Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Douglas L

WILEY SERIES IN RENEWABLE RESOURCES Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Douglas L. Karlen Editor Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Wiley Series in Renewable Resources Series Editor Christian V . S tevens – Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Titles in the Series Wood Modification – Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes Callum A. S. Hill Renewables – Based Technology – Sustainability Assessment Jo Dewulf & Herman Van Langenhove Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass James H. Clark & Fabien E.I. Deswarte Biofuels Wim Soetaert & Erick Vandamme Handbook of Natural Colorants Thomas Bechtold & Rita Mussak Surfactants from Renewable Resources Mikael Kjellin & Ingega¨rd Johansson Industrial Application of Natural Fibres – Structure, Properties and Technical Applications Jo¨rg Mu¨ssig Thermochemical Processing of Biomass – Conversion into Fuels, Chemicals and Power Robert C. Brown Biorefinery Co-Products: Phytochemicals, Primary Metabolites and Value-Added Biomass Processing Chantal Bergeron, Danielle Julie Carrier & Shri Ramaswamy Aqueous Pretreatment of Plant Biomass for Biological and Chemical Conversion to Fuels and Chemicals Charles E. Wyman Bio-Based Plastics: Materials and Applications Stephan Kabasci Introduction to Wood and Natural Fiber Composites Douglas Stokke, Qinglin Wu & Guangping Han Forthcoming Titles Cellulose Nanocrystals: Properties, Production and Applications Wadood Hamad Introduction to Chemicals from Biomass, 2nd edition James Clark & Fabien Deswarte Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials: Chemistry, Technology and Applications Francisco Garc´ıa Calvo-Flores, Jose´ A. Dobado, Joaqu´ın Isac Garc´ıa & Francisco J. Martin-Martinez Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Editor DOUGLAS L. KARLEN USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, U.S.A. This edition first published 2014 ꢀC 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at <a href="/goto?url=http://www.wiley.com" target="_blank">www.wiley.com. </a>The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Karlen, D. L. (Douglas L.) Cellulosic energy cropping systems / editor, Douglas L. Karlen. pages cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-119-99194-6 (cloth) 1. Energy crops. 2. Biomass energy. 3. Cellulose–Biotechnology. 4. Cellulose–Chemistry. I. Title. SB288.K37 2014 333.95ꢁ39–dc23 2013037386 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 9781119991946 Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">1</li><li style="flex:1">2014 </li></ul>This book was conceived and initiated by Dr. David I. Bransby, and it is to him that the final product is dedicated. David is a professor in the Agronomy and Soils Department in the College of Agriculture at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A. A native of South Africa, David arrived at Auburn in 1987 to teach and conduct research in forage and livestock management. Shortly thereafter, he was asked to provide oversight and leadership for a federal, multistate grant focused on high-yielding, low-input herbaceous plants that could be converted to bioenergy. David insisted he was not qualified because he knew nothing about converting biomass to energy and even thought “it was a crazy idea.” He was quickly reassured that “nobody else knew anything about it, either; renewable energy was a totally new area.” David immediately began learning all he could about the production of energy from biomass while simultaneously educating himself, as an immigrant, about U.S. agriculture. Suddenly he realized that the two topics could provide a nearly perfect union. He surmised that the major commodities were often being overproduced and that the government response through decades of farm programs had created “stagnation in U.S. agriculture by discouraging new ideas and change.” Nearly three decades later, David has built two research and outreach programs, one in forage and livestock management and one in energy crops and bioenergy, that have both received national and international recognition. A cornerstone of these programs has been David’s emphasis on outreach, built on a philosophy that “the ultimate goal of applied research should be to benefit society, and this goal cannot be achieved without getting involved in outreach.” Through his personal involvement with many different stakeholder groups, David concludes that he has “gathered valuable information that has helped me design more relevant research and improve the content of the courses I teach.” David is convinced that biofuels made from switchgrass and other agricultural crops and by-products can reduce America’s dependence on foreign oil, strengthen farm economies and revitalize rural communities. “Energy crops, while not a total solution, would help by giving farmers new markets and reducing their dependence on farm subsidies.” He has continued his endeavors because “I believe this is really important stuff. It’s going to play a major role in our country’s future.” Contents <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Foreword </li><li style="flex:1">xvii </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">xix </li><li style="flex:1">Series Preface </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Preface </li><li style="flex:1">xxi </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">List of Contributors </li><li style="flex:1">xxiii </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">1</li><li style="flex:1">Introduction to Cellulosic Energy Crops </li><li style="flex:1">1</li></ul>Mark Laser and Lee Lynd 1.1 Cellulosic Biomass: Definition, Photosynthesis, and Composition 1.2 Cellulosic Biomass Properties and Their Relevance to Downstream Processing 14<ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">4</li><li style="flex:1">1.2.1 Moisture Content </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">1.2.2 Energy Density </li><li style="flex:1">6</li></ul>1.2.3 Fixed Carbon/Volatile Matter Ratio 1.2.4 Ash Content 66<ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">1.2.5 Alkali Metal Content </li><li style="flex:1">7</li></ul>1.2.6 Carbohydrate/Lignin Ratio 1.3 Desirable Traits and Potential Supply of Cellulosic Energy Crops 1.4 The Case for Cellulosic Energy Crops References 778 11 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2</li><li style="flex:1">Conversion Technologies for the Production of Liquid </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Fuels and Biochemicals </li><li style="flex:1">15 </li></ul>Sofie Dobbelaere, Tom Anthonis, and Wim Soetaert <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2.1 Introduction </li><li style="flex:1">15 </li></ul>16 17 17 19 2.2 Biomass Conversion Technologies 2.3 (Bio)Chemical Conversion Route 2.3.1 Pretreatment 2.3.2 Hydrolysis viii Contents 2.3.3 Fermentation 2.3.4 Biocatalysis 2.3.5 Catalysis 21 22 22 23 23 24 26 26 27 27 27 2.4 Thermochemical Conversion Route 2.4.1 Pyrolysis 2.4.2 Gasification 2.4.3 Liquefaction 2.4.4 Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU) Process 2.5 Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgement References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">3</li><li style="flex:1">Technologies for Production of Heat and Electricity </li></ul>Jacob J. Jacobson and Kara G. Cafferty 3.1 Introduction 31 31 33 33 34 35 35 35 37 37 38 39 39 3.2 Combustion 3.2.1 Direct-Fired Combustion 3.2.2 Co-Fired Combustion 3.3 Repowering 3.4 Gasification 3.5 Pyrolysis 3.6 Direct Hydrothermal Liquefaction 3.7 Anaerobic Digestion 3.8 Integrated Biorefineries 3.9 Summary References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">4</li><li style="flex:1">Miscanthus Genetics and Agronomy for Bioenergy Feedstock </li><li style="flex:1">43 </li></ul>Maryse Brancourt-Hulmel, Charlotte Demay, Emeline Rosiau, <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">´</li><li style="flex:1">Fabien Ferchaud, Linda Bethencourt, Stephanie Arnoult, </li></ul>Camille Dauchy, Nicolas Beaudoin, and Hubert Boizard 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 4.2.1 Phylogeny 43 44 44 46 46 47 48 49 50 50 52 53 54 55 4.2.2 Growth 4.2.2.1 Main Features 4.2.2.2 Use Efficiencies for Radiation, Water and Nitrogen 4.2.3 Genetic Diversity for Biomass Production 4.2.4 Genetic Diversity for Biomass Composition 4.3 Cultural Practices 4.3.1 Establishment 4.3.2 Fertilization 4.3.3 Disease, Pest Control 4.3.4 Invasiveness 4.3.5 Harvest Management Contents ix <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">4.4 Genetic Improvement </li><li style="flex:1">57 </li></ul>57 59 60 60 60 63 63 65 65 4.4.1 Past and Current Projects 4.4.2 Genetic Resources 4.4.3 Traits and Varieties of Interest 4.4.4 Tools for Genetic Studies Breeding and Phenotyping 4.4.4.1 Tools for Genetic Studies and Breeding 4.4.4.2 Tools for Propagation 4.4.4.3 Tools for Phenotyping 4.5 Conclusion References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">5</li><li style="flex:1">Switchgrass </li><li style="flex:1">75 </li></ul>Rob Mitchell, D.K. Lee, and Michael Casler 5.1 Overview 5.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 5.3 Cultural Practices 5.3.1 Establishment and Weed Management 5.3.2 Fertilization 5.3.3 Disease and Pest Management 5.3.4 Harvest Management 5.4 Genetic Improvement 5.5 Summary 75 75 78 79 80 81 81 82 85 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">85 </li><li style="flex:1">References </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">6</li><li style="flex:1">Sugarcane, Energy Cane and Napier Grass </li></ul>Edward P . R ichard, J r . a nd William F . A nderson 6.1 Sugar and Energy Cane 91 91 91 93 6.1.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield, and Chemical Composition 6.1.2 Cultural Practices <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">6.1.2.1 Establishment </li><li style="flex:1">93 </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">6.1.2.2 Fertilization </li><li style="flex:1">94 </li></ul>6.1.2.3 Disease, Insect, and Weed Control 6.1.2.4 Harvest Management 6.1.3 Genetic Improvement 95 96 98 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">6.2 Napier grass </li><li style="flex:1">99 </li></ul>6.2.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 6.2.2 Cultural Practices 99 100 100 101 101 101 102 103 6.2.2.1 Establishment 6.2.2.2 Fertilization 6.2.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 6.2.2.4 Harvest Management 6.2.3 Genetic Improvement References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">x</li><li style="flex:1">Contents </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">7</li><li style="flex:1">Sorghum </li><li style="flex:1">109 </li></ul>William L. Rooney <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">7.1 Introduction </li><li style="flex:1">109 </li></ul>110 110 112 113 114 114 114 115 115 116 116 118 118 118 119 119 121 121 123 123 7.2 Sorghum Phenology, Genetic Structure and Types 7.2.1 Types of Sorghum for Energy Production 7.2.2 Basic Phenological Traits of Importance in Sorghum 7.2.3 Sorghum Composition 7.3 Cultural Practices 7.3.1 Propagation Methods 7.3.2 Establishment 7.3.3 Fertilization 7.3.4 Water Use 7.3.5 Disease and Pest Control 7.3.6 Harvest Management 7.4 Genetic Improvement 7.4.1 Development of Hybrid Sorghum and Heterosis 7.4.2 Current Sorghum Breeding Approaches 7.4.3 Germplasm Collections and the Sorghum Conversion Program 7.4.4 Sweet Sorghum 7.4.5 Biomass Sorghum 7.4.6 Breeding for Stress Tolerance 7.5 Summary and Conclusions References 89 Crop Residues Douglas L. Karlen and David R. Huggins 8.1 Overview 8.2 Corn Stover 8.3 Wheat Straw 8.4 Future Opportunities References 131 131 133 139 143 145 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Eucalyptus </li><li style="flex:1">149 </li></ul>Michael W. Cunningham and Bijay Tamang 9.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 9.1.1 Introduction and Phylogeny 9.1.2 Growth and Yield 9.1.3 Wood Composition 9.2 Cultural Practices 9.2.1 Establishment 9.2.2 Fertilization 9.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 9.2.4 Harvest Management (Cutting Height, Season, and Frequency) 9.3 Genetic Improvement 149 149 150 151 153 153 154 154 154 155 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">157 </li><li style="flex:1">References </li></ul>Contents xi 10 Pine David B. South and Mathew Smidt 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Phylogeny, Chemical Composition 161 161 162 162 163 164 165 165 166 166 166 166 167 167 170 170 171 173 173 173 175 175 175 175 176 176 177 179 180 180 10.1.2 Heat of Combustion 10.1.3 Growth 10.1.4 Energy Yield per ha per Year 10.2 Cultural Practices 10.2.1 Nursery Production 10.2.2 Planting Season 10.2.3 Planting Density 10.2.4 Planting Row Configuration 10.2.4.1 Rectangular Spacing 10.2.4.2 Hybrid System 10.2.4.3 Mixed Genus Configurations 10.2.5 Weed Control 10.2.6 Fertilization 10.2.7 Insects, Disease and Nematodes 10.2.8 Resin Management 10.3 Harvesting 10.3.1 Harvest Age 10.3.2 Harvest Season 10.3.3 Clearcut Harvests 10.3.4 Thinning Harvest 10.3.5 Residue Harvest 10.3.6 “Hitch a Ride”: Biomass Harvest 10.4 Genetic Improvement 10.5 Economics 10.6 Government Regulations 10.7 Final Comments References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">11 Poplar </li><li style="flex:1">183 </li></ul>Andrzej Klasa and Doug Karlen 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Cultural Practices 183 184 185 188 191 11.2.1 Establishment 11.2.2 Environmental Benefits 11.2.3 Disease and Pest Control 11.2.4 Harvest Management (Cutting Height, Season, Frequency) 11.3 Genetic Improvement 11.4 Utilization 11.5 Carbon Sequestration and Soil Response References 192 193 193 194 196 xii Contents 12 Development and Deployment of Willow Biomass Crops Timothy A. V o lk, L. P . A brahamson, T. Buchholz, J. Caputo, and M. Eisenbies 12.1 Introduction 201 201 202 204 208 211 212 214 214 12.2 Shrub Willow Characteristics 12.3 Production Systems for Willow Biomass Crops 12.4 Willow Biomass Crop Economics 12.5 Environmental and Rural Development Benefits 12.6 Commercial Development 12.7 Conclusions References 13 Herbaceous Biomass Logistics John S. Cundiff 219 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Typical Biomass Logistics Constraints 13.2.1 Resource Constraints 219 220 220 221 221 222 223 225 226 226 229 230 231 231 232 232 233 233 234 234 235 236 236 238 238 239 240 241 241 241 241 241 13.2.2 Purchaser Constraints 13.3 Linkage in Logistics Chain 13.3.1 Model Systems in Commercial Practice 13.3.2 Assigning Unit Operations to Various Business Entities 13.4 Plant Size 13.5 Harvesting 13.5.1 Coupled Versus Uncoupled Systems 13.6 Highway Hauling 13.6.1 Truck Cost 13.6.2 Interaction with Bulk Density 13.6.3 24-h Hauling 13.7 Development of Concept for Multibale Handling Unit 13.7.1 Modulization of Bales 13.7.2 Receiving Facility 13.7.3 Farmgate Contract 13.7.4 Hauling Contract 13.7.5 Application of Information Technologies 13.7.6 Storage 13.7.7 At-Plant Storage 13.8 Functionality Analysis for Rack System Concept 13.8.1 Operation Plan for 24-h Hauling 13.8.2 Operational Plan for Receiving Facility 13.8.3 Size of At-Plant Storage Yard 13.9 Cost Analysis for 24-h Hauling Using Rack System Concept 13.9.1 Truck Cost Excluding Fuel 13.9.2 Truck Fuel Cost 13.9.3 Total Truck Cost 13.9.4 Load, Unload Operations 13.9.5 Size Reduction Contents xiii <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">13.10 Summary </li><li style="flex:1">242 </li></ul>Appendix 13.A Cost to Operate Workhorse Forklift (Example for <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Equipment Cost Calculations) </li><li style="flex:1">244 </li></ul>245 245 246 247 248 248 Appendix 13.B Operational Plan for “Rack System” Example B.1 Operation Plan for SSL Loading B.2 Influence of SSL Size on Rack Loading Operations B.3 Total Trucks Required – 24-h Hauling B.4 Total Racks Required – 24-h Hauling References <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">14 Woody Biomass Logistics </li><li style="flex:1">251 </li></ul>Robert Keefe, Nathaniel Anderson, John Hogland, and Ken Muhlenfeld <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">14.1 Introduction </li><li style="flex:1">251 </li></ul>252 252 253 254 255 256 257 259 260 260 260 261 261 261 261 262 262 263 265 265 266 266 266 268 269 269 269 271 271 273 273 274 14.2 Overview of the Woody Biomass Supply Chain 14.2.1 Sources and Scale of Temporal Variability 14.2.2 Preprocessing in the Woody Biomass Supply Chain 14.3 Woody Biomass from Dedicated Energy Crops 14.4 Woody Biomass from Stand Thinning 14.5 Logging Residues 14.5.1 Whole Tree Versus Cut-to-Length 14.5.2 Effect of Source on Feedstock Quality 14.6 Harvesting and Processing Systems and Equipment 14.6.1 Harvesting 14.6.2 Single-Grip Harvesters 14.6.3 Feller-Bunchers 14.6.4 Short-Rotation Woody Crop Harvesters 14.6.5 Ground-Based Skidding and Forwarding 14.6.6 Slash Forwarders and Chipper-Forwarders 14.6.7 Shovel Logging 14.6.8 Chippers 14.6.9 Grinders 14.6.10 Portable Conveyors 14.6.11 Combined Harvesting and Processing Equipment 14.7 Woody Biomass Transportation 14.7.1 Regulatory Considerations 14.7.2 Operational Considerations 14.7.3 Concentration Yards 14.8 Pretreatment 14.8.1 Mechanical and Chemical Pretreatments 14.8.2 Thermal Pretreatments 14.8.3 Locating Pretreatment Operations 14.9 Handling and Storage 14.10 Logistics Management 14.10.1 Delivered Cost and Woody Biomass Logistics 14.10.2 Spatial Analysis of Woody Biomass Logistics

Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems Douglas L

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