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Assessing the Environmental Performance of an Intensive Farming System in South Korea

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Assessing the Environmental Performance of an Intensive Farming System in South Korea Department of soil physics Complex TERRain and ECOlogical Heterogeneity A cumulative dissertation submitted for the requirement of doctoral degree in Natural Science (Dr. rer. nat.) Integrated watershed modeling of mountainous landscapes: Assessing the environmental performance of an intensive farming system in South Korea. Submitted to Bayreuth Graduate School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences (BayNAT) Submitted by Ganga Ram Maharjan born 20 April 1982 in Chapagaun, Lalitpur, Nepal Bayreuth, August 2015 This doctoral thesis was prepared at the Department of Soil Physics, University of Bayreuth, between April 2012 and August 2015 under supervision of Prof. Dr. Bernd Huwe, Prof. Dr. John Tenhunen, and Prof. Dr. Seong Joon Kim Date of submission: 26 August 2015 Date of defense: 04 December 2015 Acting director: Prof. Dr. Stephan Kuemmel Doctoral committee: (1) Prof. Dr. Bernd Huwe (1st reviewer) (2) Prof. Dr. Martin Volk (2nd reviewer) (2) Prof. Dr. Thomas Koellner (chairman) (4) Dr. Christina Bogner Abstract The agricultural production to secure food for overgrowing world's population and the reduction of associated detrimental effects on the environment are of global concern. Intensive farming systems coupled with a high amounts of fertilizer applied to secure an increasing crop yield have a negative effects on the global environment. The nonpoint source pollution, such as sediments and nutrients from the intensive farming systems and point source pollution from industry are of major threat to the global environment. The point source pollutions from the industries are discernible, which can be fed into wastewater treatment plants before bringing back to the environmental system. Nonpoint source pollutions come from many diffuse sources (surface runoff, atmospheric deposition, precipitation, and seepage) and are more difficult to handle compared to point source pollution. The extent of generation of nonpoint source pollution depends on complex geophysical and environmental conditions in combination with adopted land use and management systems. The catchments Haean and Jawoon-ri in South Korea are characterized by complex terrain and highly affected by monsoon climate. In addition, mountainous intensive agriculture and application of high amount of fertilizer have produced a considerable amount of sediments and nutrients, which are transported to the downstream reservoir. Furthermore, the catchments are regionally recognized as a "hot spot" of muddy flows and associated contaminants contributing to the downstream Soyang Reservoir. The Soyang Reservoir is a major source of drinking water supply in Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. The reservoir also has problem of yearly siltation, which decreases its water storage capacity. In addition, contaminants sorbed to the sediments are deteriorating the water quality. The regional attention is to improve the water quality while maintaining the agricultural production from the adjoining Haean and Jawoon-ri catchments. Based on this paradigm, the Complex TERRain and ECOlogical Heterogeneity (TERRECO) project was developed. The studies associated with the TERRECO project included a detailed plot level study of understanding water flow and erosion processes and solute transport under various management practices. The research findings based on plot level studies are important to integrate processes at the catchment level in order to analyze the management impact on agricultural production and export of nonpoint source pollution with an approach of watershed modeling. Among various watershed modeling tools, we chose the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) which can handle various management systems. The SWAT model was adapted to two study sites, the Jawoon-ri and the Haean catchment. The central focus of the thesis is to identify land use systems and best management practices for permanent reduction of sediments and nutrients export from our study catchments. The first two studies were focused on the technical specifications of the SWAT model, its calibration, validation and associated model sensitivities and uncertainties. The following two studies were related to SWAT i applications to evaluate the impact of different land use systems and agricultural management practices on water quality, crop yield and farm income. The first study was to test the SWAT model for the prediction potential of discharge from the small agricultural watershed of Jawoon-ri by using hourly rainfall data as rainfall and precipitation are basic and most important input data for runoff estimations in the SWAT model. We found that the use of hourly rainfall data in the SWAT model predicted hourly runoff from the watershed by using the Green and Ampt infiltration approach performed quite well and gave better results than the SCS curve number method with daily data. However, even though the use of sub-daily simulation gave better results, their overall test, and use is restricted by limited availability of input but also measured corresponding output variable like discharge. After evaluating the performance of the SWAT simulation at the field level of the small agricultural watershed, the model was applied to the higher catchment level of the Haean catchment in the second study. The goal of using the SWAT model at a higher catchment level was to observe the cumulative effect of different agricultural and management practices on the environment of a bigger and more complex environmental situation. We focus on the capability of the SWAT model to predict the spatiotemporal variability in discharge throughout the catchment. The spatial and temporal data gap in precipitation among other meteorological parameters showed considerable impact on modeled plant growth dynamics which effects the overall water balance in the catchment. We developed an algorithm for gap-filling and to interpolate meteorological data in order to consider the convective effects of precipitation variability due to topographic variation in the catchment. We applied the method of multi-site calibration and validation for discharge which parameterized the variability in flow processes and predicted the respective discharge partitioning within the catchment. The impact on discharge due to engineered structures in relation to drainage and culverts and road network consideration in the SWAT model was evaluated. We observed the drainage and culverts had significant impact on discharge at downstream. Hence, in the second study, we explored the SWAT capability and associated methods to improve the model performance for estimation of discharge. After the parameterization of discharge modeling in SWAT, which serve as basis for the prediction of other environmental contaminants (sediment and nitrate). Henceforth, the model output variable of sediment and nitrate were calibrated and validated in a similar approach to consider impact due to different land use and management practices, which were further explored in the subsequent two studies. The model was applied to different land use scenarios. However, the land use system of the study catchment depends on the policy and technological intervention. In the third study, we developed an extreme land use scenario by expanding major dryland crops of Haean catchment: cabbage, potato, radish, and soybean. We present a simplistic and transparent approach to identify scenario-based ii optimal land use systems for a) minimum discharge, b) minimum sediment, c) maximum crop yield and d) maximum income. The implemented optimal land use system and associated trade-offs were analyzed. We found that the implementation of the land use system which was optimal for minimum discharge and minimum sediment had the trade-offs of producing minimum crop yields and minimum income. On the other hand, the optimal land use systems for maximum income and maximum crop yield produced more discharge and sediment export. This methodological approach to develop optimal land use systems and the analyses of associated trade-offs are of major importance for policy makers and farmers to select a particular land use system which is sustainable for both ecology and economy. The final application of the SWAT model was for the implementation of best management practices (BMPs). Based on recommendations of previous studies and considering the catchment agricultural practices, the BMPs scenarios of cover crop and split fertilizer application were implemented. The applications of BMPs were aimed at better environmental performance by reducing nonpoint source pollution while increasing the crop yields. The BMPs of cover crop and split fertilizer application were assessed for effectiveness in sediment and unproductive nitrate reduction. We found that cover crop has a considerable effects on reducing both sediment and nitrate losses, and at the same time increased crop yields. The BMP with the split fertilizer application showed supportive effects in reducing nitrate but not reduce erosion and did not increase crop yields. The simultaneous application of BMPs with cover crop and split fertilizer application exhibited even greater impacts on environmental performance in reducing sediment and nitrate losses and increased crop yield. Summing up, in this study we used integrated watershed modeling to identify the environmental performance of study catchments. In general, the land use system that was identified to produce a minimum sediment loss and the application of combining BMPs (cover crop and split fertilizer) would have positive environmental
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