion 3.8 Integrated Bioreﬁneries 3.9 Summary References

4

Miscanthus Genetics and Agronomy for Bioenergy Feedstock

43

Maryse Brancourt-Hulmel, Charlotte Demay, Emeline Rosiau,

´

Fabien Ferchaud, Linda Bethencourt, Stephanie Arnoult,

Camille Dauchy, Nicolas Beaudoin, and Hubert Boizard

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition
4.2.1 Phylogeny
43 44 44 46 46 47 48 49 50 50 52 53 54 55
4.2.2 Growth
4.2.2.1 Main Features 4.2.2.2 Use Efﬁciencies for Radiation, Water and Nitrogen
4.2.3 Genetic Diversity for Biomass Production 4.2.4 Genetic Diversity for Biomass Composition
4.3 Cultural Practices
4.3.1 Establishment 4.3.2 Fertilization 4.3.3 Disease, Pest Control 4.3.4 Invasiveness 4.3.5 Harvest Management

Contents ix

4.4 Genetic Improvement

57

57 59 60 60 60 63 63 65 65
4.4.1 Past and Current Projects 4.4.2 Genetic Resources 4.4.3 Traits and Varieties of Interest 4.4.4 Tools for Genetic Studies Breeding and Phenotyping
4.4.4.1 Tools for Genetic Studies and Breeding 4.4.4.2 Tools for Propagation 4.4.4.3 Tools for Phenotyping
4.5 Conclusion References

5

Switchgrass

75

Rob Mitchell, D.K. Lee, and Michael Casler

5.1 Overview 5.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 5.3 Cultural Practices
5.3.1 Establishment and Weed Management 5.3.2 Fertilization 5.3.3 Disease and Pest Management 5.3.4 Harvest Management
5.4 Genetic Improvement 5.5 Summary
75 75 78 79 80 81 81 82 85

85

References

6

Sugarcane, Energy Cane and Napier Grass

Edward P . R ichard, J r . a nd William F . A nderson

6.1 Sugar and Energy Cane

91

91 91 93
6.1.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield, and Chemical Composition 6.1.2 Cultural Practices

6.1.2.1 Establishment

93

6.1.2.2 Fertilization

94

6.1.2.3 Disease, Insect, and Weed Control 6.1.2.4 Harvest Management
6.1.3 Genetic Improvement
95 96 98

6.2 Napier grass

99

6.2.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 6.2.2 Cultural Practices
99
100 100 101 101 101 102 103
6.2.2.1 Establishment 6.2.2.2 Fertilization 6.2.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 6.2.2.4 Harvest Management
6.2.3 Genetic Improvement
References

x

Contents

7

Sorghum

109

William L. Rooney

7.1 Introduction

109

110 110 112 113 114 114 114 115 115 116 116 118 118 118 119 119 121 121 123 123
7.2 Sorghum Phenology, Genetic Structure and Types
7.2.1 Types of Sorghum for Energy Production 7.2.2 Basic Phenological Traits of Importance in Sorghum 7.2.3 Sorghum Composition
7.3.1 Propagation Methods 7.3.2 Establishment 7.3.3 Fertilization 7.3.4 Water Use 7.3.5 Disease and Pest Control 7.3.6 Harvest Management
7.4.1 Development of Hybrid Sorghum and Heterosis 7.4.2 Current Sorghum Breeding Approaches 7.4.3 Germplasm Collections and the Sorghum Conversion Program 7.4.4 Sweet Sorghum 7.4.5 Biomass Sorghum 7.4.6 Breeding for Stress Tolerance
7.5 Summary and Conclusions References

89
Crop Residues

Douglas L. Karlen and David R. Huggins

8.1 Overview 8.2 Corn Stover 8.3 Wheat Straw 8.4 Future Opportunities References

131

131 133 139 143 145

Eucalyptus

149

Michael W. Cunningham and Bijay Tamang

9.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition
9.1.1 Introduction and Phylogeny 9.1.2 Growth and Yield 9.1.3 Wood Composition
9.2.1 Establishment 9.2.2 Fertilization 9.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 9.2.4 Harvest Management (Cutting Height, Season, and Frequency)
149 149 150 151 153 153 154 154 154 155

157

References

Contents xi

10 Pine

David B. South and Mathew Smidt

10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Phylogeny, Chemical Composition

161

161 162 162 163 164 165 165 166 166 166 166 167 167 170 170 171 173 173 173 175 175 175 175 176 176 177 179 180 180
10.1.2 Heat of Combustion 10.1.3 Growth 10.1.4 Energy Yield per ha per Year
10.2.1 Nursery Production 10.2.2 Planting Season 10.2.3 Planting Density 10.2.4 Planting Row Conﬁguration
10.2.4.1 Rectangular Spacing 10.2.4.2 Hybrid System 10.2.4.3 Mixed Genus Conﬁgurations
10.2.5 Weed Control 10.2.6 Fertilization 10.2.7 Insects, Disease and Nematodes 10.2.8 Resin Management
10.3 Harvesting
10.3.1 Harvest Age 10.3.2 Harvest Season 10.3.3 Clearcut Harvests 10.3.4 Thinning Harvest 10.3.5 Residue Harvest 10.3.6 “Hitch a Ride”: Biomass Harvest
10.4 Genetic Improvement 10.5 Economics 10.6 Government Regulations 10.7 Final Comments References

11 Poplar

183

Andrzej Klasa and Doug Karlen

11.1 Introduction 11.2 Cultural Practices
183 184 185 188 191
11.2.1 Establishment 11.2.2 Environmental Beneﬁts 11.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 11.2.4 Harvest Management (Cutting Height, Season, Frequency)
11.3 Genetic Improvement 11.4 Utilization 11.5 Carbon Sequestration and Soil Response References
192 193 193 194 196

xii Contents

12 Development and Deployment of Willow Biomass Crops

Timothy A. V o lk, L. P . A brahamson, T. Buchholz, J. Caputo, and M. Eisenbies

12.1 Introduction

201

201 202 204 208 211 212 214 214
12.2 Shrub Willow Characteristics 12.3 Production Systems for Willow Biomass Crops 12.4 Willow Biomass Crop Economics 12.5 Environmental and Rural Development Beneﬁts 12.6 Commercial Development 12.7 Conclusions References

13 Herbaceous Biomass Logistics

John S. Cundiff

219

13.1 Introduction 13.2 Typical Biomass Logistics Constraints
13.2.1 Resource Constraints
219 220 220 221 221 222 223 225 226 226 229 230 231 231 232 232 233 233 234 234 235 236 236 238 238 239 240 241 241 241 241 241
13.2.2 Purchaser Constraints
13.3 Linkage in Logistics Chain
13.3.1 Model Systems in Commercial Practice 13.3.2 Assigning Unit Operations to Various Business Entities
13.4 Plant Size 13.5 Harvesting
13.5.1 Coupled Versus Uncoupled Systems
13.6 Highway Hauling
13.6.1 Truck Cost 13.6.2 Interaction with Bulk Density 13.6.3 24-h Hauling
13.7 Development of Concept for Multibale Handling Unit
13.7.1 Modulization of Bales 13.7.2 Receiving Facility 13.7.3 Farmgate Contract 13.7.4 Hauling Contract 13.7.5 Application of Information Technologies 13.7.6 Storage 13.7.7 At-Plant Storage
13.8 Functionality Analysis for Rack System Concept
13.8.1 Operation Plan for 24-h Hauling 13.8.2 Operational Plan for Receiving Facility 13.8.3 Size of At-Plant Storage Yard
13.9 Cost Analysis for 24-h Hauling Using Rack System Concept
13.9.1 Truck Cost Excluding Fuel 13.9.2 Truck Fuel Cost 13.9.3 Total Truck Cost 13.9.4 Load, Unload Operations 13.9.5 Size Reduction

Contents xiii

13.10 Summary

242

Appendix 13.A Cost to Operate Workhorse Forklift (Example for

Equipment Cost Calculations)

244

245 245 246 247 248 248

Appendix 13.B Operational Plan for “Rack System” Example

B.1 Operation Plan for SSL Loading B.2 Inﬂuence of SSL Size on Rack Loading Operations B.3 Total Trucks Required – 24-h Hauling B.4 Total Racks Required – 24-h Hauling
References

14 Woody Biomass Logistics

251

Robert Keefe, Nathaniel Anderson, John Hogland, and Ken Muhlenfeld

14.1 Introduction

251

252 252 253 254 255 256 257 259 260 260 260 261 261 261 261 262 262 263 265 265 266 266 266 268 269 269 269 271 271 273 273 274
14.2 Overview of the Woody Biomass Supply Chain
14.2.1 Sources and Scale of Temporal Variability 14.2.2 Preprocessing in the Woody Biomass Supply Chain
14.3 Woody Biomass from Dedicated Energy Crops 14.4 Woody Biomass from Stand Thinning 14.5 Logging Residues
14.5.1 Whole Tree Versus Cut-to-Length 14.5.2 Effect of Source on Feedstock Quality
14.6 Harvesting and Processing Systems and Equipment
14.6.1 Harvesting 14.6.2 Single-Grip Harvesters 14.6.3 Feller-Bunchers 14.6.4 Short-Rotation Woody Crop Harvesters 14.6.5 Ground-Based Skidding and Forwarding 14.6.6 Slash Forwarders and Chipper-Forwarders 14.6.7 Shovel Logging 14.6.8 Chippers 14.6.9 Grinders 14.6.10 Portable Conveyors 14.6.11 Combined Harvesting and Processing Equipment
14.7 Woody Biomass Transportation
14.7.1 Regulatory Considerations 14.7.2 Operational Considerations 14.7.3 Concentration Yards
14.8 Pretreatment
14.8.1 Mechanical and Chemical Pretreatments 14.8.2 Thermal Pretreatments 14.8.3 Locating Pretreatment Operations
14.9 Handling and Storage 14.10 Logistics Management
14.10.1 Delivered Cost and Woody Biomass Logistics 14.10.2 Spatial Analysis of Woody Biomass Logistics