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Oil, Gas & Coal Oil, Gas & Coal Marco Mazzotti CCS and the Industry of Carbon-Based Resources – FS2020 February 24th, 2020 | | CCS overview I. Fossil fuel resources and II. CO2 and III.CCS: the global energy system climate change the concept years millions of years seconds hours/days years millenia | 24/02/2020 | 2 Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing Fossil fuels – stratigraphic age distribution Legend: CAMBRIAN, ORDOVICIAN, SILURIAN, DEVONIAN, MISSISSIPPIAN, PENNSYLVANIAN, PERMIAN, TRIASSIC, JURASSIC, CRETACEOUS, TERTIARY, QUATERNARY. | 24/02/2020 | 3 Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing Fossil fuels – an overview Decay of biomass through bio-geochemical processes Not present in nature Coal Oil Natural gas Hydrogen solid liquid gas gas ~ 2C/1H ~ 1C/2H ~ 1C/4H H2 100% 100% Carbon Hydrogen Production 3,900,000,000 toe 4,200,000,000 toe 2,900,000,000 toe 200,000,000 toe (2012, world) Uses Heat & electricity Coke (Steel) Chemicals Transport Hydrogen ~12% ~15% ~53% | 24/02/2020 | 4 From last week | 24/02/2020 | 5 Readings . Daniel Yergin „The prize – The epic quest for oil, money & power“, 1991 . Daniel Yergin „The quest – Energy, security, and the remaking of the modern world“, 2011 . Vaclav Smil „Energy at the crossroads – Global perspectives and uncertainties“, 2003 (chapter 4) . Rachel Maddow „Blowout – Corrupted democracy, rogue state Russia, and the richest, most destructive industry on earth“, 2019 . William T. Vollmann „No immediate danger – Vol. 1 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (nuclear) . William T. Vollmann „No good alternative – Vol. 2 of carbon ideologies“, 2018 (coal, natural gas and oil) | 24/02/2020 | 6 Today’s topics . Oil & Gas . Extraction technologies . Formation . Uses and Processing . Chemistry . Emissions . Types . Further Information . Extraction technologies . Production, Consumption and Trade . Uses and Processing . Global Distribution . Coal . Formation . Chemistry . Types | 24/02/2020 | 7 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas . Tiny marine organisms die, sink, and accumulate on the seafloor . Their remains get buried deeper and deeper by sediments, thereby experiencing more and more heat and pressure. This transforms the organic matter into oil and gas, that form within the source rock and accumulate in geological traps. www.need-media.smugmug.com | 24/02/2020 | 8 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas . Oil window: region in which kerogen breaks down . Crude oil & gas moves from source - to into crude oil and gas (2-6 km depth) reservoir rock through primary (due to pressure) and secondary migration (due to buoyancy), where it accumulates – given that there is a geological trap . High porosity & permeability = good reservoir rock www.gg.uwyo.edu Earth's Natural Resources, John V. Walther, pp 34 | 24/02/2020 | 9 Oil & Gas: formation Formation of petroleum and natural gas: traps www.geologyin.com | 24/02/2020 | 10 Oil & Gas: chemistry Chemistry of oil . Crude oil is a mix of different Compound Percentage range hydrocarbons such as alkanes (CnH2n+2) (by wt.) and naphthenes (cycloalkanes, CnH2n), n(5, …, ~40) C 83 – 85% H 10 – 14% N 0.1 – 2% Octane: O 0.05 – 1.5% S 0.05 – 6.0% . n = 5 (pentane) to n = 10 (decane) is (Metals) < 0.1% wikipedia refined into gasoline . n = 10-20 into jet fuel, heating oil, & diesel . Crude oil is classified by . n > 20 into fuel oil and lubricating oils . Location of production (e.g. West Texas Intermediate from N-America, Brent from the . n > 70 is bitumen (asphalt) North sea) . The lightest compounds with n < 4 are the . Density (light and heavy, light is preferred) petroleum gases, that are flared off or . Sulfur content (sweet = low S (< 0.5%) and sour, sweet is preferred) pressurized to be sold as liquified petroleum gases (LPG) | 24/02/2020 | 11 Oil & Gas: chemistry Chemistry of gas . Natural gas is a mix of hydrocarbon Component Typical gases, and predominantly consists of percentage methane (CH4) and to a lesser amount of range the other n < 4 alkanes Methane CH 70 – 98% . All non-methane hydrocarbon 4 compounds are known as “natural gas Ethane C2H6 1 – 10% liquids (NGL)”, which are already liquid at Propane C3H8 < 5% room conditions (“gas condensate”) can Butane C H < 2% be compressed for liquefaction (e.g. 4 10 butane in fire lighters) (Pentane) C5H12 trace . Non-hydrocarbon components such as Non-hydrocarbons (CO2 various CO2, water vapor, nitrogen, helium and etc.) hydrogen sulfide H2S can be present in SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas” large proportions . Natural gas liquefies when cooled to . All of these impurities, especially CO2 -162°C. Only in liquid state it is and H2S must be removed («gas suitable for long-distance transport as sweetening») before transport and “liquefied natural gas” (LNG) using commercialization ships. | 24/02/2020 | 12 Oil & Gas: chemistry C/H ratio of carbon-based fuels . The lower the C/H ratio the lower the CO2 emissions upon burning. Therefore natural gas is a particularly attractive fossil fuel . It’s main drawback is its low volumetric energy density SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas” | 24/02/2020 | 13 Oil & Gas: chemistry Volumetric E-density of carbon-based fuels MJ/Liter . Unlike oil, natural gas needs to be pressurized and/or cryogenically liquefied in order to allow for safe and economic transport and storage . Such conditioning incurs high handling costs and relies on a heavy infrastructure to reach end- consumers SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas” | 24/02/2020 | 14 Oil & Gas: types Conventional and unconventional oil & gas . Conventional reservoirs: Buoyant forces keep hydrocarbons in place inside well-connected rock pores below a sealing cap rock . Thus, the hydrocarbons form discrete, well-defined accumulations of crude oil and natural gas (methane 80%, propane, ethane…) . Reservoir and fluid & oil characteristics allow the resource to flow readily into a wellbore (high permeability rocks, low viscosity fluids) . Unconventional reservoirs: Hydrocarbons exist inside poorly connected pores or they are too viscous/heavy, so as bouyant forces are insufficitent to expel them from the reservoir . The resource is typically distributed throughout a reservoir at the basin scale (i.e. over large extents of rock) | 24/02/2020 | 15 Oil & Gas: types Conventional and unconventional oil & gas . Conventional reservoirs tend to require less technology to be developed and to yield higher recovery rates . Unconventional reservoirs require more technology but are larger in volume . Once the technology is developed, resources turn into reserves (e.g. shale gas) | 24/02/2020 | 16 Oil & Gas: types Unconventional oil Oil sands Oil shales Tight oil Heavy, dense, viscous bitumen Fine grained sediments Light crude oil contained in trapped in sand or sandstone containing significant amounts formations of low permeability, of kerogen (low permeatility) namely in petroleum-bearing tight sandstones and shales Surface mining or steam-assisted Open mining or heating underground to release hydrocarbons into production (very expensive) reservoirs “Hydrocracking”: break long chains Extract liquid “shale oil” and “shale oil gas” via pyrolysis- into kerosene/gasoline with H2 hydrogenation (above 300°C) of kerogen (natural gas required) | 24/02/2020 | 17 Oil & Gas: types Unconventional gas Coalbed methane Tight gas Shale gas Methane hydrates (CBM) Low permeability Extremely low H2O molecules form a Gas created by reservoir rock consisting permeability reservoir crystalline cage around a maturing of coal and is of sandstone or limestone rock consisting of CH4 molecule, stable released when coal is shale (the most only under high pressure fractured abundant sedimentary and temperature in deep • > 95% methane rock), where the gas is sea (sediments) and in (rest is N2 and CO2) generated in place permafrost requires little pre- (source rock). treatment • Vertical well • Horizontal drilling • Depressurization • Depressurization (conventional) (lowering water level (lowering water level stimulation inside well) inside well) gas • More recently: • Thermal stimulation flows into horizontal drilling • Destabilization conventional wells enables to access (adding chemicals) larger regions of the • CO2 injection reservoir | 24/02/2020 | 18 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Conventional oil & gas: vertical drilling Oil & dissolved associated gas («solution gas»): Oil & associated gas cap («free gas»): Flare Gas export Gas export Separa tor Oil export Separa tor Oil export Non-associated gas: “Wet gas” if it contains NGLs Gas is re-injected that are liquid at room for P-management conditions (= condensate) Gas export Separa tor Condensate export . Note: natural gas was long considered an unwanted by-product of oil that was flared or at best used for reservoir pressure management. It was only considered as a commercial prospect when deposits were located close to markets or gas infrasturcture | 24/02/2020 | 19 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking Well casing American Petroleum Institute | 24/02/2020 | 20 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking Multilateral wells DOE 2009, DE-FG26-04NT15455 | 24/02/2020 | 21 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking Volumetric composition of fracture fluid used in TX | 24/02/2020 | 22 Oil & Gas: extraction technologies Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking Microseismic
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