Beyond the Economic – How

BEYOND THE ECONOMIC – HOW INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION DELIVERS BROAD VALUE FOR NEW ZEALAND MAY 2018 BEYOND THE ECONOMIC – HOW INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION DELIVERS BROAD VALUE FOR NEW ZEALAND

PREPARED FOR Education New Zealand PREPARED BY Emanuel Kalafatelis, Corrine de Bonnaire and Louise Alliston. CONTACT DETAILS Emanuel Kalafatelis Research New Zealand Phone 04 499 3088 www.researchnz.com

IBSN 978-0-473-43856-2 Beyond the economic • 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword 5

1.0 Executive summary 6

2.0 The international education sector in New Zealand – an overview 14 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 The international education sector in New Zealand delivers economic value 16 2.3 New Zealand is an attractive study destination 18 2.4 The sector is rebalancing from volume to value 21

3.0 The value of international education – the overseas experience 24 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Benefits to national and regional economies 27 3.3 Benefits to tourism 33 3.4 Benefits to soft diplomacy and international trade 37 3.5 Benefits to business, innovation and the workforce 43 3.6 Benefits of community-based, cultural and educational value 49

4.0 Case studies of New Zealanders’ experiences of international education 56 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Community, culture and education 59 4.3 Diplomacy and international trade 67 4.4 Business and innovation 73 4.5 Tourism 81

Appendix A: Glossary 86

Appendix B: Literature scan methodology 87

Appendix C: Literature scan references 90

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Value of onshore international education by sector to New Zealand 17 ($m), 2013 - 2016 Figure 2: Number of international students by sector 2012 - 2016 18 Figure 3: International students by market, 2012 and 2016 19 Figure 4: Regional distribution of international students 2012-2016 20 Figure 5: 2012 and 2016 sector breakdown 21 4 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 5

FOREWORD

I’m pleased to present Beyond the economic – how international education delivers broad value for New Zealand, a new report on the broader contribution that international education makes to New Zealand. While we know international education delivers strong economic results, what is less well known are the other ways in which international education delivers value for our cities, regions, schools, businesses and communities. We commissioned Research New Zealand to scan the existing research on this subject, within New Zealand and overseas. The benefits identified include the opportunity for young New Zealanders to develop the soft skills and cultural awareness they will need in a more globalised future world, for example. To explore these themes further, and demonstrate how they play out in a New Zealand context, we also commissioned a series of case studies. Each case study highlights a different aspect of international education – from the perspective of a school, an engineering business, a New Zealand embassy, and a tourism operation. The four case studies, together with the literature scan, present an interesting picture of international education and the opportunities it offers. They showcase a number of diverse ways in which New Zealanders benefit from international education, and the important, long-term role it plays in building our connections with the wider world. These benefits are in addition to the estimated $4.5 billion economic contribution from international student spending within New Zealand and from education products and services provided offshore. We hope this report will be the start of a much broader discussion about the real contribution of international education. Thank you very much to everyone who took part in this project.

Grant McPherson Chief Executive Education New Zealand May 2018

6 • Education New Zealand

1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This research project was commissioned by Education New Zealand to provide an evidence base for the broader benefits of international education to New Zealand.

INTRODUCTION

These benefits include community-based and socio-cultural benefits, as well as educational benefits, resulting from the presence of international students in our schools and campuses and in our communities generally (and their families who come to visit), exposing us to different world views and ways of doing and thinking about things, as well as helping us to connect with other countries and regions of the world. It also includes direct and indirect economic benefits, such as filling specialist domestic skills shortages, introducing innovation to New Zealand workplaces, and helping to build New Zealand’s global linkages, as well as tuition fees and other spending by students. The opportunity to grow the international education sector in New Zealand is significant and as such, is reflected in Education New Zealand’s business objectives which include: • increasing the percentage of international students in regions outside Auckland • helping New Zealanders understand the value of international education to our country • encouraging more New Zealanders to spend time studying offshore.

THE RESEARCH PROJECT

This research study involved two main streams of work which were completed between May and July 2017: 1. The literature scan, which reviewed how other countries value contributions made by international students coming to study in their country. 2. Case studies with New Zealanders who have had actual, first-hand experience of the benefits and contributions made by international students who have come to study in New Zealand. To provide context, a brief overview of the statistical information about the international education sector in New Zealand was also prepared.

Beyond the economic • 7

1.0

THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SECTOR IN NEW ZEALAND – AN OVERVIEW

The total estimated economic value of This increase was seen in all sectors, the international education sector in except for funded and unfunded New Zealand was estimated at $4.5 PTEs. Based on equivalent fulltime billion in 2016, up from $4.3 billion in student numbers, universities currently 20151. As such, international education account for the most international supports more than an estimated students (21%), followed by ELS (19%) 33,000 jobs in New Zealand. and unfunded PTEs (19%).

Most of the total estimated economic By value, the picture is different, value of $4.5 billion is accounted for by with the universities accounting for international students coming to study the largest share of tuition income in in New Zealand ($4.2 billion), with 2016 (37%), followed by ITPs (17%), the remainder ($242 million) resulting secondary schools (14%), funded PTEs from education services delivered (12%) and unfunded PTEs (12%). offshore.

Students from China and India made Almost 132,000 international up half of all international enrolments students were enrolled to study in in 2016 (China 29%; India 21%). 2016 in New Zealand schools, English Enrolments from China continue to language schools (ELS), private training grow, while enrolments from India establishments (PTEs), institutes of have dropped slightly since 2015. Most technology and polytechnics (ITPs) international students go to Auckland and universities. This represents an to study (63% in 2016). increase of 6% (or approximately 7,245) on the numbers enrolled in 2015.

1 Education New Zealand (2017). New Zealand international education snapshot: 2016 full year report. Wellington: Education New Zealand. 8 • Education New Zealand

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THE VALUE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION – THE OVERSEAS EXPERIENCE

The growth that is being experienced by New Zealand reflects international trends, with the number of internationally mobile students expected to continue growing from about 5 million in 2015 to an estimated 7-8 million by 2025.1 Australia, the United States (US) and the United Kingdom (UK) are currently the three largest providers of international education2, and together with Canada, the literature scan focused on these countries to provide a clear overview of the state of recent research on the benefits of international students to these countries. All five countries have quantitative analyses of the economic contribution of international students to their host country (as does New Zealand). The scan found that Australia, the US and the UK also had significant amounts of research relating to other benefits. Overall, the scan found strong evidence that the international education industry and the tourism activities of international students and their families, directly and indirectly contribute to economic activity and job creation in their host countries. Against this background, outlined below is a summary of these benefits, beginning with those that are of an economic nature: • Benefits to national and regional economies – the international research on the economic benefits of international education typically distinguishes between students’ direct and indirect effects on the host economy. For example, international students’ expenditure and activities directly create jobs in learning institutions and jobs in industry sectors such as accommodation, retail and transportation. On the other hand, an indirect job is “… created and/or supported indirectly from the above direct job’s existence. This is a multiplier effect in which the spending from a directly-supported job will thus help to indirectly create and/or support other jobs in the workplace.”3 A study based on English language centres in the UK found that, in 2014, international English language students’ spending (including tuition fees, accommodation and other living costs) added a net £194 million to government revenues. For every direct job created, the study estimated that an additional two jobs were created in the wider economy.4 The international research also highlights how international students’ expenditure and activities can have an economic benefit beyond the local economy in which students study, into other regions.

1 Education New Zealand (2017). New Zealand international education snapshot: 2016 full year report. Wellington: Education New Zealand. 2 https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/Media-and-Events/submissions-and-reports/Universities-Australia-submission-to- the-Foreign-Policy-White-Paper 3 Baumgartner, J.L. (2016). The economic value of international student enrolment to the U.S. economy: methodology. Washington DC: NAFSA: Association of International Educators. 4 Chaloner, J., Evans, A. & Pragnell, M. (2015). Supporting the British economy through teaching English as a foreign language: An assessment of the contribution of English language teaching to the United Kingdom economy. London: Capital Economics. Beyond the economic • 9

1.0

For example, an analysis of data for all eight universities in Wales found that, in 2013-2014, spending by international students and their visitors generated more than 7,600 fulltime equivalent jobs. Although many of these jobs were created in the areas close to the universities, jobs were also created across Wales.5 • Benefits to tourism – the international research suggests that international students are very motivated to travel within their host country. For example, an Australian survey found that 86% of the international students surveyed had travelled within the country, with more than one-half planning further travel in their upcoming summer break. Most had taken short trips of one to three nights, although over one-third (38%) had been away for four to six nights or more.6 In addition to their own tourism activities, international students also attract friends and relatives to visit them as tourists. This activity is challenging to quantify as visitors to a country may have many reasons for that visit. Studies have mainly used official immigration visitor data or surveys of international students to assess this. Overall, they identify a substantial contribution to a country’s economy from the additional tourism spending of friends and family. Many international students retain links to their host countries after they leave and studies suggest they are motivated to return for visits. In a survey of Chinese alumni from Australian institutions who resided in Beijing, Hangzhou, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Hunan Province, two- thirds (64%) stated they had returned to Australia at least once in the previous five years, and almost one-in-five (18%) had returned five or more times.7 The research also suggests that alumni can have considerable influence in promoting two-way travel between their home country and their country of study. The Chinese alumni in the survey of Chinese alumni reported that they had recommended Australia as a place to have a holiday and do business, and the majority (70%) reported that they have recommended, or intended to recommend Australia as a place to study. • Benefits to soft diplomacy and international trade – along with the economic benefits of international education, the international research highlights how governments are increasingly seeing it as a strategy for exerting ‘soft power’, where nations try to “… achieve their international objectives through attraction and co-option, rather than coercion, in an effort to promote cultural understanding and avoid cultural misunderstanding.”8

5 Kelly, U., McNicoll, I., White, J. & Viewforth Consulting (2015). The economic impact of international students in Wales. Cardiff Bay: Universities Wales. 6 Gardiner, S., King, B. & Wilkins, H. (2013). The travel behaviours of international students: Nationality-based constraints and opportunities. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(4). 7 Pyke, J., Jiang, M., Delacy, T., Smith, E., Li, G. & Li, A-M. (2013). The role and influence of China based alumni on travel and tourism. Melbourne: Victoria University. 8 Holden, J. & Tryhorn, C (2013). Influence and attraction: Culture and the race for soft power in the 21st century. London: British Council. 10 • Education New Zealand

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For example, the UK has experienced significant new demand for educational services from countries outside the main source countries of Europe and North America and in its international education strategy, the government notes that international education can contribute to building closer relationships with these countries, many of which are emerging powers.9 The international research also points to the fact that international education contributes to trade flows. An analysis of the impact of international students enrolled in UK universities on the UK’s trade with 167 countries from 1999-2009, concluded they had a significant and positive influence on bilateral trade flows with their home countries.10 Studying in another country also appears to facilitate ongoing business ties, once a student departs. A survey of current students and alumni of London universities (where more than three- quarters of respondents had a nationality outside the UK or EU) found that 60% were more likely to do business with the UK, as a result of studying in London.11 • Benefits to business, innovation and the workforce – the international research highlights how international students have the potential to make a significant contribution to business in their host country. Immigrants entering the US on student/trainee visas have been shown to do better than domestic college graduates in wages; patenting, including commercialising and licensing patents; as well as being more productive in the authoring of books and papers, and presenting at major conferences. They are also more likely (conditional on education level) to start a successful company, possibly reflecting their role in start-ups that utilise technical knowledge from postgraduate study.12 Patent data is often used as a proxy measure for innovation. In a 2008 study, estimating the impact of international graduate students on innovative activity in the US, the researchers used a model of idea generation, and concluded that international graduate students have a significant positive impact on future patent applications, as well as on future patents awarded to university and non-university institutions. They estimated that “… a 10% increase in the number of foreign graduate students would raise patent applications by 4.5%, university patent grants by 6.8% and non-university patent grants by 5.0%.”13

9 HM Government (2013). International education: Global growth and prosperity. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. 10 Murat, M. (2014). Out of sight, not out of mind. Education networks and international trade. World Development, 58, 53– 56. 11 London First & PWC (2015). London calling: International students’ contribution to Britain’s economic growth. London: London First. 12 Hunt, J. (2010). Which immigrants are most innovative and entrepreneurial? Distinctions by entry visa. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4745. Bonn: IZA Institute of Labour Economics. 13 Chellaraj, G., Maskus, K. & Mattoo, A. (2008). The contribution of international graduate students to U.S. innovation. Review of international Economics, 16(3), 444-462. Beyond the economic • 11

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International students are an important source of skilled migrants for governments looking to address workforce shortages. In Australia, industry stakeholders have highlighted the important role of international students in filling workplace shortages; for example, in agriculture, aged care and the hospitality sector. They have also pointed to the value of international students’ language skills and cultural connections to tourists from their home countries, when working in tourist-related industries.14 • Benefits of community-based, cultural and educational value – increasingly, it is becoming important for young people to develop international capabilities (intercultural competence). Developing intercultural competence does not necessarily require overseas travel. Intercultural experiences can be found in most students’ home countries, and learning alongside international students has the potential to broaden domestic students’ perspectives, and develop their language and intercultural skills. At this point in time, the cultural and educational benefits for domestic students from the presence of international students appear to be hard to quantify, with only limited empirical studies available.15 There are some promising research findings that point to the value for domestic students of studying alongside international students, where there is substantial interaction. For example, graduates of four US private research universities, surveyed five, 10 and 20 years after graduation, who reported engaging in substantial interactions with international students during their university years, showed a greater openness to challenge their own beliefs and values and experienced more positive education outcomes, leadership skills, intellectual development, and science literacy, than non- interactive domestic students.16 Furthermore, in a UK study of domestic UK students, EU students, and non-EU international students, just over three-quarters agreed that studying alongside people from other countries ‘is useful preparation for working in a global environment’ (33% ‘strongly agreed’ and 45% ‘agreed’).17

14 Deloitte Access Economics (2016). The value of international education to Australia. Canberra: Department of Education and Training. 15 Spencer-Oatey, H. & Dauber, D. (2015). How ‘internationalised’ is your university: Moving beyond structural indicators towards social integration. Briefing paper: Going Global Event 2015, London, UK. Warwick: University of Warwick. 16 Luo, J. & Jamieson-Drake, D. (2013). Examining the educational benefits of interacting with international students. Journal of International Students, 3(2), 85–101. 17 HEPI and Kaplan (2015b). What do prospective students think about international students? HEPI Report 74. Oxford: HEPI. 12 • Education New Zealand

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CASE STUDIES OF NEW ZEALANDERS’ EXPERIENCES OF THE BENEFITS OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

The case studies were developed based on New Zealanders’ first-hand experiences of the non- economic benefits of international education identified in the literature scan (i.e. tourism; diplomacy and international trade; business and innovation; and community, culture and education). The experiences of those who were interviewed for the case studies reflected many of the findings of the literature scan and, in some instances, they also introduced new material. Outlined below is a summary of a comparison of the literature scan and case study findings: • Community, culture and education – this case study, like the literature scan, reflects an appreciation of the role international education can play in developing ‘intercultural competence’, and its importance, especially given increasing globalisation. They both also identify how intercultural skills and tolerance can be achieved by learning alongside students from other countries and cultures, without travelling overseas. Finally, the case study adds to the findings of the literature scan, highlighting the importance of substantial interaction between domestic and international students. In particular, the case study confirms that the success of an international education programme requires a lot of hard work, the support of the school community, especially teachers and homestay families, and a multitude of programmes to ensure high-level interaction between domestic and international students. • Diplomacy and international business – both the literature scan and this case study highlight the importance of international education in relation to soft diplomacy and building trade relationships. The case study sheds light on how this works in practice, including developing a mutual understanding and people-to-people linkages, and how international students who have had positive experiences often become lifelong informal ambassadors for New Zealand. The case study also highlights the higher-level public good benefits, including encouraging friendship and tolerance. • Business and innovation – this case study confirms that international students can make valuable contributions to businesses in their host country, such as offering a bicultural perspective, language skills and loyalty. Their role in innovation is also noted in both the literature scan and the case study. While this is measured in terms of patent data in the literature, in the case studies it is associated with the benefits of having a culturally diverse employee-base, such as different ways of thinking and tackling problems. • Tourism – while acknowledging the economic value of international student visitors and their role in promoting New Zealand to friends and family (which is the focus of the tourism related literature scan findings), the focus of this case study is on the critical role international students play in filling sector-wide labour shortages, particularly in the regions, and, especially in the South Island. While the literature scan notes the value of international students in filling labour shortages (especially in hospitality), this is not identified as critical. Beyond the economic • 13

1.0

ORGANISATION OF THIS RESEARCH REPORT

This report is organised into three sections: 1. Section 2.0 provides a brief overview of the international education sector in New Zealand at present, based on available statistical information sourced mainly from Education New Zealand. 2. Section 3.0 provides the results of the literature scan, outlining the range of ways that other countries assess the value of international students. 3. Section 4.0 provides the four case studies that were completed on New Zealanders’ personal experiences of international students. 14 • Education New Zealand

2.0 THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SECTOR IN NEW ZEALAND – AN OVERVIEW Beyond the economic • 15

2.0 2.0 THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SECTOR IN NEW ZEALAND – AN OVERVIEW SUMMARY

The information in this section has been mainly sourced from Education New Zealand (2017). New Zealand international education snapshot: 2016 full year report. Wellington: Education New Zealand.

The international education sector in Universities are the most valuable New Zealand delivers economic value. sector. The total estimated economic value of The universities account for the the international education sector in largest share of tuition income in New Zealand was $4.5 billion in 2016, 2016 for full fee-paying international up from $4.3 billion in 2015. As such, students (37%), followed by ITPs (17%), international education supports more secondary schools (14%), funded PTEs than an estimated 33,000 jobs in New (12%) and unfunded PTEs (12%). Zealand.

China is the largest market and is New Zealand is an attractive study growing. destination. Students from China and India made In 2016, almost 132,000 international up 50% of international enrolments students were studying in New in 2016 (China 29%; India 21%). Zealand schools, ELS, PTEs, ITPs, and Enrolments from China continue to universities; up 6% on the number grow, while enrolments from India enrolled in 2015. have dropped slightly since 2015.

The sector is rebalancing from volume Most international students go to to value. Auckland. The increase was seen in all sectors, with Auckland hosted 63% of international the exception of funded PTEs. Based on students in 2016. Other regions with a equivalent fulltime student numbers, sizeable proportion of the international universities currently account for the student market are Canterbury, most international students (21%), Wellington, the Waikato, Otago, and followed by ELS (19%) and unfunded the Bay of Plenty. PTEs (19%). 16 • Education New Zealand

2.1

2.1 according to a recent web-based survey of 8,007 international students in New Zealand.4 Utility and INTRODUCTION grocery costs were the next most significant items (Infometrics & National Research Bureau, 2016). The purpose of this section of the report is to provide a brief overview of the international The international education industry in New education sector in New Zealand, to provide Zealand supports more than an estimated 33,000 5 context. Unless noted otherwise, the information jobs. Around 15,000 jobs are generated directly, in this section is sourced from Education New with indirect and induced employment making up Zealand (2017 a or b).1 the remainder (Infometrics & National Research Bureau, 2016).6 Tuition fees for international students create jobs 2.2 in teaching institutions, while spending on living THE INTERNATIONAL expenses contributes to the creation of jobs in sectors such as accommodation and retail. Jobs are EDUCATION SECTOR IN also created in the supply chain, stimulated by the NEW ZEALAND DELIVERS spending of international students. ECONOMIC VALUE Spending by international students is an important contributor to regional economies. The total economic value of international International students make a direct economic education to New Zealand in 2016 is estimated contribution to the region where they study, and to be $4.5 billion, an increase of $200 million can also create economic activity in other parts of on the 2015 year.2 This is based on the number the country; for example, through jobs created in of international students, multiplied by a the supply chain. combination of their direct tuition fees, cost of living and indirect or downstream benefits. Figure 1 shows that the universities and PTEs account for the greatest share of onshore- Most of the total economic value of $4.5 billion, generated revenue. is onshore-generated revenue ($4.2 billion), while $242 million is generated by offshore activities. Approximately a quarter of the onshore-generated revenue is tuition fee revenue from full fee-paying international students ($1.08 billion), with the balance derived from other sources. Accommodation3 and transport account for almost half of the expenditure of international students,

1 Education New Zealand (2017a). New Zealand international education snapshot: 2016 full year report. Wellington: Education New Zealand; Education New Zealand (2017b). New Zealand international student enrolments—2016 full year. Wellington: Education New Zealand. 2 Sourced from Education New Zealand (2017a) 3 Including utilities and meals, where this is included in rent or board. 4 Invitations to participate in the survey were sent in 2015 to all usable email addresses in a sample of 18,564 students provided by Immigration New Zealand. 5 https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/international-education-growth-continues 6 See Intergen and National Research Bureau (2016) for more information on the methodology. Beyond the economic • 17

2.2

Figure 1: Value of onshore international education by sector to New Zealand ($m), 2013 - 2016

VALUE OF ONSHORE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION BY SECTOR TO NEW ZEALAND ($M), 2013 - 2016

$1,400 $1,200 $1,000 $800 $600 $400 $200 $0 2013 2014 2015 2016

Universities PTEs ITPs ELS Secondary schools Primary schools 18 • Education New Zealand

2.3

2.3 NEW ZEALAND IS AN ATTRACTIVE STUDY DESTINATION

The Canterbury earthquakes resulted in a decline in total student enrolments until late 2013. Since then, the international education sector has grown steadily to 131,609 students. The increase was seen in all sectors (Figure 2), although the private training establishments (funded) experienced a small decrease between 2015 and 2016 of 3%.

Figure 2: Number of international students by sector 2012 - 20161

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

ELS ITPs All schools PTE (funded) PTE (unfunded) Universities

Note: For Single Data Return providers2, students are counted in each sub-sector they enrol in, so the sum of the various sub- sectors may not add to the total.

1 Figure sourced from Education New Zealand (2017a).

2 Single Data Return (SDR) is a database of enrolment and completion information required by the Ministry of Education and Tertiary Education Commission. All tertiary education organisations receiving Student Achievement Component funding, Youth Guarantee funding, and/or have students with student loans or allowances, need to complete an SDR. Beyond the economic • 19

2.3

China is an important market for international However, recent trends for the two countries education in New Zealand, and is the top source differ, with enrolments from China continuing country for international students. Students from to grow (by 13% from 2015, to 38,046 students), China and India made up half of international while enrolments from India have dropped enrolments in 2016 (China 29%; India 21%). slightly (by 3% from 2015, to 28,154 students).

Figure 3: International students by market, 2012 and 20163

40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 China India Europe Japan Korea Latin South East Other America Asia

2012 2016

3 Figure sourced from Education New Zealand (2017a). 20 • Education New Zealand

2.3

Education New Zealand’s Regional Partnership Auckland enrols the majority of international Programme works collaboratively with local and students in New Zealand, with 63% of regional governments, economic development enrolments (83,609 students) in 2016 (Figure agencies, and education provider clusters or 3). Other regions with a sizeable proportion of organisations to enable sustainable international the international student market in 2016 were education growth across all of New Zealand’s Canterbury, Wellington, the Waikato, Otago, and regions.4 the Bay of Plenty. These overall market shares have been relatively stable since 2012.

Figure 4: Regional distribution of international students 2012-20165

90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Otago Region Waikato Region Auckland Region Canterbury RegionWellington Region Bay of Plenty Region Other - North IslandOther - South Island

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

4 https://enz.govt.nz/support/funding/regional-partnership-programme

5 Figure sourced from Education New Zealand (2017a). Beyond the economic • 21

2.4

2.4 THE SECTOR IS REBALANCING FROM VOLUME TO VALUE

All sectors have seen a steady increase in student numbers since 2012 (see Figure 5). However, funded PTEs have recorded a small drop of 3% in numbers between 2015 and 2016.

Figure 5: 2012 and 2016 sector breakdown6

30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

ELS ITPs

schools Universities PTE (funded) PTEs (unfunded) Secondary schools Primary/Intermediate 2012 2016

UNIVERSITIES

The universities sector grew by 6% between 2015 Half (50%) of all international university students and 2016, to 27,640 students. An increase in are in the Auckland region, while Wellington and post-graduate enrolments occurred at all levels, Christchurch both have 12%. In 2016, society and with enrolments for doctoral degrees increasing by culture, management and commerce, and natural 10% - 4,472 international students were studying and physical sciences were the most popular fields at doctoral level in 2016. of study for international students.

6 Figure sourced from Education New Zealand (2017a). 22 • Education New Zealand

2.4

INSTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY AND PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE POLYTECHNICS SCHOOLS

International student enrolments in New Zealand Nearly 3,000 international students came to ITPs have increased rapidly since 2013, and grew study at New Zealand primary and intermediate by 5% in 2016 to 18,239 students. Students from schools in 2016 (2,912 students), an increase of India and China make up nearly three-quarters 16% from 2015. Chinese and Korean students (72%) of the international student population make up most of the international students at studying at ITPs. primary and intermediate schools. The number of primary schools recruiting international Auckland has the largest proportion of students is relatively small. Of the 1,951 primary international students studying at ITPs (40%), schools in New Zealand in 2016, only 294 hosted growing by 9% since 2015. In 2016, the most international students in that year.1 popular field of study at ITPs for international students was management and commerce. SECONDARY SCHOOLS

PRIVATE TRAINING There were 16,390 international students ESTABLISHMENTS (FUNDED AND studying at New Zealand secondary schools in UNFUNDED) 2016, up by 6% from the previous year. Students from China (36%) and Japan (15%) make up In 2016, 17,239 international students were more than half of the international students at enrolled in funded PTEs, a decline of 3% on secondary schools. Many secondary schools are 2015. The unfunded sector remained stable at involved in the international student market, with 25,237 international students (an increase of 286 of the 368 secondary schools in New Zealand 1% from 2015), following a sizeable increase hosting international students in 2016. of 30% between 2014 and 2015. Indian and Chinese students made up the largest groups of international students in 2016. Sizeable proportions of international students in PTEs are studying in Auckland (78% in the funded sector and 83% in the unfunded sector).

ENGLISH LANGUAGE SCHOOLS

The English language schools sector grew by 18% between 2015 and 2016, to 24,635 students. The largest numbers of international students at ELS are from Japan and China. Nearly three-quarters of English language students study in Auckland (72%).

1 Primary and secondary schools must be a signatory to the Education (Pastoral Care of International Students) Code of Practice 2016 to enrol international students (449 of 1,951 New Zealand primary schools and 296 of 368 secondary schools are signatories). The Code of Practice contains outcomes sought for international students and key processes to support their wellbeing, achievement and rights. http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/providers-partners/education-code-of-practice Beyond the economic • 23 24 • Education New Zealand

3.0 THE VALUE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION – THE OVERSEAS EXPERIENCE Beyond the economic • 25

3.1

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The literature scan was completed to provide a clear overview of the state of recent research on the benefits of international students to their host countries. The scan included both international and New Zealand research, although relatively little New Zealand research was found on the topic The search for information focused on English- speaking jurisdictions, including New Zealand, Australia, Canada, the US and the UK. Appendix B describes the methodology for this literature scan and Appendix C provides references for the research described. All five countries have quantitative analyses of the economic contribution of international students to their host country (some focus on the broad international education sector, while others focus on specific sectors, such as universities). Australia, the US and the UK are the three largest providers of international education1, which is reflected in the amount of research relating to other benefits identified from these countries within this scan. This includes research on the benefits of international students to their host countries with respect to: their contribution to creating jobs; filling workforce shortages; supporting the tourism sector; contributing to the knowledge economy; exposing students to intercultural experiences; and supporting their host country, once they leave. The following sub-sections discuss these benefits and, wherever possible, provide a New Zealand perspective.

1 https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/Media-and-Events/submissions-and-reports/Universities-Australia-submission- to- the-Foreign-Policy-White-Paper/Universities-Australia-submission-to-the-Foreign-Policy-White-Paper 26 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 27

3.2 3.2 BENEFITS TO NATIONAL AND REGIONAL ECONOMIES SUMMARY

The presence of international students Spending by international students creates jobs. boosts regional economies. Tuition fees for international students Spending by international students is directly result in the creation of jobs in an important contributor to regional learning institutions, while spending economies. Spending may be by on living expenses directly contributes students studying in the regions, or by to the creation of jobs in sectors, such students in other areas of the country as accommodation, food, retail and creating economic activity in the transportation. Jobs are also created regions; for example, by creating jobs in in the supply chain, stimulated by the the supply chain. spending of international students.

Transnational education also creates jobs. Transnational education (education delivered by an institution based in one country to students located in another) also creates jobs and may attract other international students to study in the host country.

Some research reports on the economic the direct job’s existence. This is a multiplier benefits of international education only look effect in which the spending from a directly- at one type of education provider, such as supported job will thus help to indirectly universities, while other research reports on create and/or support other jobs in the the broader international education system. workplace.” (Baumgartner, 2016, p.7) The data and methodologies are not always The international research also highlights comparable, but are described in detail in how international students’ expenditure their reports. and activities can have an economic benefit Analyses mostly distinguish between beyond the local economy in which students students’ direct and indirect effects on the study, into other regions, or the country as a economy. For example, direct jobs are created whole. by international students’ expenditure and For example, tuition fees are a direct source activities (using money from their home of income for local economies via learning country). This creates jobs in learning institutions located in these economies, institutions and in the accommodation and and international students also generate transportation sectors, for example. activity as a result of their everyday On the other hand, an indirect job is “… spending on essential items, such as food and created and/or supported indirectly from accommodation. 28 • Education New Zealand

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In addition, international students also spend The direct and indirect delivery of international on ‘discretionary’ items, such as holidays, and education supports approximately 128,000 they attract friends and family from overseas fulltime equivalent jobs (1.3% of those employed in to visit, who will also spend on accommodation, Australia); 92,700 direct jobs and 35,600 indirect food, transport and entertainment (London & jobs (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016). Partners, 2015). The effects of this spending may spread beyond the local economy and can have an economic impact on other regions, or the country 3.2.2 as a whole. UNITED STATES Please refer to Section 2 for a brief overview of the value of the international education sector in New International students studying at colleges and Zealand. universities in the US contributed an estimated USD$32.8 billion to the national economy in the 2015-2016 academic year. It is estimated that 3.2.1 75% of international students in the US receive the majority of their funds from sources outside AUSTRALIA the country, such as personal/family sources and assistance from home country governments and International education is one of Australia’s largest universities (IIE, 2016). export industries. An analysis of the contribution of international students studying at schools, These students created or supported 400,812 jobs; education and training providers, language schools three jobs for every seven international students and in higher education1 found they contributed enrolled at colleges and universities (NAFSA, AUD$16.9 billion to Australia’s GDP in 2014- 2017). Tuition and fees support direct jobs in 2015 (around 1% of the GDP) (Deloitte Access higher education. Living expenses support direct Economics, 2016). jobs in the areas of accommodation (40%); food, dining and nightlife (25%); discretionary spending, Of this contribution to the GDP, the direct such as entertainment, retail and travel (20%); delivery of international education services telecommunications (5%); transportation (5%); and (distance and onshore)2 is estimated to have made health insurance (5%) (Baumgartner, 2016). a total contribution of AUD$11.9 billion, mainly concentrated in the ownership of dwellings, the retail trade and transportation. The indirect value3 to the economy was also significant; approximately equal to AUD$4.9 billion. Deloitte Access Economics calculates that “on average, each dollar of revenue on international education fees supports $0.21 of indirect value added in other industries”, particularly in professional, scientific and technical services, employment, travel agency and other administrative services, and other services.

1 Studying at schools, vocational education and training providers, higher education providers and those studying English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students. 2 The value added to the economy from the income earned by the sector’s labour and capital. 3 The international education sector’s expenditure on intermediate inputs. Beyond the economic • 29

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3.2.3 3.2.4 UNITED KINGDOM CANADA

Most of the UK data available is on international International students at schools, colleges and university students. In 2014-2015, on- and off- universities in Canada made an estimated campus spending by international university contribution of CAD$9.3 billion in GDP to students and their visitors contributed £13.8 the Canadian economy in 2014 (including the billion gross value added to the UK’s GDP, and contribution made by visiting families and brought in £10.8 billion of UK export earnings friends) (Roslyn Kunin and Associates, 2016). (Universities UK, 2017). Of this, CAD$6.7 billion was direct value added associated with tuition, food and accommodation; International student spending added £750 and CAD$2.6 billion was indirect value added million to the UK transport industry and £690 based on firms supplying goods and services to the million to the retail industry, while the economic education services and other sectors. activity and employment sustained by off-campus spending generated £1 billion in tax revenues. This The overall annual spending by international spending supported 206,600 fulltime equivalent students translated to 122,700 jobs (104,100 jobs (Universities UK, 2017). Similar positive fulltime equivalents) in the Canadian economy. benefits have been estimated for Exeter (Oxford Of the annual total spending by international Economics, 2012) and London, where an analysis students, long-term international students found that 106,795 international students4 accounted for 92%, while the remainder was support over 37,000 jobs in London (London & accounted for by international students in short- Partners, 2015). term language training programmes. There are more than 550 accredited English language centres in the UK. A recent economic analysis considered the contribution of teaching English as a foreign language to the UK economy in 2014 (Chaloner, et al., 2015). International English language students’ spending (including tuition fees, accommodation and other living costs) added a net £194 million benefit to the government (£65 for each week they stayed in 2014). For every job created, Chaloner and colleagues estimate that an additional two jobs are supported in the wider economy. The industry supported around 26,500 jobs in the UK (in all regions), stimulating activity through teaching, its supply chain and employee and student spending.

4 Studying at Higher Education Funding Council for England-funded higher education institutions. 30 • Education New Zealand

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3.2.5 activities of the traditional education service sector, businesses in New Zealand also undertake TRANSNATIONAL offshore training and education in a range of fields, EDUCATION including agribusiness and biotechnology, with some deriving revenue for these activities (Creative Transnational education1 is education delivered Strategies, 2015). by an institution based in one country to students located in another. Transnational education can include online learning or learning supported by 3.2.6 an offshore campus. Depending on the approach taken, jobs created in transnational education can BENEFITS TO REGIONAL be in either the host country or the home country ECONOMIES of the student (or a combination of both). Spending by international students can be an The transnational education sector can make important contributor to regional economies. a significant economic contribution to the The presence of international students at UK host country. There were over 325,000 active universities also benefits their local economies. students in UK transnational programmes in International students at Sheffield-based 2012–2013, with total revenue estimated at universities are estimated to have produced direct £496 million (Mellors-Bourne, et al., 2014). net benefits to the city of Sheffield in a single year Postgraduate-level learning provided the largest (2012–2013) of £97.9 million, while £102.50 income stream. The authors of the report note million went into the wider region (Yorkshire & that “international branch campuses only result the Humber) (Oxford Economics, 2013). in small direct revenues to UK institutions, due to their legal structures and trading arrangements”. In New Zealand, the international education However, they point to “… a ‘halo effect’ whereby sector is creating and supporting jobs across the a university’s in-country transnational education regions. A series of regional economic impact presence attracts additional students to its UK reports detail the living costs, tuition fees, average campus, most strongly where it has a branch spend per student, number of jobs supported, campus. This is estimated to be worth £42 million and economic value for Northland, Bay of Plenty, annually to the UK” (p.5). Taranaki, Manawatu-Whanganui, Hawke’s Bay, Nelson-Marlborough-Tasman, Otago and The estimated value added Southland. For example, in the Bay of Plenty (contribution to the GDP) of the New region2, international students spent an average Zealand offshore education market of $28,000 in 2015-2016 and generated 816 in 2015 was $118 million (or $242 jobs (direct, indirect and induced); with 494 of the million, if the wider impacts in the jobs generated in industries that directly supply economy are included). goods and services to these students (Infometrics & NRB, 2017). Direct employment by the industry was estimated At least 5% of international students in to be 895 people, or 1,584 people when including Australia live and study in regional areas. Where employment created in the wider economy international students choose to study in a (Denne, et al., 2016). In addition to the offshore regional area, rather than a main city, they can

1 http://www.obhe.ac.uk/newsletters/borderless_report_october_2012/canadas_internationalistion_strategy 2 The analysis covers Tauranga City, plus the Western Bay of Plenty District and Rotorua Lake District. These areas account for almost all of the Bay of Plenty’s international students. Beyond the economic • 31

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make up a sizeable proportion of the university student population and sometimes of the local community population. In a case study of the economic importance of international students at the University of New England to the Armidale region in New South Wales, Australia, Deloitte Access Economics estimated that they contributed AUD$33 million to the local economy in 2014– 2015 (2.5% of the gross regional product). The economic contribution made by international students is not restricted to the area in which they study. An analysis of data for all eight universities in Wales found that, in 2013-2014, spending by international students and their visitors generated more than 7,600 fulltime equivalent jobs. Although many of these jobs were created in the areas close to the universities, jobs were also created across Wales (Kelly, et al., 2015). Australian research also highlights the economic contribution of international students studying in Australian cities on their wider regional communities, with an estimated 0.3-1.3% going to the gross state product of their states/territories of enrolment in the 2014–2015 financial year (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016). An indirect contribution to regional areas, through supply chain linkages is also identified; for example, “… for each dollar spent on goods and services by the average international student in Melbourne, $0.30 of indirect gross value added is generated in regional Victoria” (p.31). The consumption of goods and services by international students in Melbourne, also supports 12,746 jobs in the Victorian economy, with 5,478 of these based in regional Victoria, “… approximately two jobs in regional Victoria for every million dollars of international student expenditure on goods and services in Melbourne” (p.39). 32 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 33

3.3 3.3 BENEFITS TO TOURISM SUMMARY

Spending on tourism and travel is Specific sectors of economies benefit likely to spread beyond a student’s the most from tourism spending. region of study. The accommodation, food and beverage International students are usually very and transport sectors of the economy motivated to travel, and contribute to are likely to be significant beneficiaries their host country’s economy by their of tourism spending. spending on tourism activities. International students also attract Positive impressions of host countries friends and family to visit the country influence future travel plans. as tourists, and international studies identify a substantial contribution to a Many international students also country’s economy from the additional retain links to their host countries after tourism spending of friends and family. they leave; travelling back themselves and recommending their host country to others for travel and study.

3.3.1 apartments and hotels/motels were the preferred types of accommodation on the INTERNATIONAL international students’ most recent trip. The STUDENTS transport used included cars (35%), planes (28%), trains (12%), buses (12%) and boats International students appear to be very (6%). Spending was not restricted to the motivated to travel within their host country. students themselves, with most travelling A survey of 4,633 international students in groups; mostly with friends (48%) and in Australia found that most (86%) had partners or family (11%). travelled within the country, with more Only limited information is available on the than half (56%) planning further travel in tourism activities of international students their upcoming summer break. The majority in New Zealand. An online survey of 217 of respondents took short trips: either a tertiary international students studying in day trip or 1-3 nights (62%). Just under a New Zealand1 in 2009, found many travelled quarter were away for 4-6 nights, while 13% frequently (Payne, 2010). Just over 13% of the travelled for a week or more (Gardiner, et al., students had taken between 5-7 overnight 2013). trips during the previous 12 months; nearly The accommodation and transport sectors half (47%) the students had taken between of the economy are likely to be significant two and four overnight trips; and just over a beneficiaries of tourism spending. In the quarter (26%) had taken one overnight trip. Australian study, backpacker hostels, holiday For these trips, most students travelled by car

1 Despite the survey being distributed to students throughout New Zealand, most (87.3%) respondents were from Auckland. Nearly three-quarters (73%) were enrolled in universities, with the remainder in government-funded polytechnics or institutes of technology and private English language and tertiary colleges. 34 • Education New Zealand

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to destinations that were within four hours of their Friends and family visiting place of study. Students stayed mainly in low-cost international students at accommodation, such as backpackers and hostels, or universities in the UK are estimated stayed with friends, and the most frequent activities to have spent £520 million during they engaged in were eating out (61%), visiting beaches (58%) and shopping (41%). the 2014-2015 academic year (Oxford Economics, 2017). A report on the economic impact of international 3.3.2 students studying at the eight universities in FRIENDS AND RELATIVES Wales during 2013- 2014 also identified friends and relatives as an important source of income In addition to their own tourism activities, for Welsh communities; spending an estimated international students also attract friends and £24 million on hotel accommodation and local relatives to visit them as tourists. This activity can amenities (Kelly, et al., 2015). be challenging to quantify, as visitors to a country In France, over half the 4,200 international may have a number of reasons for that visit. students who responded to an online survey Studies have mainly used official immigration reported that relatives and friends visited them visitor data or surveys of international students during their studies, spending an average of 28 to assess this. Overall, they identify a substantial days in France per student (Campus France, contribution to a country’s economy from the 2014). The net economic benefit of hosting additional tourism spending of friends and family. international students and their families in France Friends and relatives who came to Australia to is estimated at €1.7 billion per year. Campus visit an international student contributed an France also point to a 2011 report by the French estimated AUD$222 million in value to the Senate, that estimated money spent by relatives Australian economy through tourism expenditure visiting international students created 12,000 jobs in 2014-2015.2 Data from the International in the tourism industry. Visitor Survey was the primary source of data for The visits of friends and family may continue this estimation (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016). beyond the study period. A survey of 940 Direct benefits from friends and relatives visiting international and European Union (EU) alumni international students in Australia include from seven Welsh universities found that alumni contributions to the retail trade, food and beverage who stay on in Wales after their study also bring services and accommodation sectors. There are in international visitors, with each international also significant indirect benefits; for example, to (including EU) alumnus living in Wales having non-residential property operators and real estate received an average of three international visitors services (such as those who own or lease buildings a year (Oxford Economics, 2011). used by retailers selling to tourists). Friends and relatives made an estimated contribution of 2,359 fulltime equivalent jobs (1,644 direct jobs and 714 indirect jobs), including jobs in the retail, accommodation, cafe and restaurant sectors (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016).

2 Based on 109,103 people who came to Australia to visit an international student friend or relative. They are a subset of the broader group of 544,949 visitors who visited an international student at some stage during their trip, but may not have come to Australia for that reason. Beyond the economic • 35

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3.3.3 a survey by Campus France (2014), many said they planned to return to France after study: 85% ALUMNI planned to return as tourists, with 58% being certain they would return. Most (86.7%) would Many international students will retain links to ‘definitely’ or ‘probably’ encourage others to go to their host countries after they leave, and studies France for their vacation. Similar sentiments were suggest they are motivated to return for visits. expressed in a Welsh survey of 940 international Many Chinese alumni of Australian educational and EU alumni from seven Welsh universities: institutions report they have travelled back to 60% of those living outside said they were ‘very Australia. likely’ to return for leisure and 89% were either ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’ to promote Wales to others In a survey of 1,154 alumni from as a tourism destination (Oxford Economics, 2011). Australian institutions who resided in Beijing, Hangzhou, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Hunan Province, 64% of respondents had returned to Australia at least once in the previous five years, and 18% had returned five or more times (Pyke, et al., 2013). Almost all the survey respondents (93%) intended to travel to Australia in the future and 21% said they planned to return five or more times in the coming five years. Nearly half the respondents had travelled to Australia with at least one other person, with the majority (63%) having stayed more than two weeks. Notably, a relatively small proportion (16%) visited places outside Australia’s main cities. Alumni can have considerable influence in promoting two-way travel between their home country and their country of study. The Chinese alumni in this study reported that they recommend Australia as a place to have a holiday and do business, and the majority (70%) reported that they have recommended, or intended to recommend Australia as a place to study. Of the 4,200 former international students who had studied in France and participated in 36 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 37

3.4 3.4 BENEFITS TO SOFT DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE SUMMARY

International and New Zealand Immigration boosts trade and there is research has identified the potential evidence that international students for international education to foster have a positive effect on trade flows. positive relationships with other International students who study in countries (soft diplomacy). New Zealand and return to their home International alumni from New country can link New Zealand to Zealand universities who live overseas international markets, with expatriate feel an ongoing connection to New and trade organisations being an Zealand. In turn, there is some evidence avenue for facilitating these links. that recipients of international education can find themselves in positions of influence after they return to their home country and there is also some anecdotal evidence to suggest that this has positive diplomatic outcomes for the host country.

3.4.1 variety of other players, including sporting and cultural events, multinational companies, SOFT DIPLOMACY and educational organisations. Higher educational organisations channel the Motivations for countries to focus on cultural flow and exchange of people, knowledge relations and diplomacy include increasing and expertise, innovation, economy and familiarity with their country, creating culture, with the potential to foster mutual positive perceptions and encouraging the understanding and contribute to a nation’s idea that their country is an appealing foreign policy agenda (Byrne & Hall, 2011; destination for tourism and study (Holden Knight, 2014; McGill Peterson, 2014). & Tryhorn, 2013). Along with the economic benefits of international education, Exerting ‘soft power’ in this context requires governments increasingly see it as a strategy the recipients to have or gain influence, and for exerting soft power’, where nations try to retain links with their host countries to “… achieve their international objectives (Association of Commonwealth Universities, through attraction and co-option, rather 2013). Most (90%) of New Zealand’s than coercion, in an effort to promote international tertiary students and those in cultural understanding and avoid cultural institutes of technology and polytechnics, misunderstanding” (Holden and Tryhorn, and private training institutes report that, 2013, p.3). overall, they enjoy a positive experience in New Zealand (TNS, 2016). In New Zealand, Diplomacy has evolved in recent times from a surveys of international students show a state-based approach, focused on professional high level of overall satisfaction with their diplomats, to one that is delivered by a 38 • Education New Zealand

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educational institutions1 (mainly in line with 2009; Holden & Tryhorn, 2013). Previous global benchmarks) and with New Zealand, with Commonwealth Scholarship Commission award students mostly saying they would recommend holders4 report a range of positive benefits as a their institution to others thinking of applying result of their award, including increased technical there (81% of university graduates; 79% of knowledge and access to equipment or expertise institute of technology and polytechnic graduates; unavailable in their home countries. Two-thirds 71% of private training establishment graduates; of the 2,090 respondents to a survey reported and 81% of English language sector graduates) that their activities back in their home country (i-graduate, 2015ab; 2016ab). had socioeconomic impacts, and just over one- third reported they had influenced government In a survey of more than 3,200 alumni of New policymaking (Mawer, et al., 2016). Zealand universities who were living overseas, more than 90% reported being positive or very New Zealand also runs a scholarships programme positive about their educational experiences in that aims to build prosperity, security and New Zealand (Illuminate Consulting Group, sustainable growth in developing countries as 2009).2 In the same survey, nearly three quarters well as a lifetime connection with New Zealand. (73%) of foreign nationals reported feeling ‘very The New Zealand Scholarships are for individuals much’ or ‘somewhat’ connected to New Zealand. from 97 developing countries to study in New Zealand and the Pacific. They promote sustainable In addition to the personal benefits that students economic development through building skilled receive from international education, Holden human resource capacity, and build connections and Tryhorn identify educational exchanges between New Zealand and alumni. At any given as “… generally acknowledged to be one of the time, there are more than 1,500 scholars in New most powerful and long-lasting influences on Zealand on award. attitudes” (p.27). They link the commitment of the US to hosting international students to the high Educational exchanges also expose students to standing of the US in global attitudes surveys. different political structures and behaviours. An analysis of data on foreign students and their The UK has experienced significant new source country’s human rights’ record between demand for educational services from countries 1980 and 2006 found an association between outside the main source countries of Europe greater participation by foreign students in and North America (HM Government, 2013). university studies in the US and improving The UK government’s international education human rights’ records (measured as government strategy notes that education can contribute respect for basic freedoms and liberties) in the to building closer relationships with these home countries of the students (Atkinson, 2010). countries, many of which are emerging powers.3 Commonwealth Scholarship alumni also report The Fulbright programme in the US, the having an impact on development and democracy. British Council’s scholarship programme and the Commonwealth Scholarship Programme are examples of educational initiatives, where international development objectives are an important aspect of the schemes (Day et al.,

1 Separate reports are available for the English language sector, institutes of technology and polytechnics, private training establishments, and universities. 2 Around one half were New Zealand nationals living overseas while the rest were nationals from other countries living overseas. 3 The strategy emphasises that individual institutions are free to identify their own international ambitions and partners. 4 Received awards between 1960 and 2012. Beyond the economic • 39

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Of over 2,200 alumni who 3.4.2 completed an impact evaluation survey in 2008, nearly half (1,035) INTERNATIONAL TRADE reported that they had an impact on Immigration boosts trade, with a meta-analysis governance, international relations, showing that an increase of 10% in the number social inequalities and human of immigrants increases the volume of trade by rights, and conflict resolution/ about 1.5% (Genç, et al., 2012). An international humanitarian assistance (Hinz, et education industry can also contribute to trade al., 2011). flows. An analysis of the impact of international students enrolled in UK universities on the UK’s Wilson (2015) identifies mechanisms by which trade with 167 countries from 1999-2009, international education might contribute to concluded they had a significant and positive peace, through signalling a desire for peaceful, influence on bilateral trade flows with their benevolent relations between countries; home countries (Murat, 2014). Murat considered attitudinal change; network formation; and the influence of international students, former institutional transfer (e.g. seeing policy ideas being international students, and alumni associations implemented and taking those ideas back to their and found that, while they all contributed to home country). Wilson finds that, while these bilateral trade flows, the strongest impact was that mechanisms seem intuitive, it is more difficult to of the alumni associations. demonstrate that exchanges affect international Studying in another country appears to facilitate relations through these mechanisms. ongoing business ties once a student departs. A It is challenging to quantify the public diplomacy survey of current students and alumni of London benefits of international educational efforts universities (where more than three-quarters of (Association of Commonwealth Universities, 2013; respondents had a nationality outside the UK Wilson, et al., 2015). The British Council found or EU) found that 60% were more likely to do in 2014 that 90% of world leaders at the time business with the UK, as a result of studying in had studied in the UK, and use this to illustrate London (London First & PWC, 2015). the potential for the higher education sector to The British Council (2012) sought to quantify be a long-term asset internationally.5 In a New the impact of international cultural relationships6 Zealand context, Butcher (2010) identifies notable in building interest in doing business in the UK. Asian alumni who have studied at New Zealand They undertook online research panels7 with universities in the past and then held influential young people aged 16/18-34 years who were positions internationally. He goes on to say that selected to represent ‘future influencers’ and many formed relationships with their universities, ‘young people with potential’. One thousand or communities and churches in New Zealand. more participants were interviewed in Brazil, Research to date has mostly identified the potential Russia, India, China, Spain, Poland, Thailand, for international education to have a positive Saudi Arabia8, Pakistan and Turkey. In nine impact on relationships with other countries, out of the ten countries, the interest in doing without directly quantifying this impact. business with UK people and organisations

5 https://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/press/uk-alumni-leading-world 6 Through developing English language skills, learning with and making with people in the UK, and experiencing the UK arts. 7 Interviews in Pakistan were face-to-face. 8 In Saudi Arabia, the sample size was 520. 40 • Education New Zealand

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was significantly higher among those who had ALUMNI AS AMBASSADORS participated in cultural activities with the UK. Interest in business opportunities with the Expatriate and trade organisations can promote UK was also significantly higher among those relationships between host countries and their respondents with good English skills. former international students. The Australia Global Alumni Engagement Strategy 2016– To understand the wider benefits of a UK 2020 is a government programme that aims to education to graduates, their countries of origin build on the success of Australia’s international and to the UK, interviews were carried out with programmes, by fostering a global alumni one hundred non-EU international alumni community to actively engage and promote who had graduated from UK higher education Australia.9 The Strategy focuses on: institutions (Mellors-Bourne, et al., 2013). Overall, the alumni reported very positive perceptions • Strengthening diplomatic access and of their higher education experiences in the UK, influence. and were very satisfied with the contribution this • Growing trade investment and business experience had made to their career progression. linkages. They became informal ambassadors for the UK, • Promoting capabilities and credentials in based on an emotional bond developed during education, science, research and innovation. their study. A wide range of benefits were identified, which included: • Showcasing Australia as a contemporary, innovative, open society. • tangible business-to-business transactions benefitting the UK Twelve prominent alumni have taken on the role of alumni ambassadors. They include • friends and contacts made in the UK, with the entrepreneurs, business leaders, technologists potential for future business transactions and and educators from eight countries. The alumni collaborations of economic value to the UK ambassadors will work with Australian embassies • personal consumer behaviour oriented in their home countries. towards UK products and UK travel When international students leave • trust in the UK as a nation, society, and its New Zealand, many will retain an enterprises and individuals attachment to the country and can • a UK influence during capacity building in be a valuable asset when businesses their home countries. are developing relationships in their countries. Many alumni will be connected to the world of business, either directly or indirectly. In an analysis of Hong Kong census data for 2006, Ho and colleagues (2010) identified 2,789 Chinese residents of Hong Kong who had lived in New Zealand five years previously. The majority were in the top three occupation tiers in Hong Kong (managers and administrators; professionals; and associate professionals). Ho and colleagues note

9 http://dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/global-alumni/Pages/global-alumni.aspx Beyond the economic • 41

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that they “have also had opportunities to develop strong global networks and, because they can draw on and utilise contacts within New Zealand, they have the potential to link New Zealand to international markets” (p.26). Alumni may already be connected with business and trade groups. In qualitative focus groups, surveys and interviews with returned Chinese migrants in Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong, Ho and colleagues found their New Zealand education or work experience meant they had a good knowledge of New Zealand culture, with some having gone on to become ‘local employees’ of New Zealand Trade and Enterprise, Tourism New Zealand and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 42 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 43

3.5 3.5 BENEFITS TO BUSINESS, INNOVATION AND THE WORKFORCE SUMMARY

International students can make International students are an a significant contribution to the important source of skilled migrants, development of new businesses in their for governments looking to address host country. workforce shortages. This is particularly the case in technical They have the advantages of host fields. country language ability; a level of acculturation; and training relevant to their host country. Many of New Zealand’s workforce shortages are in occupations that require qualifications in science, The presence and financial technology, engineering and contribution of international students mathematics (STEM fields).1 may mean domestic students have access to a broader range of educational Young, international graduates with a programmes. New Zealand qualification in a STEM field are more likely to stay in New This is also the case, for example, in Zealand than graduates in other fields technical fields. of study.

3.5.1 International students have the potential to make a significant contribution to BUSINESS AND business in their host country. Immigrants INNOVATION entering the US on student/trainee visas have been shown to do better than domestic Attracting and retaining highly skilled college graduates in wages; patenting, international students is likely to contribute including commercialising and licensing to an innovative economy and talent patents; as well as being more productive acquisition in New Zealand. The New in the authoring of books and papers, and Zealand government’s national statement presenting at major conferences. They are of science investment notes that, “a science also more likely (conditional on education system that develops, retains and attracts level) to start a successful company, possibly talented individuals will draw increased reflecting their role in start-ups that utilise investment from industry, including from technical knowledge from postgraduate study overseas” (Ministry of Business, Innovation (Hunt, 2010). & Employment, 2015, p.13).

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Nearly a quarter of the 87 “billion laboratories in the US (Stuen, et al., 2012). dollar” start-up companies in the Patent data is often used as a proxy measure US “… had a founder who first came for innovation. In a 2008 paper, estimating to America as an international the impact of international graduate students student”, including Elon Musk, on innovative activity in the US, Chellaraj and Founder and CEO of SpaceX colleagues used a model of idea generation, and (Anderson, 2016). conclude that international graduate students have a significant positive impact on future patent In a survey of 940 international and EU alumni applications, as well as on future patents awarded from seven Welsh universities, just over 15% to university and non-university institutions. indicated that they had been involved in starting They estimate that “… a 10% increase in the a business after finishing university; seven of number of foreign graduate students would raise the 143 businesses were in Wales, and all were patent applications by 4.5%, university patent operating in the Welsh government’s priority grants by 6.8% and non- university patent sectors (ICT, energy and environment, advanced grants by 5.0%”. Semov (2010) also evaluated manufacturing and engineering, life sciences, the contribution of international graduate creative industries, and financial and professional students to US innovation, using patent data. services) (Oxford Economics, 2011). Oxford The number of international graduate students Economics compares this with recent data for all had a significant positive effect on innovative graduates from Welsh universities, which found activity in the long-term. A negative effect in that approximately 1% started businesses. the short-term was attributed to the fixed size of Science, technology, engineering and mathematics graduate programmes, initially, where accepting an (STEM1) research is increasingly globally additional international student could mean not 3 collaborative, with more international co- being able to accept a domestic student. authorship of science publications.2 Increasing The presence and financial contribution of the number of international STEM postgraduate international students may mean domestic students in New Zealand universities is likely students have access to a broader range of to increase access to international funding for educational options in technical fields; for example, research in STEM areas, through international ensuring there are enough students to run certain collaborations, and contribute to increased science graduate programmes, attracting talented staff, and innovation excellence in New Zealand (Sutton or helping raise programmes to a higher calibre & Lyons, 2014). In research on the role of domestic (Anderson, 2014; Hegarty, 2014). 4Reporting and international doctoral students in innovation on a review of the literature, Hegarty (2014) at 2,300 American science and engineering addresses suggestions that domestic students departments, from 1973 to 1998, both US and have lost places to international students; noting international students significantly increased the that international students often enrol in STEM numbers of scientific papers and citations (which programmes that would not have enough domestic contribute to university rankings) at scientific students to run, without their presence, and that

1 STEM subjects include: natural and physical sciences; information technology; engineering and related technologies; architecture and building; agriculture, environmental and related studies. 2 https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/index.cfm/chapter-5/c5h.htm 3 Graduate programmes in the US tend to expand in the long-term. 4 http://www.nafsa.org/Professional_Resources/Publications/International_Educator/International_Students_Are_Vital_to_U _S Higher_Education Beyond the economic • 45

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doctoral programmes in the US have grown to 2014). In Australia, industry stakeholders have accommodate the demand from international highlighted the important role of international students, when necessary, rather than domestic students in filling workplace shortages; for students losing access to places. example, in agriculture, aged care and the hospitality sector. They have also pointed to the The New Zealand government has a policy value of international students’ language skills to offer domestic tuition fees to international and cultural connections to tourists from their PhD students5; along with full work rights for home countries, when working in tourist-related themselves and their partner, and domestic school industries (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016). fees for their children. The policy aims to increase international PhD enrolments, with the potential Some countries have adopted policies to ensure to enhance New Zealand universities’ rankings they can make the most of this resource8, and and the country’s innovation economy. many international students factor the ability to remain in the host country into their decision Since the introduction of the PhD policy in 2005, about where to study (two-step migration, from the number of international PhD students has temporary to permanent status) (Hawthorne, increased, and now makes up 45% of all PhD 2014). International students can apply to students.6 Berquist (2017) finds indicators that work in New Zealand for up to three years after suggest this policy has been effective, such as an graduating. Recent changes to the skilled migrant increase in New Zealand’s research output, with the category mean that permanent residence will not rate of citation of New Zealand research rising from always be a realistic expectation, especially for 0.96% of the world average before the strategy, to students who have studied for qualifications below 1.26 times the world average for 2010-2014. The degree level. academic impact of research from New Zealand is also rising; and at a rate faster than Australia. In One in five (19%) international students had addition, all eight New Zealand universities are now transitioned to New Zealand residence status in in the top 450 of the QS world university rankings, 2015/2016, five years after their first student compared to three in 2005. visa, and nearly half (45%) of skilled principal migrants in 2015/2016 were former international students (Ministry of Business, Innovation and 3.5.2 Employment, 2016a). FILLING WORKFORCE International students can help to meet the demands for workers in a knowledge economy SHORTAGES and address workforce shortages in skilled areas, International students are an important source such as health (Hawthorne, 2012). International of skilled migrants for governments looking students have been identified as a key resource to address workforce shortages.7 International for the Australian medical workforce, which students have the advantages of host country relies on immigration to address workforce language ability, a level of acculturation, and shortages (Health Workforce Australia, 2014). training relevant to their host country (Hawthorne, Longitudinal analysis shows that 78% of final-

5 https://education.govt.nz/framework/main.php/policies-and-strategies/tertiary-education-strategy/?url=/further- education/ policies-and-strategies/tertiary-education-strategy 6 https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/perspectives/opinion/opinion-2017/study-shows-success-in-growing-nzs-talent- pool. html 7 http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/immigration/migration-research-and-evaluation/trends-and-outlook/2015-16 8 http://www.migrationpolicy.org/topics/international-students 46 • Education New Zealand

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year international medical students initially stay For those international graduates who remain in Australia (almost all graduates, once sponsored in New Zealand to work, median earnings students are excluded) (Hawthorne, 2012). increase along with the level of qualification In 2010, around 10% of all nursing students that international students completed, and are studying for a bachelor’s degree in nursing at particularly high for those with a PhD. Earnings New Zealand nursing schools were international also tend to be higher for international graduates students, who were important to maintaining a who complete a qualification in STEM fields registered nurse-to-population ratio that would (Park, 2017). Between 2010 and 2014, of those meet the demand for healthcare services in the international graduates whose first New Zealand future (Nana, et al., 2013). qualification is a PhD, 13% of males and 15% of females had domestic student status (New Zealand In an analysis of employment outcomes for residence), by completion. The rates for other types domestic and international students in Australia, of graduates were low, at 2-9% (Park, 2017). Hawthorne (2014) finds that early employment outcomes for international students are In an analysis of New Zealand’s international significantly worse for international, compared PhD strategy, Berquist notes that the “stay rates” with domestic students, apart from where there is for New Zealand’s international PhD students a sustained workforce shortage. For students with are “within the norm observed for other major a bachelor degree in medicine from 2009–2011, markets overall” (p.14). Thirty-four percent of all 99% of international students and around 100% international PhD graduates are working in New of domestic students were employed fulltime Zealand in the first year after they complete their at four months. Whereas, in a field, such as studies; 26% in the second year; and between 15 accounting, where workforce shortages were not and 23% in the third-to-eighth years after study an issue, only 35% of international graduates (Park, 2017). The median earnings of the PhD had fulltime work, compared to 83% of domestic graduates who stay in New Zealand are very good, graduates. Hawthorne reports similar trends for compared to other graduates, and Park (2017) master’s degree students, but notes that having a notes that there are indications that earnings are PhD did offset labour market disadvantage to some highest in the first two years after study for those degree; although employers still demonstrated a PhD graduates working in management and preference for domestic students. commerce, engineering and related technologies, and information technology. Many of New Zealand’s workforce shortages are in occupations that require qualifications in STEM subjects. “Attracting or retaining people with these skills indicates an internationally-competitive science and innovation system.” (Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2016b, p.71) Young international graduates in STEM fields are more likely to stay in New Zealand than the average for all fields of study, at each qualification level. This may reflect the number of available jobs in this area, and the good median earnings for young international graduates with a STEM qualification (Park, 2017). Beyond the economic • 47 48 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 49

3.6 3.6 BENEFITS OF COMMUNITY-BASED, CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL VALUE SUMMARY

Many employers now seek “global The integration of international skills” and cultural awareness when students is crucial to any plan to selecting new employees, and these internationalise, and fostering are also the main benefits that higher intercultural relationships is likely to educational institutions around the require institutional effort and support. world expect from internationalisation Many education institutions have in education. programmes to promote intercultural Developing intercultural skills does interactions; for example, matching not necessarily require overseas travel. individual international students Learning and socialising alongside with a domestic student. Research international students has the shows programmes can be beneficial potential to broaden the perspective of for both international and domestic domestic students and develop their students; particularly in encouraging intercultural and language skills. students to challenge their own beliefs, be more open to other perspectives, New Zealand and international and to become more competent in research shows that, although intercultural interactions. international students anticipate developing relationships with domestic Teaching staff are likely to be a critical students, they tend to cluster in social element in the internationalisation groups with students of a similar process, and may need support to national or cultural background, encourage intercultural relationships in and domestic students tend to show the classroom. 1 reluctance to initiate relationships with international students.

3.6.1 up the key competencies that enable people to live, work and learn across national and INTERCULTURAL cultural boundaries.” (Ministry of Education, COMPETENCIES 2014, p.1) Many educational institutions, internationally and in New Zealand, are The Ministry of Education describes the seeking to “internationalise”, including increasing importance for young people increasing ratios of international students, to develop international capabilities staff and partners. These shifts are often (intercultural competence). “International associated with claims that this will enrich capabilities are the knowledge, skills, the cultural and educational experiences of attitudes, dispositions and values that make domestic students.

1 http://www.ausa.auckland.ac.nz/buddys; http://www.otago.ac.nz/international/oifn.html; http://www.canterbury. ac.nz/international/support-for-international-students; http://www.victoria.ac.nz/students/get- involved/ international/buddy; http://www.waikato.ac.nz/study/international/international-buddy-programme 50 • Education New Zealand

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The New Zealand government released the draft students are hard to quantify, with only limited International Education Strategy for New Zealand empirical studies available (Spencer-Oatey & for consultation in June 2017. The Strategy sets Dauber, 2015). The British Council (2014) notes out the proposed vision, goals and immediate that “… simply having a diverse student body does priorities for international education through to not mean the education or even the campus is 2025. One of the three goals is to contribute to global in nature. What comes as an essential part of the development of young New Zealanders into a global education is the inclusion of international “global citizens”. The Strategy notes that, “New students in communities and classes.” (p.4) Zealanders benefit from enhanced knowledge and understanding of other cultures and languages… Equipping New Zealanders with the international 3.6.2 capabilities and readiness required to live and work globally is one of the wider benefits of DOMESTIC STUDENTS’ international education.” (p.13) VIEWS ON INTERNATIONAL Many employers now seek “global skills” STUDENTS and cultural awareness, when selecting new International students are mostly welcomed employees; with employers in the UK reporting by domestic students and the general public. A that education providers could do more to develop Canadian survey of 1,398 domestic undergraduate a workforce with the necessary intercultural and graduate students found that over 90% of skills (British Council, et al., 2013; Spencer- students thought that international students were Oatey & Dauber 2015). Student knowledge and welcomed on campus; although just over 60% appreciation of international issues are also the said international students “kept to themselves” main benefits that higher educational institutions (Lambert & Usher, 2013). around the world expect from internationalisation in education (based on responses from 1,336 A survey of UK students identified a high level of institutions of higher education located in 131 integration and acceptance, with 74% of students countries) (Egron-Polak & Hudson, 2014). A in a British Council (2014) survey believing that Canadian study found students in universities and international students are welcomed by their colleges saw a relationship between intercultural peers. Those who had “… greater interaction with competencies and future employment potential; international students were more likely to have with nearly all students (93%) reporting that the international students as friends, were three ability to work in diverse cultural settings was times as likely to enjoy sharing experiences with important or very important, in terms of getting a international students, and had a better awareness job after graduation (Kaznowska & Usher, 2011). of international students’ motivations for studying in the UK.”1 Conversely, those who had minimal Developing intercultural competence does not interactions with international students were necessarily require overseas travel. Intercultural neutral about their presence on campus. experiences can be found in most students’ home countries (Tillman, 2012). Learning alongside UK students who have applied to attend higher international students has the potential to broaden education also appear to be international in domestic students’ perspectives, and develop their outlook and positive about learning alongside language and intercultural skills. However, any people from the rest of the world. In a survey of cultural and educational benefits for domestic 500 young people, most (84%) expected to study students from the presence of international alongside students from other countries (12%

1 https://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/press/international-students-are-welcomed-say-uk-students Beyond the economic • 51

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didn’t know). Most (87%) also agreed that it would curiosity about other cultures, were among the give them a better world view, and just over three- advantages of having international students on quarters agreed it would help them develop a campus identified by the majority of domestic global network (HEPI and Kaplan, 2015b). students surveyed in the Canadian study described earlier (Lambert & Usher, 2013). Students with A majority of the UK public value international international students as friends reported that students. Almost one in five of all university they learned from having conversations with students (18%) in the UK have come from them about cultural customs, norms and traditions overseas. In a recent poll of over 4,000 British (71%), their friends’ personal experiences about adults, 73% said they would like to see the same living in a new country (49%) and history, number, or more, international students in the politics and current events (34%). The majority UK, and 64% agreed that international students of respondents (64%) “… reported that their have a positive impact on the local communities perspective about the world has been enriched, and towns in which they study.2 The Australian since making international friends (or in many public and Australian businesses also appreciate cases, acquaintances) at school. Additionally, nearly the social, cultural and economic benefits of three-quarters of respondents felt that the growing international students, with 75% being positive or international student presence has led to increased very positive about full-fee paying international cross-cultural sensitivity and awareness among students attending Australia’s universities students on campus.” (Lambert & Usher, 2013, p.9) (Universities Australia, 2013). Graduates of four US private research universities, Stakeholders in the Armidale region of New surveyed five, 10 and 20 years after graduation, South Wales, Australia, identified a number of who reported engaging in substantial interactions non-economic benefits from having international with international students during their students study at the local University of New university years, showed a greater openness England, including: their helping out with to challenge their own beliefs and values and local events; volunteering at schools to help experienced more positive education outcomes, students with homework; building links with the leadership skills, intellectual development, and community, once they return home; and having science literacy, than non-interactive domestic the potential to become powerful advocates for students (Luo & Jamieson-Drake, 2013). attracting future students and visitors to the region (Deloitte Access Economics, 2016). Similarly, of the 1,302 students from three universities (one in Australia and two in the US), who responded to an online survey, those who 3.6.3 took “… more courses with international content, interacted with international students on a deeper CULTURAL INFLUENCES level, or studied abroad, demonstrated greater There are some promising research findings foreign language skills; more knowledge of specific that point to the value for domestic students regions and countries; attitudes, perceptions, and of studying alongside international students, behaviours that were more internationally aware, where there is substantial interaction. Increased open, curious and cooperative; and had greater opportunities to participate in international and cross-cultural skills” (Parsons, 2010, p.328). multicultural-focused events and increasing their

2 http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/news/Pages/New-poll-%E2%80%93-cutting-international-student-numbers-will-not- address-public-immigration-concerns.aspx 52 • Education New Zealand

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Staff from further educational colleges in the UK them develop a global network. The majority report that their Tier 4 international students3 also agreed or neither agreed or disagreed that enriched “… the overall learning experience for it provided them with opportunities to practice both staff and students by allowing people with foreign language skills, and that it improved their different perspectives and cultures to exchange employment prospects. When asked their opinion ideas in a learning context. This was seen to on some potentially negative aspects of studying be particularly important in areas where there with international students, 65% disagreed that was not a high level of diversity” (Wiseman & studying alongside international students led to Davies, 2013, p. 29). It was also suggested that the academic discussions being of a lower quality (24% presence of international students would help the were neutral); and nearly three-quarters disagreed UK students gain the employment skills necessary (47%) or were neutral (27%) about the statement for working in a wider international market. In that ‘students who do not have English as their a Canadian study of 1,398 students at Canadian first language slow down the class’. universities, about half the students also believed that international students “considerably enriched their learning experience” (one-third disagreed 3.6.4 and 17% were unsure) (Lambert & Usher, 2013). DOMESTIC STUDENTS’ Just over three-quarters of students ENGAGEMENT WITH in a UK study… agreed that studying INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS alongside people from other countries ‘is useful preparation for Despite mainly positive attitudes towards working in a global environment’… international students on the part of domestic (HEPI & Kaplan, 2015a). students, this does not generally translate into the development of relationships. However, the UK domestic students were less likely to ‘strongly agree’ than EU and other Research from New Zealand and overseas shows international students (29% for UK students, that, although international students anticipate 65% for students from the EU and 62% for other developing relationships with domestic students, students from abroad). The authors suggest the they tend to cluster in social groups with students “… employability benefits of studying alongside of a similar national or cultural background, and people from other nations may be somewhat domestic students tend to show reluctance to clearer to those who travel the world to study, than initiate relationships with international students for those who stay at home” (p.4). (Bragg, 2010; Canadian Bureau for International Education, 2014; van der Meer & Comer, 2011; Respondents in the same study were asked to Ward, et al., 2009). A mixed-method research express a view on eight possible effects on learning project found that Saudi students studying in New from studying alongside people from other Zealand4 found making friends with locals was countries (positive and negative). The majority challenging, in practice (Egan, 2013). agreed that studying alongside international students would give them a better world view; The Australasian Survey of Student Engagement meant that students had to be more aware of provides insights into student engagement at New cultural sensitivities; and that it would help Zealand’s eight universities, based on data from

3 The Tier 4 (General) category is for adult students who want to come to or remain in the UK for their post-16 education. 4 The scholarship programme for Saudi youth was provided by the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia, with the aim of upskilling youth and also providing them with “soft” skills, through international experience and intercultural friendships. Beyond the economic • 53

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8,378 undergraduate students (van der Meer & these students to be “welcome, valued and socially Comer, 2011). Although international students connected” (Ministry of Education, 2017, p.7). were more likely than domestic students to work However, fostering intercultural relationships with other students during class, they were is likely to require institutional effort and significantly less likely to report having frequent support (Bragg, 2010; McKinven, 2011; Ward, conversations with students from a different et al., 2009). “Intercultural competence doesn’t ethnic group or with students who are very just happen; if it did, there would be far fewer different in their background and beliefs. Of those cross-cultural misunderstandings. Rather, we international students who commented in the must be intentional about developing learners’ survey about improvements that could be made, intercultural competence. Such developments can “… close to one-third related to achieving a greater occur through adequate preparation, substantive level of interaction between students, particularly intercultural interactions and relationship between international and domestic students, building.” (Deardorff, 2009, p. xiii) including smaller classes and more tutorials” (p.34). In addition to the study environment, Glass and Westmont (2014) tested the buffering international students are most likely to meet effects of a sense of “belongingness” on cross- domestic students at extracurricular activities, cultural interaction and academic success. They such as sport, religious groups and volunteering describe belongingness as “… a sense of connection (Canadian Bureau for International Education, with one’s university, a strong support network, 2014). Deardorff and Jones (2102) present ideas and a balance of academic challenge and support” for more deliberate strategies for developing (p. 106). In research with 415 international intercultural competence, including: and 816 domestic undergraduates at eight US • intercultural competence-related learning research universities, they found that students outcomes, as part of the curriculum who took courses involving intergroup dialogue or multicultural content reported more cross- • course materials from multiple cultural cultural interaction, but not a greater sense perspectives of belongingness. Cultural events, leadership • meaningful and safe ways for international programmes and community service were and domestic students to interact identified as methods for enhancing a sense of substantively outside the classroom, including belongingness and providing a secure base for the community service projects, sporting activities exploration of cross-cultural relationships between and buddy programmes international and domestic students. • curriculum initiatives that connect language skills and intercultural learning into different 3.6.5 disciplines. INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT Many institutions have programmes to promote intercultural interactions; for example, FOR DEVELOPING matching individual international students INTERCULTURAL with a domestic student. Research has shown COMPETENCE these programmes to be beneficial for both the international and domestic students, particularly The integration of international students is in encouraging students to challenge their own crucial to any plan to internationalise. The New beliefs and be more open to other perspectives. Zealand government’s wellbeing strategy for Specifically, domestic students report developing international students emphasises the need for new cultural perspectives and becoming more 54 • Education New Zealand

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competent in intercultural interactions, as well Ground programme provides practical resources to as the development of international friendships. support academic staff in Australian universities, Studies have also shown the benefits in outcomes, to enhance interactions between domestic and such as vocational preparation and intellectual international students (Arkoudis, et al., 2010). development (Luo & Jamieson- Drake, 2013). The Finding Common Ground video features academic staff and university students from a In New Zealand, buddy projects have been set range of Australian universities, while the Guide up to help international students adjust to New for Academics includes practical suggestions for Zealand life and provide cultural experiences for enhancing practice, illustrated by specific examples, domestic students.5 Campbell (2012) describes and a flyer for students, highlighting the benefits of the pairing of 30 international students at the involvement in culturally diverse peer groups.6 University of Waikato with students from the University’s intercultural communication studies Learning a second language is widely considered class (mostly New Zealanders). The emphasis was to be an important tool in developing intercultural on social or task-based experiences, such as having competence (Bolstad, et al., 2013). At the lunch together, playing sports, going to movies and University of Edinburgh, Scotland, the Students’ helping with banking or shopping. Association runs a language exchange programme, Tandem, which recognises the potential that exists Host students kept a reflective journal and within the international student population to prepared a report outlining their experiences. Four address a growing demand for language skills in major themes emerged: the learning that took business (Universities of Scotland, 2013). The place (including that about the general concepts programme matches two students together, so that of culture and communication); the practical they can help each other learn or improve their experience (students were overwhelmingly language skills in a relaxed and social atmosphere. positive about the opportunity for the real Tandem also hosts a number of social activities, experience of intercultural communication); the where students can meet. personal satisfaction and inspiration the host students felt (most found it, either in part or on In an evaluation of a Tandem programme at the whole, enjoyable); and the effect of the project a university in Western Canada, the author on intercultural communication competence used surveys (196 participants) and one-on- (most students felt the project enhanced their one interviews (six participants) to explore intercultural communication competence). why students joined Tandem and the effects of participation (Ryan, 2014). Students reported Teaching staff are likely to be a critical element in that they joined Tandem, because they sought the internationalisation process, and may also need opportunities to speak in their chosen language support to encourage intercultural relationships with proficient speakers and because they wanted (Canadian Bureau for International Education, to develop relationships (this was particularly 2014; Deardorff & Jones, 2012; Leask, 2013). attractive to international students). Participants This may include implementing intercultural reported very high levels of satisfaction with their skills programmes to support staff to guide experience in the programme and developed students’ development of intercultural competence strong relationships with their partners. (Deardorff & Jones, 2012). The Finding Common

5 http://www.ausa.auckland.ac.nz/buddys http://www.otago.ac.nz/international/oifn.html http://www.canterbury.ac.nz/international/support-for-international-students http://www.victoria.ac.nz/students/get-involved/international/buddy http://www.waikato.ac.nz/study/international/international-buddy-programme 6 http://melbourne-cshe.unimelb.edu.au/research/experience/finding-common-ground Beyond the economic • 55 56 • Education New Zealand

4.0 CASE STUDIES OF NEW ZEALANDERS’ EXPERIENCES OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Beyond the economic • 57

4.1 4.1 INTRODUCTION

Building on the findings of the literature scan, this section of the report presents four case studies, based on the first-hand experiences of New Zealanders, illustrating the benefits and contributions made by international students who had come to study in New Zealand in relation to tourism; diplomacy and international trade; business and innovation; and community, culture and education. The case studies are based on interviews with the following respondents:

COMMUNITY, CULTURE AND BUSINESS AND INNOVATION EDUCATION James Bones (Operations Manager, Andy Wood and Jenny Elder (Principal Building Services, Australia, New Zealand and Deputy Principal, James Hargest and Pacific) and Ethan Wu (Associate), College, Invercargill) and Kerry Rodger both of whom work in the Building (teacher and homestay host, James Hargest Services team, Beca, Auckland. College, Invercargill).

DIPLOMACY AND TOURISM INTERNATIONAL TRADE Tim Cossar (CEO, Te Puia, Rotorua). Caroline Bilkey (New Zealand Ambassador to Brazil) and Ana Azevedo (Education Marketing Manager, Education New Zealand, Brazil). 58 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 59

4.2 4.2 COMMUNITY, CULTURE AND EDUCATION SUMMARY

The following case study illustrates the community, culture and educational benefits of international education associated with the vibrant and successful inbound and outbound international education programme offered by James Hargest College, in Invercargill. Based on interviews with Andy Wood (Principal), Jenny Elder (Deputy Principal) and Kerry Rodger (teacher and homestay host), the case study discusses the topic from both a school management perspective and the perspective of a homestay host and teacher.

The primary objective of the College’s international education is to enhance the quality of education for its domestic students, through direct contact with students from other countries and cultures; contacts which otherwise may be limited, because of Invercargill’s geographic isolation. More specifically, the contributions and benefits of the programme include:

(Modest) financial benefits, which are Domestic students learn about and used to employ extra teaching staff. appreciate their own culture.

Preparing domestic students (especially Friendships, some of which will be those unlikely to travel) for an lifelong and, potentially, opportunities increasingly cosmopolitan world. for overseas visits.

Domestic students and homestay Helping the wider Invercargill families, learn: community to appreciate the benefits of cultural diversity. • about other cultures and countries • about acceptance and tolerance • to step outside of their comfort zones and to be good hosts. 60 • Education New Zealand

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4.2.1 Wellington, and maybe Christchurch, you go, the more insular communities tend to be.” THE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT By way of background, Jenny says that the school PERSPECTIVE hosts on average 25-30 long-term international students annually, in addition to short-term group James Hargest College, which has a student body exchanges (such as 30-40 students from Thailand of approximately 1850, spread across a junior visiting for six weeks). and senior campus in Invercargill, has a vibrant inbound and outbound international education Andy says the inbound programme has been programme. The school’s Principal, Andy Wood honed over the last 20 years, by “a lot of says this fulfils the primary purpose of, “enhancing reflection and student voice”. The programme’s the quality of education for the college’s domestic success also requires “a lot of hard work”, and students, by bringing them into direct contact with relies on the goodwill of the school teaching students from other countries”. Andy also makes staff and community to provide high quality a point of clarifying that both the inbound and homestays, Jenny says. The college also employs outbound aspects of the programme are equally an international administrator, who, among other important. things, takes responsibility for helping students join clubs and access extracurricular activities they Both Andy and Jenny Elder (the college’s Deputy may be interested in. Principal) speak enthusiastically about the college’s outbound international education programme. Jenny’s passion for this programme is clear, as The programme involves annual trips to Thailand, they talk about the many strategies and activities Japan, France, Europe and the US (with some the college has developed to ensure students feel involving reciprocal arrangements), which have welcome and encourage their integration. For a range of different agendas, including historical, example, “all international students are assigned cultural and personal development. In this regard, buddies before they come. Most of them have made Andy and Jenny are particularly keen to shed more connection on the Internet or by email, so when light on the special nature of the World Challenge they arrive, they’ve got a familiar face plus they’ve personal development trip to Vietnam; a trip which had an opportunity to ask the questions they don’t they describe as being structured so that “there’s a really want to ask us.” very high level of responsibility on the kids to do With four working groups focusing respectively on the planning and to do the leading on the ground. hospitality, socialising, sports or event organisation The adults are very much a shadow lead.” (such as movie and quiz nights and “potluck teas”) Andy believes that having an and an impressive combined membership of outbound programme is particularly more than 120, Jenny describes the International important, given New Zealand’s, Friendship Club as “one of the vehicles by which and particularly Invercargill’s, the college creates opportunities for integration”. The club plays an important role in the student geographic isolation. orientation programme (for example, by helping Andy points out that young people from students sort out uniforms, find their classrooms, Invercargill have limited opportunities to and use the library) and is involved in the formal experience other countries and cultures, compared welcoming of new international students to the to children living in central Europe. “If you talk school. “The club also makes a wee gift of Kiwi to a German kid, they’ve been to a dozen different baking, that we give the students along with a countries. Our kids tend to be a bit insular in New badge, at the mihi whakatau, after they’ve been Zealand, and the further away from Auckland, welcomed by Andy.” Beyond the economic • 61 62 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 63

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Jenny also describes the “awesome” connections the international students”, they also play an buddies make outside of their sessions together important role in ensuring its success (for example, and the “uplifting,” noisy and joyful enthusiasm by volunteering as buddies). she observes when they are working together. This At an individual level, Jenny and Andy believe leaves her in no doubt that the buddy reading/ the benefits to domestic students and homestay academic support, another of the programmes families from exposure to students from other offered to international students, is a great success. countries include: “the opening of minds and Asked about the other benefits of the inbound broadening of perspectives, through learning aspect of their international education programme, about different cultural assumptions and norms, Andy and Jenny acknowledge there is some which can sometimes be awkward and create economic benefit, but they point out that, “it’s not embarrassment; and the similarities” (the things anywhere as lucrative as people think, particularly that people share, regardless of culture, like feeling given the challenges of attracting students to homesick, sad or happy). They both believe these Invercargill”. What financial surplus they do learnings have “got to be really positive, in terms of have, is used to employ extra teaching staff, and as reducing ignorance and prejudice”. Andy points out, “this is another way in which our As a consequence of their exposure to other domestic students benefit”. cultures, domestic students also get the The key drivers of having the opportunity to learn about and appreciate their inbound programme are less about own culture. Andy says that this is clearly economics and more about its value exemplified in how domestic students respond to the student body and wider to the way the school welcomes international students with a mihi whakatau. “The traditional school community. Māori welcome helps kids to realise that we [New In this regard, Andy says that one of the benefits Zealanders] have something unique and special.” of the inbound programme is that those who are unable to afford to travel are able to reap the benefits of coming into contact with students from other countries and “find out about the rest of the world through them”. In a similar vein, Andy believes that the college has an important role to play in helping the wider Invercargill community to appreciate the benefits of cultural diversity. “We want the community to see that the school is welcoming and open to diversity and see that in a place like Invercargill, at this end of New Zealand. That’s actually been good for the community.” Testament to the success of the international education programme, James Hargest College has a lot of enrolments from migrant families. Jenny says these students not only benefit personally from the international student programme (in which they are welcome to participate), but, “because of the huge empathy they have for 64 • Education New Zealand

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4.2.2 When asked what she and her husband get out of the experience of being homestay hosts, Kerry A HOMESTAY HOST AND says that they are both travellers and foodies and, TEACHER PERSPECTIVE as such, they enjoy learning about their homestay students’ cultures and family lives. In short, she Kerry Rodger, specialist food and fabrics technology describes it as, “a way of travelling, without leaving teacher at James Hargest’s junior campus, still home”. fondly remembers the first student that she and Combining both their love of travel and interest in her husband Neil hosted in 2008, a young German catching up with some of their favourite students, girl. In fact, the experience was so positive that Neil and Kerry have travelled to Hong Kong and they have had about 20 students since, including Europe. Kerry says that the experience of staying in students from Germany, Vietnam, Hong Kong, the homes of their students’ families was amazing. Thailand and Japan. “It’s just really opened our eyes, because we’ve had The Rodgers have always gone out of their way to experiences that people don’t normally get.” make sure that their students feel welcome and In her role as a teacher in the junior campus of included in family celebrations. For example, Kerry James Hargest, Kerry says the benefits to the recalls the joy of hosting German students for their domestic students of having international students first summer Christmas. on campus are obvious. These include having to Recognising the vulnerability of the young people step out of their comfort zones and also learning to in their care, especially when they first arrive and be welcoming and helpful. being mindful of the many differences the students More generally Kerry, like Jenny and Andy, is have to come to terms with, Kerry and Neil gladly of the opinion that the presence of international take on the role of being their Kiwi parents for the students in the school helps domestic students duration of their stay. In this regard, Kerry says, (especially those unlikely to travel), “to learn “you come to love them, not all of them, but some tolerance and acceptance, that will enable them to of them”. adapt to the increasingly cosmopolitan world they Given the closeness of the are coming into”. relationships formed with some of their students, it is not surprising that some… [are] enduring. Kerry says they “have ongoing relationships with a lot of them”, which are kept alive with “skype calls on birthdays and postcards at Christmas”. They envisage having lifelong relationships with many of their homestay students. “We say to them, this is forever,” Kerry says. As an example, Kerry and Neil had just returned from a week in Auckland where they were touching base with a former student, whom they regard as being “like a daughter”. In May, Neil had also travelled to Wellington to be present at her graduation. Beyond the economic • 65 66 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 67

4.3 4.3 DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE SUMMARY

This case study illustrates the benefits of international education to diplomacy and international trade, generally, and especially in relation to New Zealand’s relationship with Brazil. It is based on interviews with Caroline Bilkey, New Zealand’s Ambassador to Brazil, and Ana Azevedo, Education Marketing Manager, Education New Zealand, Brazil.

The benefits and contributions of international education to diplomacy and international trade are particularly important, given New Zealand’s reliance on soft diplomacy and goodwill to achieve its objectives. More specifically, these include benefits arising from:

Having a mutual understanding and The formation of lifelong informal connection (e.g. to open conversations, ambassadors for New Zealand. advocacy).

The people-to-people linkages that are formed (e.g. in diplomatic and business circles).

In addition to benefiting New Zealand in terms of diplomacy and international trade, positive education experiences in New Zealand also:

Encourage tourism and others to study Have other public good benefits in New Zealand. resulting from international collaboration (e.g. research innovations).

Contribute to the global good (e.g. encouraging friendships and tolerance). 68 • Education New Zealand

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4.3.1 your issue with their superiors, because they know and like New Zealand having studied there.” INTRODUCTION In this regard, Caroline provides the example of a recent visit to Belo Horizonte in Brazil, where With over 30 years in foreign affairs, including she met with the rector of a large and prestigious postings in Geneva, Bangkok, Washington DC, university that Education New Zealand is and Samoa, Caroline Bilkey, New Zealand’s interested in forming a relationship with. The current Ambassador to Brazil, has much to rector met them with open arms, largely because say about the importance of education to New his daughter had had a fantastic time studying in Zealand’s bilateral relationships with other Nelson. countries. While acknowledging that advocacy for New Zealand may also result from other positive 4.3.2 interfaces, like through tourism or trade, Caroline believes “there is something quite special about BENEFITS AND the people-to-people linkages built through CONTRIBUTIONS TO international education, largely because students DIPLOMACY AND are usually young and they’re quite impressionable and they’re trying to figure out who they are. So, INTERNATIONAL TRADE the experiences they have are more intense and Regarding Brazil, Caroline says that, “while the formative.” Exemplifying this point, Caroline goods trade relationship is still very small, the very recalls meeting a senior official in a remote state in strong education relationship is a success story”. Brazil who had studied in New Zealand about 20 Some of the details of this success are verified by years ago, who was “almost in tears talking about Ana Azevedo, who in her role for Education New how wonderful New Zealand and the university Zealand in Brazil, works closely with the New that he’d been to was. He was just so fond of New Zealand embassy. Ana says that around 3000 Zealand and New Zealanders.” students a year are going to New Zealand to study; As a consequence of her foreign affairs experience, some of whom are receiving New Zealand Aid Caroline is able to recount many examples of scholarships. how positive experiences studying in New Zealand create life-long informal New Zealand As a small trading nation, which ambassadors, who have benefited New Zealand does not have a lot of economic in terms of diplomacy and trade. A very recent might, Caroline says, “New example, is that of the successful and well known Zealand is particularly reliant on Brazilian sailor and documentary maker, David soft diplomacy and the goodwill Schürmann’s willingness to promote the New that countries have towards us to Zealand film industry, because of his ‘little New achieve our objectives”. Zealand sister’ and the time he spent at school here. Another example, is an Argentinian- In this regard, she says that the mutual Brazilian woman who returned to Brazil, after understanding and connection that comes from studying in Auckland, to work for Fonterra and having a shared education experience studying in Zespri; a woman who Caroline describes as, “very New Zealand can be very helpful. “Not only is it a bright and able to talk very enthusiastically about great conversation warmer, but it also means you the New Zealand story behind the products are more likely to be given the benefit of the doubt, coming in”. At a personal level, Caroline shared the and the person may be more willing to advocate story of how she was able to achieve a diplomatic Beyond the economic • 69 70 • Education New Zealand

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outcome that would otherwise have not been In terms of the higher-level, public possible, by calling on the assistance of a Brazilian good benefits, Caroline believes, diplomat (whom she referred to as, her ‘Danish “international education, if it’s a little brother’), who attended the same secondary positive experience, contributes school and lived in the same homestay as she did in Denmark, albeit eight years later. to the global good, as it opens hearts and minds and encourages As well as benefiting New Zealand in terms of tolerance”. diplomacy and trade, the advocacy of students who have studied in New Zealand can also play As such, she believes New Zealand’s involvement an important role in tourism and in encouraging in international education, and commitment to others to study in New Zealand. During the last globalisation, is particularly important “in a world 10 years in her role with Education New Zealand, where there’s a lot of talk about nationalism and Ana has observed this first-hand, and says that, populism; about putting up walls; and playing “for every single student we have in New Zealand, to people’s prejudices and anti-immigration there’s all these other people learning about the sentiments”. country, because they are boasting and talking Other public good benefits include the potential about their life in New Zealand”. for innovation and breakthroughs resulting from Both Ana and Caroline mentioned the impact research collaboration between New Zealand a young woman, who gained a Masters degree and international students’ home countries. “The in New Zealand, with the assistance of a New idea that if you get outside the box and have Zealand scholarship, had on an Education New people coming in with a different approach, that Zealand training session for education agents. can sometimes generate really positive, new and “Apparently, when she walked in and started innovative ideas.” talking about what it was like, everybody really sat up, because here’s a Brazilian who has just come back and was just raving about how excellent it was. It’s very compelling to hear a young, smart Brazilian talking about how much she really enjoyed studying in New Zealand; the way that they’re being taught; living in New Zealand; travelling around New Zealand; and the friends she made. So, enthusiastic students can really help encourage other students to go to New Zealand.” Whether it is international students coming to study in New Zealand or New Zealanders studying abroad, Caroline and Ana both believe that there are many other benefits associated with international education, in addition to those associated with diplomacy and international trade and the obvious economic benefits. Beyond the economic • 71 72 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 73

4.4 4.4 BUSINESS AND INNOVATION SUMMARY

Interviews with James Bones (Operations Manager Building Services, Australia, New Zealand and Pacific) and Ethan Wu (Associate), both of whom work in the Building Services team in Beca’s Auckland office, provide the basis for a case study, which illustrates the benefits and contributions made by international students in relation to business and innovation.

The benefits and contributions, which are discussed from both a management perspective and the perspective of an employee who originally came to New Zealand to study, include:

A bigger and better talent pool from An employee-base that is more flexible which to select employees. and open to ideas and innovation.

Being able to better connect with A more vibrant and exciting workplace. and support international clients and investors, through familiarity and understanding of culture, language and business procedures. 74 • Education New Zealand

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4.4.1 and the way in which business is done which we need to be sensitive to, to understand and to THE MANAGEMENT respond to appropriately.” PERSPECTIVE Flexibility and openness to ideas As a professional service consultancy with 3300- and innovation are other benefits plus employees across Asia-Pacific, Beca embraces of having a culturally diverse its culturally diverse employee base, including employee-base, says James. those who originally came to New Zealand to “Different experiences and different ways of study. thinking sometimes result in finding better Having recently returned to Beca after seventeen ways of doing things.” James also believes that a years working in the United States, James Bones is culturally diverse workplace is more vibrant and very aware of what he describes as “the whole raft “a more interesting and exciting place to work”. It of benefits” of a culturally diverse employee-base. also broadens employees’ collective outlook and “Beca provide engineering and consulting services horizons and, because New Zealand is much more around the globe; it’s essential that we understand connected to the world, “it doesn’t feel as remote as our clients, their cultures, their needs, and how it once did.” best to support them. To enable that, it only makes sense that we draw in the best talent and ideas from around the world.” Within Beca’s culturally diverse employee base, James says that employees who originally came to New Zealand as international students have a valuable skill-set which, because of their familiarity and understanding of the cultures, languages and business-related processes of New Zealand and their home country, enables them “to get closer to clients, better understand their businesses and their needs, and be better able to connect at a personal level”. James says that, when working globally, “it’s one thing coming up with a grand plan but, at an implementation level, it can be very challenging and comes down to personal connections and relationships”. He exemplifies the importance of connecting with international clients by talking about the benefits of having employees, such as Ethan Wu (who was born in China, but educated in New Zealand), to deal with Chinese developers looking to make investments in New Zealand, who may not be familiar with the nuances of doing business in this part of the world. “English is not necessarily the first language of some of our clients. So, there’s a whole bunch of cultural things Beyond the economic • 75 76 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 77

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4.4.2 students), Ethan took the step of joining the school’s basketball team. This decision, he says, AN EMPLOYEE paid dividends, as he soon built friendships with PERSPECTIVE some of the local boys and his English progressed in leaps and bounds. Ethan Wu is recognised by his manager, James Following school, Ethan put himself through Bones, as a Beca employee who is “a powerful an Electrical Engineering degree at Auckland example” of the benefits of cultural diversity. University; paying for his student fees and living Ethan came from China to study in New Zealand expenses by working as many hours as allowed in 14 years ago, and now has a role developing and several part-time jobs. managing relationships within the Chinese market and with Chinese investors in New Aware that Beca valued people skills, as well Zealand. as academic excellence, Ethan believes it was his experience working at McDonalds, where Sitting in a meeting room overlooking the busy he developed management and people skills, open office space of the Building Services team including conflict resolution, that helped him in Auckland, Ethan describes his current role clinch a job at Beca in Tauranga. Ethan thoroughly working as an Associate at Beca as “a dream job”. enjoyed his first three years of ‘Beca life’ in While he proudly describes himself as “a Kiwi Tauranga. Looking back, he realises that a benefit now”, he’s also aware of the advantage of being of starting his career with Beca in Tauranga was viewed as “kind of Chinese and kind of Kiwi”, by that, as the only graduate in his section, he was his Chinese investment clients. given opportunities that his counterparts in Ethan’s parents firmly believed that he should Auckland weren’t; such as being put in front of have a university education outside of China, and clients. On a personal level, he had great flatmates, it was the currency exchange rate at the time that enjoyed the beach and learned to snorkel. Ethan led them to choose New Zealand, rather than jokes that his time in Tauranga obviously left Australia, Canada or the US. That decision is its mark as, even now, he is playfully teased by now regarded by his parents as “one of the best some of his Auckland colleagues as having been decisions they ever made”. “Taurangaised”. Ethan arrived in Wellington just after he turned Ethan moved to Auckland to get involved in 18 to start his studies at Newlands College. While commercial projects of greater magnitude. He says never in any doubt that he would persevere with he particularly enjoys overseeing projects with the decision to spend two extra years in school to the ‘big picture’ perspective in mind, “as this has progress his English, Ethan recalls the first year commercial impact and is more physically relatable in New Zealand as being lonely at times, and that in the market”. dealing with the many differences between life About three years ago, Ethan saw great in China and New Zealand was challenging. The opportunities arising in the Chinese investors’ second year was a lot happier; helped considerably market. He took the initiative to approach Beca by finding a new homestay with a woman who management about getting involved in Chinese gave him his English name. To this day, he still investment projects; highlighting to them the visits and regards her as his “Kiwi mum”. Around benefits of having a bicultural perspective in the the same time, feeling that his English wasn’t project team to help break down the cultural and progressing as much as he would have liked language barriers. Ethan was then offered his (largely due to socialising with other international 78 • Education New Zealand

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current role that involves building relationships with new Chinese investors; helping investors set themselves up for business in New Zealand (e.g. connect with experts in different fields to build up a business case); and occasional travel to China, to work on specific projects. Because, “with Chinese business, everything is about the relationship”, Ethan’s work sometimes spills over onto weekends (e.g. taking clients into the country for a hike), but this isn’t a hardship, as sometimes his clients become friends. When he can, he also combines his business trips to China with weekend visits to his family there. Ethan believes people like him, who start their lives in China and then study in New Zealand, can make an obvious contribution in roles such as his; having the advantage of being bilingual and understanding the cultural and business processes of both countries. While large businesses like Beca have an open-minded approach to employing a culturally diverse employee-base, Ethan believes that small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in New Zealand are more reluctant to do so, and are missing out on the benefits. He and his international student friends saw this all too clearly when applying for summer internship jobs. His advice to SMEs is to give international students the chance, because hardworking and loyal employees like him can offer many benefits to their business. Beyond the economic • 79 80 • Education New Zealand Beyond the economic • 81

4.5 4.5 TOURISM SUMMARY

Based on an interview with Tim Cossar, the CEO of Te Puia, in Rotorua, this case study illustrates the benefits and contributions made by international students who come to study in New Zealand in relation to tourism.

The benefits and contributions of international students to tourism include:

The economic benefits to the tourism Their value and loyalty as employees. sector from international student visitors. The social benefits they bring to the communities they live in (e.g. through The critical role those who come to their community participation). study play in filling skilled labour shortages and hospitality roles, within the sector. 82 • Education New Zealand

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4.5.1 Puia’s many hospitality jobs (jobs which he says, “struggle to attract Kiwis”), but they are good at INTRODUCTION them, as they often come from ‘service cultures’. Tim Cossar’s current role as CEO of Te Puia (a Based on personal experience tourism business that showcases New Zealand’s and what he’s heard from others Māori culture and Rotorua’s geothermal activity), within the sector, Tim believes and previous role as CEO of Tourism Industry international students make Aoteraroa (TIA), mean he’s well positioned valuable, loyal employees. to comment on the benefits of international education on tourism, from a national, regional “So, a lot of tourism businesses that I speak to and business perspective. say, if they get somebody in the first year of their degree, they stay with them for three years, or four years, or even longer, depending on whether they 4.5.2 gain residency at the end of that.” BENEFITS AND To further exemplify this point, Tim shared the stories of two highly valued, long-term employees CONTRIBUTIONS TO of Te Puia, who originally came to New Zealand TOURISM as students. The first is of a man who originally came to New Zealand to study hospitality and While tourism businesses, like Te Puia, benefit tourism at Wairariki Polytechnic, who is now a economically from international student visitors, key member of the IT staff at Te Puia. Tim says that international students play a far more critical role, in terms of filling skilled labour As the story goes, Tim says, he “started working shortages and hospitality roles, especially in with us as a hospitality worker; fell in love with regional and, particularly, in South Island, New another student, and decided he wanted to stay Zealand. “I’m probably at the cutting end of it here. So we sponsored him and his wife, who were nowadays, where I actually see the value that both working for us at the time, for permanent these people are creating in a marketplace, where residency. He’s a great example of someone who we can’t fill a lot of those roles.” came as a student to become a highly valuable and highly paid net contributor to our economy.” Reflecting their importance to the sector, Tim says, “there is an industry expectation that a lot The second example is a former international of jobs will be filled by those who come to New student who plays an important marketing role Zealand for education purposes.” For example, at Te Puia. She came to New Zealand over 20 in Rotorua, the international students studying years ago to learn English. Tim says that, “with Tourism and Hospitality at Wairariki Polytechnic, her language skills and understanding of Asian many of whom come from India, provide an cultures, she enables us to make connections with important source of employees for local tourism countries and successfully market attractions businesses. which, on our own, would be impossible. It’s powerful stuff.” Tim describes her as “the best of In terms of Te Puia, Tim says, “the business the best”, in her role as a ‘connector’; a description wouldn’t operate in the highly skilled areas, that would appear to be apt, given the significant without migrant labour, including international revenue she generates for Te Puia. students, because we simply don’t have these people in Rotorua.” He also says that international Tim says that employees in the tourism sector students are not only vital, in terms of filling Te who initially come to New Zealand as students, Beyond the economic • 83 84 • Education New Zealand

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not only contribute to the economic success of the sector and make loyal employees but, in the case of Te Puia, fit in very well and add a welcome diversification to the workplace. “It’s really interesting how people slot in here. They find common ground and have a laugh together.” Tim uses a rugby analogy, shared with him by Chris Boyd, head coach of the Hurricanes Super Rugby team, to express his firm belief that he has a better team at Te Puia, as a result of its cultural diversity. “The rest of the world looks at us and wonders why we are so good at rugby. What they don’t see and don’t understand is how cultural diversity actually creates a lot of strength.” As well as making good employees, Tim is a firm believer that migrants, including those who have come to New Zealand as students, become valuable citizens, who he says, “participate in the fabric of society quite heavily”. In this regard, he says, “some of our migrant workers at Te Puia, who have come through education, are highly active in social groups, Rotary clubs, and other things. They’re giving back, because New Zealand has given them an opportunity.” In a similar vein, Tim believes that the diversity they add to the communities they live in is valuable; particularly in provincial centres like Rotorua. “The kind of multicultural value-add that they bring is that they open your mind up to other things that are going around in the world.” Beyond the economic • 85 86 • Education New Zealand

APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY

The following terms and acronyms are used in this report: • International education includes New Zealand students studying overseas, New Zealand businesses selling their educational products and services offshore, and international students coming to New Zealand. The primary focus of this report is on international students coming to New Zealand. • SDR – Single Data Return is a database of enrolment and completion information required by the Ministry of Education and Tertiary Education Commission. All tertiary education organisations receiving Student Achievement Component funding, Youth Guarantee funding, and/or having students with student loans or allowances, need to complete an SDR. • EFTS – Equivalent Full-time Student. There are three categories: • Schools – one EFTS is defined in the school sector as 40 weeks for a primary student and 39 weeks for a secondary school student. • SDR providers – one EFTS unit is defined as the student workload that would normally be completed in a single academic year (or 12-month period) by a student enrolled full-time. • Non-SDR providers – one EFTS unit is defined by Non-SDR providers as total full-time equivalent weeks divided by 40. • Primary schools – Years 1-6. • Intermediate schools – Years 7-8. • Secondary schools – Years 9-13. • ITPs – Institutes of technology and polytechnics focus on delivering technical, vocational and professional education up to degree and postgraduate levels. They also promote applied research to support vocational learning. • ELS – English language schools. • PTEs – Private training establishments deliver foundation level programmes and qualifications, up to higher level postgraduate qualifications, depending on their educational subject areas. PTEs are diverse in terms of mission, scale of operation, location, culture and educational subject area. Some PTEs are eligible for government funding for their programmes. Beyond the economic • 87

APPENDIX B: LITERATURE SCAN METHODOLOGY

The primary purpose of the evidence-based literature scan was to gather information on how other countries value international students who come to study in their country. It was undertaken to provide a clear overview of the state of recent research, allowing strengths and gaps in the current evidence base to be identified. The scan included both international and New Zealand research, although relatively little New Zealand research was found on the topic. The search for information focused on English-speaking jurisdictions, including Australia, Canada, the United States (US) and the United Kingdom (UK). It references relevant material published since 2010 (the last seven years). However, earlier widely- cited research is also included, where it facilitates comparison and assessment. All five countries have quantitative analyses of the economic contribution of international students to their host country (some focus on the broad international education sector, while others focus on specific providers such as universities). Australia, the US and the UK are the three largest providers of international education1, which is reflected in the amount of other research identified from these countries for this scan. The literature scan focused on the contributions made by international students in terms of creating jobs; filling workforce shortages; supporting the tourism sector; contributing to the knowledge economy; exposing students to intercultural experiences; and to supporting their host country once they leave.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Databases searched included (but were not limited to): • American Doctoral Dissertations (EBSCO Host): https://www.ebscohost.com/academic/american- doctoral-dissertations • ERIC: https://eric.ed.gov • EThOS UK e-theses, British Library: http://ethos.bl.uk • Google Scholar: http://scholar.google.co.nz • IDP Database of Research on International Students: http://opac.acer.edu.au:8080/IDP_drie/index.html • Te Puna National Bibliographic Database: http://www.natlib.govt.nz/catalogues/te-puna- search • University of Otago Research Archive: https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz • University of Auckland Research Repository: https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz • University of Canterbury Research Repository: https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz • University of Waikato Research Commons: http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz • Massey Research Online: http://mro.massey.ac.nz • Victoria University Research Archive: http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz • AUT Scholarly Commons: http://aut.researchgateway.ac.nz

APPENDIX B:

Websites searched included (but were not limited to): New Zealand • Education Counts: https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz • CaDDANZ: http://www.caddanz.org.nz • Centre for Applied Cross-cultural Research, Victoria University: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/cacr • Education NZ: https://enz.govt.nz • Immigration New Zealand: https://www.immigration.govt.nz • ISANA International Education Association New Zealand: http://www.isananz.org.nz • Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment: http://www.mbie.govt.nz • Ministry of Education: https://education.govt.nz

International • Alliance for International Education: http://www.alliance-exchange.org • American Council on Education: http://www.acenet.edu • Austrade: https://www.austrade.gov.au • British Columbia Council for International Education: http://bccie.bc.ca • British Council: https://www.britishcouncil.org • Canadian Bureau for International Education: http://cbie.ca • Center for International Higher Education, Boston College: http://www.bc.edu/research/cihe • Commonwealth Scholarships: http://cscuk.dfid.gov.uk • European Association for International Education: http://www.eaie.org • The Forum on Education Abroad: https://forumea.org • Fulbright Program: https://eca.state.gov/fulbright • Institute of International Education: https://www.iie.org • International Association of Universities: http://www.iau-aiu.net • International Education Association of Australia: https://www.ieaa.org.au • International Education Division of Global Affairs Canada: http://www.international.gc.ca/education/ index.aspx?lang=eng&menu_id=16 • International Education Online, Department of Education and Training, Australia: https:// internationaleducation.gov.au • Inter-Association Network on Campus Internationalization: https://campusinternationalization.org • NAFSA: Association of International Educators: http://www.nafsa.org • National Foundation for American Policy: http://nfap.com Beyond the economic • 89

APPENDIX B:

• Tourism Research Australia: https://www.tra.gov.au • UK Council for International Student Affairs: https://www.ukcisa.org.uk • Universities UK: http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk

Journals • Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad: https://frontiersjournal.org • International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives: https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu. au/index.php/IEJ/index • International Higher Education: https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe • International Journal of Intercultural Relations: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ journal/01471767 • Journal of Research in International Education: http://journals.sagepub.com/home/jri • Journal of Studies in International Education: http://journals.sagepub.com/home/jsi

The reference lists of items found in the initial literature search were checked to identify any additional relevant references.

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APPENDIX C: LITERATURE SCAN REFERENCES

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British Council (2014). Integration of international students: A UK perspective. [London]: British Council. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org/education/ihe/knowledge-centre/student- mobility/report- integration-international-students British Council (2012). Trust pays: How international cultural relationships build trust in the UK and underpin the success of the UK economy. [London]: British Council. Retrieved from https://www. britishcouncil.org/organisation/policy-insight-research/research/trust-pays British Council, Booz Allen Hamilton & Ipsos (2013). Culture at work: The value of intercultural skills in the workplace. [London]: British Council. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ culture-at-work-report-v2.pdf Byrne, C. & Hall, R. (2011). Australia’s international education as public diplomacy: Soft power potential. Discussion Papers in Diplomacy 121. The Hague: Clingendael - Netherlands Institute of International Relations. Retrieved from https://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20110700_cdsp_discussion_ paper_cbryne_rhall.pdf Butcher, A. (2010). International students and New Zealand’s future. The Journal of International Education and Business, 1(1), 9-26. Campbell, N. (2012). Promoting intercultural contact on campus: A project to connect and engage international and host students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(3). Campus France (2014). Beyond influence: The economic impact of international students in France. Paris: Campus France. Retrieved from http://ressources.campusfrance.org/publi_institu/agence_cf/notes/en/ note_45_en.pdf Canadian Bureau for International Education (2014). A world of Learning: Canada’s performance and potential in international education. Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education. Retrieved from http://cbie.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/CBIE-Flagship-2014-E-WEB-RES- final.pdf Chaloner, J., Evans, A. & Pragnell, M. (2015). Supporting the British economy through teaching English as a foreign language: An assessment of the contribution of English language teaching to the United Kingdom economy. London: Capital Economics. Retrieved from http://www.englishuk.com/uploads/assets/ members/newsflash/2015/11_nov/Economic_impact_re port_44ppWEB.pdf Chellaraj, G., Maskus, K. & Mattoo, A. (2008). The contribution of international graduate students to U.S. innovation. Review of international Economics, 16(3), 444-462. Creative Strategies (2015). Offshore education revenues within NZTE Focus 500 companies. [Wellington: Education New Zealand]. Day, R., Stackhouse, J. & Geddes, N. (2009). Evaluating Commonwealth Scholarships in the United Kingdom: Assessing impact in key priority areas. London: Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in the UK. Retrieved from http://cscuk.dfid.gov.uk/wp- content/uploads/2011/03/evaluation-impact-key- report.pdf De Wit, H. & Urias, D. (2012). An overview and analysis of international education research, training, and resources. In D.K. Deardorff, H de Wit & J. Heyl (Eds.), The Sage handbook of international higher education (pp. 101–109). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Deardorff, D.K. (Ed.) (2009). The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence. Thousand Oaks: Sage. 92 • Education New Zealand

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Deardorff, D.K. & Jones, E. (2012). Intercultural competence: An emerging focus in international higher education. In D.K. Deardorff, H de Wit & J. Heyl (Eds.), The Sage handbook of international higher education (pp. 283–303). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Deardorff, D.K. & van Gaalen, A. (2012). Outcomes assessment in the internationalization of higher education. In D.K. Deardorff, H de Wit & J. Heyl (Eds.), The Sage handbook of international higher education (pp. 167–189). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Deloitte Access Economics (2013). The economic contribution of international students. Kingston, ACT: Deloitte Access Economics. Retrieved from http://www.acpet.edu.au/uploads/files/member_resources/ Deloitte-ACPET-Economic-contribution- of-international-students-11FEB2013.pdf Deloitte Access Economics (2016). The value of international education to Australia. Canberra: Department of Education and Training. Retrieved from https://internationaleducation.gov.au/research/ research- papers/Documents/ValueInternationalEd.pdf Denne, T., Stroombergen, A. & Watson, S. (2016). Development and implementation of a new valuation methodology for New Zealand’s education services exports. Auckland: Covec. Retrieved from https://enz. govt.nz/assets/Uploads/New-Valuation-Methodology-for-Education-Service- Exports.pdf Education New Zealand (2017a). New Zealand international education snapshot: 2016 full year report. Wellington: Education New Zealand. Education New Zealand (2017b). New Zealand international student enrolments—2016 full year. Wellington: Education New Zealand. Retrieved from https://www.enz.govt.nz/news-and- research/ research/international-education-dashboard-for-2016 Egan, B. (2013). International education as a conduit for engagement between countries: The case of Saudi students in New Zealand. PhD thesis, University of Auckland. Retrieved from http://hdl. handle.net/2292/20375 Egron-Polak, E. & Hudson, R. (2014). Internationalization of higher education: Growing expectations, fundamental values. Executive summary. Paris: International Association of Universities. Retrieved from http://www.iau-aiu.net/sites/all/files/IAU-4th-GLOBAL-SURVEY- EXECUTIVE- SUMMARY.pdf ExEdUK (2016). Supporting international education in the UK. London: ExEdUK. Retrieved from http:// exeduk.com/wp-content/uploads/ExEd_Parthenon- EY_Supporting_International_Education_062016_ WEB.pdf Gardiner, S., King, B. & Wilkins, H. (2013). The travel behaviours of international students: Nationality- based constraints and opportunities. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(4), 287–299. Genç, M., Gheasi, M., Nijkamp, P., & Poot, J. (2012). The impact of immigration on international trade: A meta-analysis. In P. Nijkamp, J. Poot & M. Sahin (Eds.) Migration Impact Assessment: New Horizons. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Glass, C.R. & Westmont, C.M. (2014). Comparative effects of belongingness on the academic success and cross-cultural interactions of domestic and international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 38, 106–119. Hawthorne, L. (2012). Employer perspectives on international education. In D.K. Deardorff, H de Wit & J. Heyl (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of International Higher Education (pp. 417–435). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Beyond the economic • 93

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Hawthorne, L. (2014). Global demand for international students as skilled migrants. Paper prepared for the High-Skilled Immigration Policy and the Global Competition for Talent Meeting (Washington DC, 22-23 September 2014. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2808883 Health Workforce Australia (2014). Australia’s future health workforce – doctors. Canberra: Department of Health. Retrieved from https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ F3F2910B39DF55FDCA257D9400 7862F9/$File/AFHW%20-%20Doctors%20report.pdf Hegarty, N. (2014). Where we are now –The presence and importance of international students to universities in the United States. Journal of International Students, 4(3), 223–235. Retrieved from http:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1054975.pdf Henson, M. & Pambudi, D. (2016). Economic impact of universities: An analysis of the contribution of New Zealand universities to economic activity. Wellington: NZIER. Retrieved from http://www.universitiesnz. ac.nz/files/NZIER%20Economic%20impact%20of%20universities%2020 160831%20Final_0.pdf HEPI and Kaplan (2015a). What do home students think of studying with international students? HEPI Report 76. Oxford: HEPI. Retrieved from http://www.hepi.ac.uk/2015/06/25/home-students-think- studying-international-students HEPI and Kaplan (2015b). What do prospective students think about international students? HEPI Report 74. Oxford: HEPI. Retrieved from http://www.hepi.ac.uk/2015/03/19/prospective-students- think-international-students Hinz, S., Day, R., Sherry, M., Geddes, N. & Donnelly, B. (2011). Evaluating Commonwealth Scholarships in the United Kingdom: Assessing impact in building and sustaining Commonwealth principles on democracy. London: Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in the UK. Retrieved from http://cscuk.dfid. gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/evaluation-impact-democracy-report.pdf HM Government (2013). International education: Global growth and prosperity. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved from https://www.bsme.org.uk/files/BSME/UKEducationStrat/ bis-13-1081-international-education- global-growth-and-prosperity.pdf Ho, E., Ip, M., & Lewin, J. (2010). New Zealand’s diaspora in China: Untapped resources. Outlook 14. Wellington: Asia New Zealand Foundation. Retrieved from http://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/delivery/ DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3538700 Holden, J. & Tryhorn, C (2013). Influence and attraction: Culture and the race for soft power in the 21st century. London: British Council. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ influence-and-attraction-report.pdf Hunt, J. (2010). Which immigrants are most innovative and entrepreneurial? Distinctions by entry visa. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4745. Bonn: IZA Institute of Labour Economics. Retrieved from http://ftp.iza. org/dp4745.pdf i-graduate (2015a). New Zealand school sector: Student Experience Survey 2015: Summary report. I-graduate. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/New-Zealand-Schools-International- Student-Experience-Survey-2015-Sector-Summary-Report2.pdf i-graduate (2015b). New Zealand university sector: International Student Barometer 2015: Summary report. I-graduate. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/NZ-University-ISB- 2015-Summary-Report-1.pdf 94 • Education New Zealand

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i-graduate (2016a). New Zealand English language sector: English Language Barometer 2016: Summary report. I-graduate. i-graduate (2016b). New Zealand PTE sector: International Student Barometer 2016: Summary report. I-graduate. IIE (2016). Open Doors 2016: Executive summary. [New York]: IIE. Retrieved from https://www.iie.org/ Why-IIE/Announcements/2016-11-14-Open-Doors-Executive-Summary Illuminate Consulting Group (2009). New Zealand Alumni Survey: Experiences, attitudes and engagement. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/ data/assets/pdf_file/0006/58128/NZ-Alumni-Survey- Report_Oct-2009-FINAL.pdf Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Bay of Plenty 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the-economic- impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands- regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Hawke’s Bay 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the-economic- impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands- regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Nelson Marlborough Tasman 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/ research/the-economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands- regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Northland 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the- economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands-regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Manawatu- Whanganui 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and- research/research/the-economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands-regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Otago 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the- economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands-regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Taranaki 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the- economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands-regions Infometrics & NRB (2017). The economic impact of international education in Southland 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/news-and-research/research/the- economic-impact-of-international-education-20152016-in-new-zealands-regions Infometrics & NRB (2016). The economic impact of international education in New Zealand 2015/16. Wellington: Infometrics. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/The- Economic-Impact-of-International-Education-in-New-Zealand-2015-2016.pdf Kaznowska, E & Usher, A. (2011). Internationalization at Canadian universities: Are students seeing the value? Higher Education Strategy Associates Intelligence Brief 2. Toronto: Higher Education Strategy Associates. Retrieved from http://higheredstrategy.com/wp- content/uploads/2011/07/ HESAInsightBrief2.pdf Beyond the economic • 95

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Kelly, U., McNicoll, I. & White, J. (2014). The impact of universities on the UK economy. London: Universities UK. Retrieved from http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/policy-and- analysis/reports/ Documents/2014/the-impact-of-universities-on-the-uk-economy.pdf Kelly, U., McNicoll, I., White, J. & Viewforth Consulting (2015). The economic impact of international students in Wales. Cardiff Bay: Universities Wales. Retrieved from http://www.uniswales.ac.uk/wp/ media/The-Economic-Impact-of-International-Students-in- Wales.pdf Knight, J. (2014). Higher education and diplomacy. CBIE Briefing Note. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Bureau for International Education. Retrieved from http://cbie.ca/wp- content/uploads/2016/07/ Jane-Knight-Briefing-Oct-2014.pdf Lambert, J. and Usher, A. (2013). The pros and cons of internationalization: How domestic students experience the globalizing campus. Toronto: Higher Education Strategy Associates. Retrieved from http://higheredstrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Intelligencebrief7-HESA- internationalization-FINAL-WEB.pdf Leask, B. (2013). Internationalizing the curriculum and student learning: Preparing graduates for the 21st century. Paper presented for the 2012-13 Mestenhauser Lecture on Internationalizing Higher Education. Retrieved from https://global.umn.edu/icc/documents/2012- 13_mestenhauser_lecture_ leask.pdf London First & PWC (2015). London calling: International students’ contribution to Britain’s economic growth. London: London First. Retrieved from http://londonfirst.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ London-Calling-report.pdf London & Partners (2015). The economic impact of London’s international students. London: London & Partners. Retrieved from http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/insights-and-statistics/ research-reports Luo, J. & Jamieson-Drake, D. (2013). Examining the educational benefits of interacting with international students. Journal of International Students, 3(2), 85–101. Retrieved from http://files. eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1056457.pdf Mawer, M., Quraishi, S. & Day, R. (2016). Successes and complexities: The outcomes of UK Commonwealth Scholarships 1960-2012. Full report. London: Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in the UK. Retrieved from http://cscuk.dfid.gov.uk/2016/04/successes-and- complexities-the-outcomes-of-uk-commonwealth-scholarships-1960-2012 McGill Peterson, P. Diplomacy and education: A changing global landscape. International Higher Education, 75. Retrieved from https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ihe/article/view/5410/4848 McKinven, T. (2011). Living together: Investigating student interaction in a multi-nationality postgraduate community, PhD thesis, Durham University. Retrieved from http://etheses.dur. ac.uk/3311 Mellors-Bourne, R., Fielden, J., Kemp, N., Middlehurst, R., & Woodfield, S. (2014). The value of Transnational Education to the UK. BIS Research Paper 194. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/transnational- education-value-to-the-uk 96 • Education New Zealand

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Mellors-Bourne, R., Humfrey, C., Kemp, N. & Woodfield, S. (2013). The wider benefits of international higher education in the UK. BIS Research Paper 128. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/240407/bis-13- 1172-the-wider-benefits-of-international-higher- education-in-the-uk.pdf Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment (2015). National Statement of Science Investment: 2015–2025. Wellington: Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment. Retrieved from: http:// www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/science-innovation/pdf- library/NSSI%20Final%20Document%20 2015.pdf Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2016a). Migration trends 2015/2016. Wellington: Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Retrieved from http://www.mbie. govt.nz/publications-research/research/migrants---monitoring/migration-trends- and-outlook-2015-16. pdf Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2016b). Science & innovation system performance report. Wellington: Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Retrieved from http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/science-innovation/performance/document-image- library/2016-science-and-innovation-system-performance-report.pdf Ministry of Education (2014). International capabilities. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/Curriculum-resources/International-capabilities Ministry of Education (2017). The international student wellbeing strategy. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://education.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Ministry/Strategies-and- policies/ internationlStudentWellbeingStrategyJune2017.pdf Murat, M. (2014). Out of sight, not out of mind. Education networks and international trade. World Development, 58, 53–56. NAFSA [2017]. The United States of America: Benefits from international students. Washington DC: NAFSA. Retrieved from http://www.nafsa.org/_/File/_/econvalue2016_natl.pdf Nana, G., Stokes, F., Molano, W. & Dixon, H. (2013). The future nursing workforce: Supply projections: 2010–2035. Wellington: Nursing Council of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.nursingcouncil. org.nz/News/The-Future-Nursing-Workforce New Zealand Government (2017). International education strategy for New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Government. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Draft-NZIES-for-consultation.pdf Oxford Economics (2013). The economic costs and benefits of international students: A report for the University of Sheffield. [Oxford]: Oxford Economics. Retrieved from https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_ fs/1.259052!/file/sheffield-international-students-report.pdf Oxford Economics (2012). The impact of international and EU students in Wales. [Oxford]: Oxford Economics. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordeconomics.com/my-oxford/projects/129064 Oxford Economics (2011). The economic impact of the University of Exeter’s international students. [Oxford]: Oxford Economics. Retrieved from http://issuu.com/universityofexeter/docs/oxford_ report?mode=embed&layout=http://sk Beyond the economic • 97

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Park, Z. (2017). Moving places: Destinations and earnings of international graduates. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/data/assets/pdf_file/0004/179959/ Moving-Places- Destinations-and-earnings-of-international-graduates.pdf Parsons, R. L. (2010). The effects of an internationalized university experience on domestic students in the United States and Australia. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(4), 313–334. Payne, K. (2010). Domestic travel by international students in New Zealand. PhD thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW. Retrieved from http://epubs.scu.edu.au/theses/165 Phillips, R. & Burgess, P (2016). Australian transnational higher education and onshore student flows. Research Digest 9. Melbourne: International Education Association of Australia. Retrieved from https:// www.ieaa.org.au/documents/item/797 Pyke, J., Jiang, M., Delacy, T., Smith, E., Li, G. & Li, A-M. (2013). The role and influence of China based alumni on travel and tourism. Melbourne: Victoria University. Retrieved from https://www.vu.edu.au/ sites/default/files/cses/pdfs/the-role-and-influence-of-china-based-alumni- on-travel-and-tourism.pdf Roslyn Kunin and Associates (2016). Economic impact of international education in Canada – An update. Final report. Vancouver: Roslyn Kunin and Associates. Retrieved from http://www.international.gc.ca/ education/report-rapport/impact-2016/index.aspx?lang=eng Ryan, R. C. (2014). Motivation in tandem learning. Master of Arts thesis, University of British Columbia. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2429/50172 Select Committee on Soft Power and the UK’s Influence (2014). Persuasion and power in the modern world. London: UK Parliament. Retrieved from https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201314/ ldselect/ldsoftpower/150/15002.htm Semov, S. (2010). International graduate students and U.S. innovation. Gettysburg Economic Review, 4, 6. Retrieved from http://cupola.gettysburg.edu/ger/vol4/iss1/6 Spencer-Oatey, H. & Dauber, D. (2015). How ‘internationalised’ is your university: Moving beyond structural indicators towards social integration. Briefing paper: Going Global Event 2015, London, UK. Warwick: University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/research/groups/ wacc/activities/publications/how_internatio nalised_is_your_university.pdf Spiro, J. (2014). Learning interconnectedness: Internationalisation through engagement with one another. Higher Education Quarterly, 68(1), 65–84. Stuen, E.T., Mobarak, A.M. & Maskus, K.E. (2011). Skilled immigration and innovation: Evidence from enrolment fluctuations in U.S. doctoral programs. [Boulder: University of Colorado]. Retrieved from http:// spot.colorado.edu/~maskus/papers/smm_2011.pdf Sutton, S.B. & Lyons, E.E. (2014). Unintentional diplomats: International science engagement and science diplomacy by U.S. higher education institutions. Durham, NC: Association of International Education Administrators. Retrieved from http://www.aieaworld.org/assets/docs/Additional_Resource_PDFs/ suttonsb%20and%20lyonsee-%20unintentional%20diplomats.pdf Tillman, M. (2012). Employer perspectives on international education. In D.K. Deardorff, H de Wit & J. Heyl (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of International Higher Education (pp. 191-206). Thousand Oaks: Sage. 98 • Education New Zealand

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TNS (2016). Understanding and measuring international student welfare in New Zealand: Final report. [Auckland]: TNS. Tourism Research Australia (2007). Study tourism report: Profile of international visitors who studied in Australia. Belconnen ACT: Tourism Research Australia. Retrieved from http://nla.gov.au/nla.arc-101325 Universities Australia (2013). Public perceptions of Australia’s universities. Canberra: Universities Australia. Retrieved from https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/ArticleDocuments/574/ UniversitiesAustralia_PublicPercep tionsUniversities_February2013.pdf.aspx Universities Scotland (2013). Richer for it: The positive social, cultural and educational impact international students have on Scotland. Edinburgh: Universities Scotland. Retrieved from: http://www. universities-scotland.ac.uk/publications/richer-for-it Universities UK (2017). The economic impact of international students. London: Universities UK. Retrieved from http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/policy-and- analysis/reports/Documents/2017/briefing- economic-impact-international-students.pdf Van der Meer, J. & Comer, K. (2011). International students’ experiences of engagement: Opportunities for enhancement. In Radloff, A. (Ed.) (2011). Student engagement in New Zealand’s universities (pp. 29-38). Melbourne: ACER. Retrieved from https://www.acer.org/files/AUSSE_New_Zealand_Report_Web_Version. pdf Ward, C., Masgoret, A-M. & Gezentsvey, M. (2009). Investigating attitudes toward international students: Program and policy implications for social integration and international education. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3(1), 79–102. Wilson, I. (2015). Exchanges and peacemaking: Counterfactuals and unexplored possibilities. All Azimuth, 4(2), 5-18. Retrieved form http://www.foreignpolicyandpeace.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/09/ALL_ AZIMUTH_KAPAK_ICERIK_HAZIRAN2015_WEB.pdf Wiseman, J. & Davies, E. (2013). Evaluation of the value of Tier 4 students to further education colleges and the UK economy. London: Department for Business Innovation & Skills. Retrieved from https://www. gov.uk/government/publications/value-of-tier-4-international-students-to-further- education-colleges- and-the-uk-economy-evaluation Wylie, C. & Berg, M. (2013). Success factors and barriers in school provision for international students. Wellington Education New Zealand and NZCER. Retrieved from https://enz.govt.nz/ assets/Uploads/Success-Factors-and-Barriers-in-School-Provision-for- International-Students-web. pdf

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