Oil, Gas & Coal
Marco Mazzotti CCS and the Industry of Carbon-Based Resources – FS2020 February 24th, 2020
| | CCS overview
I. Fossil fuel resources and II. CO2 and III.CCS: the global energy system climate change the concept
years millions of years seconds hours/days years millenia
| 24/02/2020 | 2 Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing Fossil fuels – stratigraphic age distribution
Legend: CAMBRIAN, ORDOVICIAN, SILURIAN, DEVONIAN, MISSISSIPPIAN, PENNSYLVANIAN, PERMIAN, TRIASSIC, JURASSIC, CRETACEOUS, TERTIARY, QUATERNARY.
| 24/02/2020 | 3 Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing Fossil fuels – an overview Decay of biomass through bio-geochemical processes
Not present in nature
Coal Oil Natural gas Hydrogen solid liquid gas gas
~ 2C/1H ~ 1C/2H ~ 1C/4H H2 100% 100% Carbon Hydrogen
Production 3,900,000,000 toe 4,200,000,000 toe 2,900,000,000 toe 200,000,000 toe (2012, world)
Uses Heat & electricity
Coke (Steel) Chemicals Transport Hydrogen ~12% ~15% ~53%
| 24/02/2020 | 4 From last week
| 24/02/2020 | 5 Readings . Daniel Yergin „The prize – The epic quest for oil, money & power“, 1991 . Daniel Yergin „The quest – Energy, security, and the remaking of the modern world“, 2011 . Vaclav Smil „Energy at the crossroads – Global perspectives and uncertainties“, 2003 (chapter 4) . Rachel Maddow „Blowout – Corrupted democracy, rogue state Russia, and the richest, most destructive industry on earth“, 2019 . William T. Vollmann „No immediate danger – Vol. 1 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (nuclear) . William T. Vollmann „No good alternative – Vol. 2 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (coal, natural gas and oil)
| 24/02/2020 | 6 Today’s topics
. Oil & Gas . Extraction technologies
. Formation . Uses and Processing
. Chemistry . Emissions
. Types . Further Information
. Extraction technologies . Production, Consumption and Trade . Uses and Processing . Global Distribution . Coal
. Formation
. Chemistry
. Types
| 24/02/2020 | 7 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas
. Tiny marine organisms die, sink, and accumulate on the seafloor . Their remains get buried deeper and deeper by sediments, thereby experiencing more and more heat and pressure. . This transforms the organic matter into oil and gas,
that form within the source rock and accumulate in geological traps. www.need-media.smugmug.com
| 24/02/2020 | 8 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas . Oil window: region in which kerogen breaks down . Crude oil & gas moves from source - to into crude oil and gas (2-6 km depth) reservoir rock through primary (due to pressure) and secondary migration (due to buoyancy), where it accumulates – given that there is a geological trap . High porosity & permeability = good reservoir rock
www.gg.uwyo.edu Earth's Natural Resources, John V. Walther, pp 34
| 24/02/2020 | 9 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas: traps
www.geologyin.com
| 24/02/2020 | 10 Oil & Gas: chemistry Chemistry of oil
. Crude oil is a mix of different Compound Percentage range hydrocarbons such as alkanes (CnH2n+2) (by wt.) and naphthenes (cycloalkanes, CnH2n), n(5, …, ~40) C 83 – 85% H 10 – 14% N 0.1 – 2% Octane: O 0.05 – 1.5% S 0.05 – 6.0%
. n = 5 (pentane) to n = 10 (decane) is (Metals) < 0.1% wikipedia refined into gasoline . n = 10-20 into jet fuel, heating oil, & diesel . Crude oil is classified by . n > 20 into fuel oil and lubricating oils . Location of production (e.g. West Texas Intermediate from N-America, Brent from the . n > 70 is bitumen (asphalt) North sea) . The lightest compounds with n < 4 are the . Density (light and heavy, light is preferred) petroleum gases, that are flared off or . Sulfur content (sweet = low S (< 0.5%) and sour, sweet is preferred) pressurized to be sold as liquified petroleum gases (LPG)
| 24/02/2020 | 11 Oil & Gas: chemistry Chemistry of gas
. Natural gas is a mix of hydrocarbon Component Typical gases, and predominantly consists of percentage methane (CH4) and to a lesser amount of range the other n < 4 alkanes Methane CH 70 – 98% . All non-methane hydrocarbon 4 compounds are known as “natural gas Ethane C2H6 1 – 10%
liquids (NGL)”, which are already liquid at Propane C3H8 < 5% room conditions (“gas condensate”) can Butane C H < 2% be compressed for liquefaction (e.g. 4 10 butane in fire lighters) (Pentane) C5H12 trace
. Non-hydrocarbon components such as Non-hydrocarbons (CO2 various CO2, water vapor, nitrogen, helium and etc.) hydrogen sulfide H2S can be present in SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas” large proportions . Natural gas liquefies when cooled to . All of these impurities, especially CO2 -162°C. Only in liquid state it is and H2S must be removed («gas suitable for long-distance transport as sweetening») before transport and “liquefied natural gas” (LNG) using commercialization ships.
| 24/02/2020 | 12 Oil & Gas: chemistry C/H ratio of carbon-based fuels
. The lower the C/H ratio the lower the CO2 emissions upon burning. Therefore natural gas is a particularly attractive fossil fuel . It’s main drawback is its low volumetric energy density
SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas”
| 24/02/2020 | 13 Oil & Gas: chemistry Volumetric E-density of carbon-based fuels
MJ/Liter
. Unlike oil, natural gas needs to be pressurized and/or cryogenically liquefied in order to allow for safe and economic transport and storage . Such conditioning incurs high handling costs and relies on a heavy infrastructure to reach end- consumers
SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas”
| 24/02/2020 | 14 Oil & Gas: types Conventional and unconventional oil & gas
. Conventional reservoirs: Buoyant forces keep hydrocarbons in place inside well-connected rock pores below a sealing cap rock . Thus, the hydrocarbons form discrete, well-defined accumulations of crude oil and natural gas (methane 80%, propane, ethane…) . Reservoir and fluid & oil characteristics allow the resource to flow readily into a wellbore (high permeability rocks, low viscosity fluids) . Unconventional reservoirs: Hydrocarbons exist inside poorly connected pores or they are too viscous/heavy, so as bouyant forces are insufficitent to expel them from the reservoir . The resource is typically distributed throughout a reservoir at the basin scale (i.e. over large extents of rock)
| 24/02/2020 | 15 Oil & Gas: types Conventional and unconventional oil & gas
. Conventional reservoirs tend to require less technology to be developed and to yield higher recovery rates . Unconventional reservoirs require more technology but are larger in volume . Once the technology is developed, resources turn into reserves (e.g. shale gas)
| 24/02/2020 | 16 Oil & Gas: types Unconventional oil
Oil sands Oil shales Tight oil Heavy, dense, viscous bitumen Fine grained sediments Light crude oil contained in trapped in sand or sandstone containing significant amounts formations of low permeability, of kerogen (low permeatility) namely in petroleum-bearing tight sandstones and shales Surface mining or steam-assisted Open mining or heating underground to release hydrocarbons into production (very expensive) reservoirs
“Hydrocracking”: break long chains Extract liquid “shale oil” and “shale oil gas” via pyrolysis-
into kerosene/gasoline with H2 hydrogenation (above 300°C) of kerogen (natural gas required)
| 24/02/2020 | 17 Oil & Gas: types Unconventional gas Coalbed methane Tight gas Shale gas Methane hydrates (CBM)
Low permeability Extremely low H2O molecules form a Gas created by reservoir rock consisting permeability reservoir crystalline cage around a maturing of coal and is of sandstone or limestone rock consisting of CH4 molecule, stable released when coal is shale (the most only under high pressure fractured abundant sedimentary and temperature in deep • > 95% methane
rock), where the gas is sea (sediments) and in (rest is N2 and CO2) generated in place permafrost requires little pre- (source rock). treatment
• Vertical well • Horizontal drilling • Depressurization • Depressurization (conventional) (lowering water level (lowering water level stimulation inside well) inside well) gas • More recently: • Thermal stimulation flows into horizontal drilling • Destabilization conventional wells enables to access (adding chemicals) larger regions of the • CO2 injection reservoir
| 24/02/2020 | 18 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Conventional oil & gas: vertical drilling
Oil & dissolved associated gas («solution gas»): Oil & associated gas cap («free gas»):
Flare Gas export Gas export Separa tor Oil export Separa tor Oil export
Non-associated gas: “Wet gas” if it contains NGLs Gas is re-injected that are liquid at room for P-management conditions (= condensate) Gas export Separa tor Condensate export
. Note: natural gas was long considered an unwanted by-product of oil that was flared or at best used for reservoir pressure management. It was only considered as a commercial prospect when deposits were located close to markets or gas infrasturcture
| 24/02/2020 | 19 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking
Well casing
American Petroleum Institute
| 24/02/2020 | 20 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking
Multilateral wells
DOE 2009, DE-FG26-04NT15455
| 24/02/2020 | 21 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking
Volumetric composition of fracture fluid used in TX
| 24/02/2020 | 22 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking
Microseismic monitoring
| 24/02/2020 | 23 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Fracking: depressurization and production rate
. To initiate production ground water and some of the fracturing fluid are pumped out . With decreasing pressure methane desorbs from the coal and flows to the production well
Modified from Kuuskraa and Brandenberg (1989), Source: US Geological Survey
| 24/02/2020 | 24 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies
Fracking: issues Flooded drillsite during the Shale drillsite in Upshur county, WV 500y flood in Colorado, Sep 2013
. Fresh water use (in arid zones) . up to 24 Mio L per well . Chemicals in frack fluid
. Wastewater back-flow comes with highDOE 2009, DE-FG26-04NT15455 www.ecowatch.com solute conc. (e.g. heavy metals) . threat to ground- and surface waters
. Parasitic CH4 losses
. 25 x higher warming potential than CO2 . Induced seismicity . Land use Could be done with lateral drilling
Ellsworth, 2013
www.ecoflight.net Jonah field, WY
| 24/02/2020 | 25 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Oil: conceptual product classes
www.bp.com
| 24/02/2020 | 26 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Refining: Crude oil atmospheric distillation tower
Uses
www.chemwiki.ucdavis.edu https://sciencetuition.wordpress.com
| 24/02/2020 | 27 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Petrochemicals: sources
| 24/02/2020 | 29 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Petrochemicals: industry map
| 24/02/2020 | 30 Oil & Gas: uses and processing U.S. petroleum flow, 2018 1 barrel = 0.16 cubic meter
30%
> 69%
< 0.01%
https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/flow/petroleum.pdf https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrocarbon-gas-liquids/uses-of-hydrocarbon-gas-liquids.php | 24/02/2020 | 31 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas processing and distribution
https://www2.dteenergy.com
| 24/02/2020 | 32 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas processing and distribution
Production 1. Before natural gas is distributed, it first must be sent to a processing or "stripping" plant where it is cleaned and separated. 2. Secondary byproducts, including oils and impurities and heavier hydrocarbons, including butane, ethane, and propane get removed, reprocessed, packaged and sent to market. Transmission 3. As natural gas leaves the processing plant, it enters a compressor station where it is pressurized for transmission. 4. As the pressure is increased, the volume of natural gas is reduced and more natural gas can be filled into the same unit space while the pressure needed to move natural gas through pipelines is achieved. 5. As natural gas travels through pipelines, some pressure is lost due to fluid friction caused by the natural gas rubbing against the inside walls of the pipes. 6. This loss of pressure is made up at compressor substations located every 50 to 100 miles along the transmission pipelines. Distribution 7. Upon reaching a major metropolitan area, some natural gas is diverted through a "city gate" where its pressure is reduced, measured, and sold to the local gas company. 8. From the city gate, the natural gas company distributes the natural gas through an underground network of smaller pipelines called "mains." Smaller lines called "services" connect with the mains and go directly to end-users.
| 24/02/2020 | 33 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas processing
| 24/02/2020 | 34 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas: LNG – Liquefied Natural Gas
www.goldenpassterminal.com
| 24/02/2020 | 35 Oil & Gas: Uses and Processing Qatar and Shell Pearl GTL
BP Statistical Review of World Energy, U.S. Department of Energy
www.qia-qatar.com www.imagination.com | 24/02/2020 | 36 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Shell Pearl GTL
1. Producing natural gas Qatar's North Field is the world's largest natural gas field. It contains over 900 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, about 15% of the global total. Two unmanned offshore platforms each operate 11 wells. The gas flows through two pipelines to processing facilities at the onshore Ras Laffan industrial zone.. 2. Separating the gas Water and condensates are separated from the gas. Other components, such as sulphur, are also removed and cleaned. The gas is then cooled and the natural gas liquids are removed via distillation. The remaining pure natural gas (methane) flows to the gasification unit. 3. Making synthesis gas In the gasifier at around 1,400-1,600°C) the methane and oxygen are converted exothermically into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide known as synthesis gas, or syngas. 4. Making liquid waxy hydrocarbons The synthesis gas enters one of 24 reactors. Each reactor holds a large number of tubes containing a Shell proprietary catalyst. The catalyst serves to speed up the exothermic chemical reaction in which the synthesis gas is converted into long-chained waxy hydrocarbons and water. 5. Making GTL (gas to liquids) products The plant creates a range of products from natural gas that would otherwise be produced from oil. Using another Shell proprietary catalyst, the long hydrocarbon molecules from the GTL reactor are contacted with hydrogen and cut (cracked) into a range of smaller molecules of different length and shape. Distillation separates out the products with different boiling points. 6. Extracting pure oxygen Pure oxygen for the gasification process is extracted from the air through eight vast air separation units. Air is cooled to liquefy the oxygen and nitrogen. Distillation separates out oxygen in a “cold box” – like an icebox, this helps to maintain the low temperature that is required to separate the oxygen. 7. Generating power using residual heat Residual heat from various steps of the process makes steam that helps drive large compressors. 8. Reusing water (Formerly Effluent Treatment Plant) The plant does not draw on any water from Qatar’s resources. It reuses process water as cooling water and to generate steam for power.
| 24/02/2020 | 37 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas: GTL – Gas to Liquid
| 24/02/2020 | 38 Oil & Gas: uses and processing Gas: Conceptual GTL process
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process: converts a synthesis gas (syngas), i.e. a
mixture of CO and H2, into liquid hydrocarbons
| 24/02/2020 | 39 U.S. natural gas flow, 2018 1 cubic foot = 0.028 cubic meter
61%
3%
36%
| 24/02/2020 | 40 Coal: formation Formation of coal
. Coal stems from incomplete decay (peatification) and burial (coalification) of higher terrestrial plants.
www.need-media.smugmug.com
| 24/02/2020 | 42 Coal: formation Peat . «Peat is the surface organic matter of a soil, consisting of partially decomposed organic material, derived mostly from plants, that has accumulated under conditions of waterlogging, oxygen deficiency, acidity and nutrient deficiency». . In temperate, boreal and sub-arctic conditions, peat is formed from mosses, herbs etc. . In humid tropics, peat is formed from rain forest trees
www.allposters.com www.greenpeaceblogs.org Peat Bog, Oulanka National Park, FIN Peat Swamp Forest in Sumatra Joosten & Clarke, Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands, 2002; Page et al., Nature, 420, 61-65, 2002; World Energy Council, 2013
| 24/02/2020 | 43 Coal: formation Peatification and coalification
Biochemical Living plant on the surface Dead organic decomposition (biomass) matter (peatification) on the surface (in thousands of years) . Typically, peat deposits form in waterlogged environments where plant debris accumulates as the accumulation of plant debris exceeds the rate of bacterial decay of plant debris. The bacterial decay rate is reduced because the available oxygen in organic-rich water is completely used up by the decaying process (anaerobic decay is much slower than aerobic decay). . «Gasification» is one of the major processes during peatification. Here, the
greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2 are the by-products of anaerobic microorganisms (methanogens).
Source: www.uky.edu
| 24/02/2020 | 44 Coal: formation Peatification and coalification
Biochemical Living plant on the surface Dead organic decomposition (biomass) matter (peatification) on the surface (in thousands of years) . For peat to become coal it must be buried by sediment. Burial compacts the peat and water is burial squeezed out during the first stages of burial. Continued burial and time causes the complex hydrocarbons of the peat to break down Physicochemical . During coalification the chemical and physical decomposition (coalification properties of organic matter from peat become in the subsurface) (in millions denser, drier, more carbon-rich and harder in coal. of years)
Source: www.uky.edu
| 24/02/2020 | 45 Coal: formation Peatification and coalification
Biochemical Living plant on the surface Dead organic decomposition (biomass) matter (peatification) on the surface (in thousands of years)
burial
Physicochemical decomposition (coalification in the subsurface) (in millions of years)
. The stages of this process are peat, lignite, sub- bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite (and graphite, i.e. pure carbon) www.uky.edu
| 24/02/2020 | 46 Coal: chemistry Chemistry of coal . Structure . Complex structure Compound Content wt. % . Largely composed of organic material Organic 95 (85-95 wt.%) C 73 . Organic material occurs in so-called H 5.2 «macerals» (can be identified by microscope) that reflect the nature of the O 20 precursor plant N 1 . Contains also various inorganic S <1 materials, e.g. aluminosilicates, pyrite, etc. (5-15 wt.%) Inorganic (Si, Al, 5 Fe, Ca, Na) . Large pore network high surface area of > 100 m2/g for lignites, bituminous and sub-bituminous coals. . Contains higher levels of aromatic and . Elemental analysis, i.e. macro-chemical other unsaturated species than form petroleum. . Coal is hydrogen deficient, atomic . High level of organic oxygen, i.e. atomic hydrogen-to-carbon ratio 0.9, i.e. oxygen to carbon ratio 1:5, i.e. 10 roughly half that of petroleum times the oxygen level of petroleum.
| 24/02/2020 | 47 Coal: chemistry Chemistry of coal
Macerals: a microscopic view of coal Example of an elemental analysis (sub-bituminous coal from Rawhide mine, Wyoming):
C100H85O21N1S0.3
| 24/02/2020 | 48 Coal: types Rank of coal
Source: www.undergroundcoal.com.au | 24/02/2020 | 49 Coal: types Rank of coal Coal rank Carbon Volatile Calorific Moisture content (%) matter (%) value (kJ/kg) content (%) Peat 60 >53 16800 >75 Lignite (brown 60-71 53-49 23000 35 coal) Sub- 71-77 49-42 29300 25-10 bituminous coal Bituminous 77-87 42-29 36250 8 coal Anthracite 77-87 29-8 >36250 <8 Dry, ash free Dry, ash free Ash free basis In-situ basis basis
| 24/02/2020 | 50 Coal: types Coal rank and coal utilization Low rank coal
High rank coal
Source www.riverbasinenergy.com
| 24/02/2020 | 51 Coal: extraction technologies Coal mining
. Coal is mined in more than 50 countries . 40% of coal is mined from surface mines and 60% from underground mines
www.imgkid.com wikipedia
. China: predominantly underground mines . Australia: 80 % surface mines . USA: 67 % surface mines
World Coal Association, 2011
| 24/02/2020 | 52 Coal: extraction technologies Underground mines: Room-and-pillar mining
. Cutting a network of rooms into the coal bed and leaving behind large pillars of coal spaced at regular intervals or grids during mining to provide support to the ceiling or mine roof. Coal pillars can be up to 40 % of the total coal bed coal production is not efficient.
www.specialmy.com www.patriotcoal.com
| 24/02/2020 | 53 Coal: extraction technologies Underground mines: Long wall mining
. Full extraction of a section of the coal (100-350 m long) using shearers. This methodology achieves the total extraction of large sections of a coal bed. The mine roof is propped up by self-advancing, hydraulically powered supports, which temporarily hold up the ceiling while the coal is extracted. Allowed to collapse after coal extraction is completed in this area. More than 75 % of the coal bed can bed extracted by the longwall panels
www.steamboattoday.com www.patriotcoal.com
| 24/02/2020 | 54 Coal: extraction technologies Surface mining
. Surface mining is also called open-cast or open-pit mining . Became wide-spread in the 70s/80s, in particular in the USA, Australia & India . Expose a shallow coal bed (typically 50-100 m) by removing overburden soil and rock using bucket wheel excavators etc.
| 24/02/2020 | 55 Coal: extraction technologies Surface mining: area mining
. The soil and overburden is removed and deposited in previously mined-out areas. The exposed coal bed is blasted to break up the coal for extraction. Extraction is performed by earth moving equipment and transported by conveyors or trucks
Garzweiler, Germany
Source: www.rwe.com www.sueddeutsche.de Zwenkauer, Germany
| 24/02/2020 | 56 Coal: extraction technologies Surface mining: contour mining
. Contour mining removes the soil and overburden rocks above the coal bed by following the topographic contours around a hill or mountain. Spoils are commonly deposited on the downslope side of the mining bench. Mining ceases when high wall becomes too unstable or overburden too great.
Middlesboro, Kentucky
www.earthsci.org
| 24/02/2020 | 57 Coal: extraction technologies Surface mining: mountain top removal
. If coal seams in mountains are too small to be mined by underground methods and if the overburden is not too thick, the coal seams are extracted by removing the top of the mountain. The overburden is disposed in adjoining valleys creating «valley infills»
Rawl, West Virginia
Birchton Curve, West Virginia
| 24/02/2020 | 58 Coal: extraction technologies Unminable coal seams
. Coal seams that are too small/thin, too deep, or of too poor quality are “unminable”, but can be exploited nevertheless
. Coal Bed Methane (CBM) . Coal seams contain gases (mostly methane) that are adsorbed to the coal rather than structurally trapped in the natural fractures of coalbeds . These gases can be produced by special drilling and exploitation techniques
. Underground coal gasification (UCG) . UCG decomposes coal into product gas “in-situ” via high pressure gasification at 700-900°C (incomplete fuel oxidation) . We will come back to the coal gasification process later
| 24/02/2020 | 59 Coal: extraction technologies Coal: hazards
. Death of coal miners (explosions, rock falls, unhealthy air) . Restoring strip mines often has unstable soil that easily erodes, rocks that
are taken out react with water and produce H2SO4 acid mine drainage toxic water with heavy metals pH lowers fish in lakes die . Coal seam fires hard to control and consume a large portion of coal resources
Reducing environmental hazards:
. SO2 removal: wet scrubbing with H2O and O2 reduction of 75% of flue gas emissions . Coal gasification: after syngas is produced, CO reacts with O2 and forms
CO2 that can be sequestered
| 24/02/2020 | 60 Coal: uses & processing Coal gasification
. Transforms a solid fuel into a gaseous fuel, i.e. a synthesis gas (mixture of CO and
H2).
. Coal reacts exothermically with oxygen at high temperatures (~ 1,200 to 1,500 C) and pressures (> 20 bar)
. Main reactions (incomplete fuel oxidation):
. 2 C + O2 2 CO
. C + H2O CO + H2 + (coal slurry)
. The syngas can be combusted, further
converted into CO2 and more H2 (water- gas-shift reaction), or as chemical
feedstock (synthetic fuels) Source: GE Energy
| 24/02/2020 | 61 Coal: uses & processing Underground coal gasification (UCG)
. To recall: Utilization of non-mined/mineable coal seams . Injection wells are used to provide the oxidant (air, oxygen) and steam, while separate wells are used to extract the product gas (syngas).
. UCG is not yet applied on large scale, although test have been/are being performed in many parts of the world . CRIP technology = Controlled Reaction & Injection Point
| 24/02/2020 | 62 Coal: uses & processing Electricity: Pulverized coal combustion . Coal is the major fuel used for electricity generation. Its U.S. share on electricity generation was 27% in 2018 1 Cooling tower . According to the IEA the average efficiency of existing 4 Transformer 5 Electric power generator coal-fired capacity is only about 33% 6 Low pressure turbine 7 Boiler feed pump 8 Condenser 9 Intermediate pressure turbine 10 Steam governor valve 11 High pressure turbine 13 Feed heater 14 Coal conveyer 15 Coal hopper 16 Pulverized fuel mill 17 Boiler drum 18 Ash hopper 19 Superheater 21 Reheater 22 Air intake 24 Air preheater 25 Precipitator
Source: www.power4georgians.com 27 Chimney stack https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us- | 24/02/2020 | 63 generation-capacity-and-sales.php Coal: uses & processing Steel making: Production of coke
. Coal turned into coke can be used as a reducing agent to smelt iron ore in blast furnaces . During the coking process bituminous coal is heated to ~ 1000-1100ºC in the absence of oxygen to drive off the volatile compounds (pyrolysis). This process results in a hard porous material - coke. . Coal used for coking (usually bituminous coal) must have low sulphur-, phosphorous-, and ash contents, as well as sufficient mechanical strength.
. The coking process takes 12-36 hours in the coke ovens.
. (Since the smoke-producing components are largely driven off during coking, coke was (is) used as a fuel for stoves and furnaces)
Wikipedia
| 24/02/2020 | 64 Coal: uses & processing Coal and cement
. Cement clinker is made from a mixture of calcium carbonate, silica, iron oxide and alumina. To raw materials are heated in a high-temperature kiln, e.g. fuelled by coal, to a partial melt at 1450 C resulting in a material known as clinker (calcium silicates, aluminates and ferrites). . Clinker is mixed with gypsum (calcium sulphate) and possibly some additional materials and ground to a fine powder to make cement.
. It takes about 200 kg of coal to produce one tonne of cement.
Rotary kiln for clinker manufacture Source: www.worldcoal.org www.co2crc.com.au | 24/02/2020 | 65 Coal: uses & processing U.S. coal flow, 2018 1 short ton = 0.91 metric ton
7%
93%
| 24/02/2020 | 66 Emissions The emitted and the allowed
IPCC WG1 AR5 SPM
| 24/02/2020 | 68 Emissions
pool size of spheres: Falkowski et al. 2000, Science of emissions: IPCC WG3 SPM, p13 Comparing carbon pools of gas, oil, coal: McGlade and Ekins 2015, Nature of hydrates: Milkov 2004, Earth Sci Rev
to have a better-than-even chance of avoiding more than a 2°C temperature rise, the carbon budget between 2011 and 2050 is around 860–1180
Gt CO2 (corresponding to the 10–90% percentile range of all model scenarios)
| 24/02/2020 | 69 Emissions
pool size of spheres: Falkowski et al. 2000, Science of emissions: IPCC WG3 SPM, p13 The allowed vs. the possible of gas, oil, coal: McGlade and Ekins 2015, Nature of hydrates: Milkov 2004, Earth Sci Rev
to have a better-than-even chance of avoiding more than a 2°C temperature rise, the carbon budget between 2011 and 2050 is around 860–1180
Gt CO2 (cor. to the 10–90% percentile range of all model scenarios)
| 24/02/2020 | 70 Emissions The allowed vs. the possible
IPCC WG1 AR5 SPM
| 24/02/2020 | 71 Emissions The allowed vs. the possible
| 24/02/2020 | 72 Emissions
CO2 emissions when burning fuel
How much carbon dioxide is produced when different fuels are burned to produce energy?
The amount of CO2 produced when a lbCO2/Btu kgCO2/GJ fuel is burned is a function of the [10-6] carbon content of the fuel. The heat content, or the amount of energy Coal (anthracite) 228.6 98.3 produced when a fuel is burned, is mainly determined by the carbon (C) Coal (bituminous) 205.7 88.4 and hydrogen (H) content of the fuel. Heat is produced when C and H Coal (lignite) 215.4 92.6 combine with oxygen (O) during combustion. Natural gas is primarily methane (CH ), which has a higher Coal (subbituminous) 214.3 92.1 4 energy content relative to other fuels, Diesel fuel and heating oil 161.3 69.3 and thus, it has a relatively lower CO2-to-energy content. Water and various elements, such as sulfur and Gasoline (without ethanol) 157.2 67.6 noncombustible elements in some Propane 139.0 59.9 fuels, reduce their heating values and increase their CO2-to-heat contents. Natural gas 117.0 50.3 https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=73&t=11, updated June 2019 Indicates how much CO2 is emitted when burning each fuel produces a | 24/02/2020 | 73 certain amount of energy Emissions
CO2 emissions per resource per sector • CO emissions from electric Energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per source and sector for 2 the United States, 2018 (million metric tons) power sector dominated by
coal and natural gas
emitted [Mt] emitted
2 CO
• CO2 emissions from transportation dominated by petroleum
• Although coal has highest
CO2 emitting potential when burned (see previous slide), it contributes to to 24% of the
CO2 emissions in the 2018 U.S. stats
https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=75&t=11, updated October 2019 https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us- | 24/02/2020 | 74 generation-capacity-and-sales.php Emissions
Largest CO2-Emitting Power Plants Worldwide
1. TAICHUNG plant, Taiwan, 41.3 Mt of CO2 2. PORYONG plant, South Korea, 37.8 Mt of CO2 3. CASTLE PEAK plant, China, 35.8 Mt of CO2
4.-8. are all in Asia
9. KENDAL plant, South Africa, 28.6 Mt of CO2 10. JANSCHWALDE Peitz Germany, 27.4 Mt of CO2
Note: Total annual CO2 emission of Switzerland: 38.8 Mt of CO2
www.sciencesdaily.com www.worldbank.org
| 24/02/2020 | 75 CO2
CO2 basics
. CO2 at ambient conditions is a colorless, odorless, non-combustible (non-explosive) gas . CO is heavier than air and can accumulate in depressions – danger of 2 gg asphyxiation (,29)MM 44 COair2 moollm . CO2 is classified as non-toxic, however, the following exposure limits are reported for high concentrations . < 2 %, short term: no harmful effects . 3 %: breathing rate doubles . 5 %: breathing rate 4 times more than normal . > 10%, ca.15 min: difficulties in breathing, impaired hearing, nausea, stupor within 10 min and loss of consciousness within 15 min . > 20%, 1 min or less: acute danger of death
. CO2 takes part in the global carbon cycle, where billions of tons of the gas are moved between different pools by natural drivers
Source: Free Encyclopedia of Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair, www.inspectapedia.com (15.02.13)
| 24/02/2020 | 76 CO2 The global carbon cycle
Carbon The ground state of carbon is a mineral carbonate
400 kJ/mole
Carbon Dioxide
60...180 kJ/mole Carbonate
| 24/02/2020 | 77 CO2 The global carbon cycle (in units of mass of C)
Atmosphere: 800 Gt
Natural fluxes: 100 Gt/a Anthropogenic GHG: 10 Gt/a
Anthroposphere: 2-3 Gt Biosphere: 2,500 Gt
CCS Hydrosphere: 40,000 Gt Lithosphere: 65,000,000 Gt
IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis | 24/02/2020 | 78 CO2
CO2 phase diagram
10’000.0
Melting line 1’000.0
CO2 liquid CO2 solid 100.0 Critical point Saturation line 31.1°C, 73.9 bar
10.0 Pressure[bar]
Triple point CO gas -56.6°C, 5.1 bar 2 1.0 SublimationSublimation line point -78.5°C, 1bar 1999, ChemicaLogic Corporation
Drawn with CO2 Tab V1.0 0.1 -100 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 Temperature [°C]
| 24/02/2020 | 79 CO2
Density of CO2 with depth
Volume = 100%
CO2 (gaseous state)
10%
0 Earth’s surface 2% 1.1% 0.5 800 m limit 800 m limit 0.32% storage for depth 1.0
Depth Depth Geothermal optimal [m] [m] Gradients 1.5 0.28% Depth (km) Depth CO2 (supercritical) 2.0 0.27%
2.5 ©CO2CRC 0.27% 0 200 400 600 800 1’000 3 Density of CO 2 (kg/m ) Pressure [MPa]
Source: Diamond et| al,24/02/2020 Uni Bern| 80 CO2
Density of CO2 with depth
Volume = 100%
CO2 (gaseous state)
10%
0 Earth’s surface 2% 1.1% 0.5 800 m limit 800 m limit 0.32% storage for depth 1.0
Depth Depth Geothermal optimal [m] [m] Gradients 1.5 0.28% Depth (km) Depth CO2 (supercritical) 2.0 0.27%
2.5 ©CO2CRC 0.27% 0 200 400 600 800 1’000 3 Density of CO 2 (kg/mPress)ure [MPa] Diamond et al, Swiss J Geosci. 103 (2010) 3:427-455 | 24/02/2020 | 81 Readings . Daniel Yergin „The prize – The epic quest for oil, money & power“, 1991 . Daniel Yergin „The quest – Energy, security, and the remaking of the modern world“, 2011 . Vaclav Smil „Energy at the crossroads – Global perspectives and uncertainties“, 2003 (chapter 4) . Rachel Maddow „Blowout – Corrupted democracy, rogue state Russia, and the richest, most destructive industry on earth“, 2019 . William T. Vollmann „No immediate danger – Vol. 1 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (nuclear) . William T. Vollmann „No good alternative – Vol. 2 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (coal, natural gas and oil)
| 24/02/2020 | 82 Oil & Gas: production, consumption and trade
Brazilian “pré-sal” discoveries Oil: Production vs. reserves offshore and Venezuela’s «claims»
(incl. vast oil sand deposits)
1993
to
total rel. rel. total
2014, 2014,
represent
to
Energy
rescaled
World
of
chart
-
pie
reserves
BP Statistical Review Review Statistical BP proved
| 24/02/2020 | 83 Oil & Gas: production, consumption and trade
Gas: Production vs. reserves
1993
to
total rel. rel. total
2014, 2014,
represent
to
Energy
rescaled
World
of
chart
-
pie
reserves
BP Statistical Review Review Statistical BP proved
| 24/02/2020 | 84 Oil & Gas: production, consumption and trade Oil: Production vs. consumption
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 85 Oil & Gas: production, consumption and trade Gas: Production vs. consumption
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 86 Oil & Gas: global distribution Conventional oil & gas
Sedimentary basins and
petroleum-producing areas of the world
Journal, (November 1970); Petroleum Publishing Tulsa Co., Publishing Petroleum 1970); (November Journal, Worldwide Offshore Activity Gas Oil and Basins" Sedimentary Activity Worldwide and Offshore
| 24/02/2020 | 87 Oil & Gas: global distribution Unconventional gas resources in Europe
www.economist.com
| 24/02/2020 | 88 Oil & Gas: global distribution Who has the oil?
Each country’s size is proportional to the amount of oil reserves as of 2004: Data based onBP BP Statistical statistical Reviewreview of2004,World and Energyeia 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 89 Oil & Gas: global distribution Oil producing countries
Wikipedia: 01.03.2015
| 24/02/2020 | 90 Oil & Gas: global distribution Oil producing countries
Wikipedia: 01.03.2015, CIA 2010 The World factbook
| 24/02/2020 | 91 Oil & Gas: global distribution Oil: Consumption per capita
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 92 Oil & Gas: global distribution Oil: Major trade movements 2013
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 93 Oil & Gas: global distribution Gas producing countries
Wikipedia: 01.03.2015
| 24/02/2020 | 94 Oil & Gas: global distribution Gas: Consumption per capita
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 95 Oil & Gas: global distribution Gas: Major trade movements 2013
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014
| 24/02/2020 | 96 Coal: global distribution Global coal distribution
… and have significant coal reserves.
http://www.britannica.com/bps/media-view/142296/1/0/0
| 24/02/2020 | 97