Evaluating Entheseal Changes from a Commingled And

Home , Enthesis

EVALUATING ENTHESEAL CHANGES FROM A COMMINGLED AND

FRAGMENTARY POPULATION: REPUBLIC GROVES

Jennifer K. Dewey

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, FL

May 2018

ii EVALUATINGENTHESEAL CHANGES FROM A COMMINGLEDAND

FRAGMENTARYPOPULATION: REPUBLIC GROVES

JenniferK. Dewey

This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate's thesis advisor, Dr. MeredithEllis , Department of Anthropology,and has been approved by the members of her supervisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of the Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Artsand Letters and was acceptedin partialfulfillment of therequirements for thedegree of Masterof Arts. SUPERVISORYCOMMIITEE:

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iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

Author: Jennifer K. Dewey

Title: Evaluating Entheseal Changes from a Commingled and Fragmentary Population: Republic Groves

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Meredith Ellis

Degree: Master of Arts

Year: 2018

The most direct way available to modern day researchers to reconstruct individual and population level behavior is to analyze markers of activity from skeletal remains

(Ruff et al., 2004). An analysis of the population at the Republic Groves site (8HR4) was conducted, using the entheseal change score system, the Coimbra method, developed by

Henderson et al. (2015). This study examined the implication of analyzing a commingled and fragmentary population with this methodology. Reconstructing specific behavior cannot be done with this type of approach; however, entheseal changes can be compared to specific patterns of behavior for consistency. An atlatl was found with the human remains and thus provided a suggestion of behavior for comparison. Entheses were chosen in line with a throwing motion of the atlatl and focused exclusively on the humerus, radius, and ulna. The application of the Coimbra methodology to the Republic

Groves population was successful, at least in part. Overall, there was low variability of results, mostly 0, some 1, and with very few high 2 scores. The entheseal changes from

Republic Groves were consistent with the throwing of an atlatl; however, this does not mean that this is the only behavior that could have generated that kind of change.

EVALUATING ENTHESEAL CHANGES FROM A COMMINGLED AND

FRAGMENTARY POPULATION: REPUBLIC GROVES

LIST OF TABLES ...... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Entheses ...... 2

1.2 Research Questions ...... 3

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND ...... 5

2.1 Entheses Structure and Function ...... 5

2.2 Entheses Types ...... 7

2.3 Primary Assumption:...... 9

2.4 Methods ...... 13

CHAPTER 3: FLORIDA ARCHAEOLOGY ...... 21

3.1 Archaic Period in Florida ...... 21

3.2 Impact ...... 24

3.3 Republic Groves ...... 24

3.4 Human Remains Recovered ...... 27

3.5 History of Previous Research on Republic Groves ...... 28

vii

3.6 Comparable Archaic sites...... 29

CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 30

4.1 Summary of the Coimbra Methodology...... 31

4.2 Adapting the Coimbra Method to Republic Groves...... 33

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 35

5.1 Humerus ...... 38

5.2 Radius ...... 43

5.3 Ulna ...... 45

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ...... 52

REFERENCES ...... 54

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: List of overuse injuries ...... 6

Table 2: Pathological conditions ...... 7

Table 3: Characteristics of entheses ...... 9

Table 4: Confounder Variables ...... 12

Table 5: Summaries of Methodologies ...... 14

Table 6: Reproduction of Table 1 of Henderson et al. (2015). Summary of the

“New Coimbra method” ...... 19

Table 7: Entheses examined ...... 34

Table 8: Inventory ...... 35

Table 9: Results of Entheses scorable ...... 36

Table 10: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for

the humeri ...... 41

Table 11: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the humeri ...... 42

Table 12: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for

the radii ...... 44

Table 13: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the radii ...... 44

Table 14: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for

the ulnae ...... 46

Table 15: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the ulnae...... 47

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Extent of zone demarcations from Henderson et al. (2015)...... 18

Figure 2: Delineated entheses...... 34

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Reconstructing the daily behavior of prehistoric individuals, in correlation with demographic information such as sex, age, or ancestry, can provide insight into individuals’ roles within a broader sociocultural context. This can lay the foundation for bioarchaeologists to ask wide-ranging questions of social organization, socioeconomic activities, and life conditions of ancient populations (al-Oumaoui et al., 2004; Foster et al., 2014). The most direct way available to modern-day researchers to reconstruct individual and population level behavior is to analyze markers of activity from skeletal remains (Ruff et al., 2004). To do this, bioarchaeologists have created and implemented methodologies to infer habitual activities through evaluating skeletal changes due to occupational stress.

The focus of this research is to evaluate a baseline method for investigating behavior patterns within commingled populations, specifically the Republic Groves

(8HR4) skeletal population housed at Florida Atlantic University. The collection of skeletal remains from this site are not contemporaneous. The dates range from 4600 B.C. to 500 B.C. This population’s skeletal remains are at times fragmentary, incomplete, and commingled. When critiquing this methodology researchers are ordinarily investigating behaviors in historic populations where known individuals with life histories can be consulted in correlation with entheseal changes. In these cases, the individuals are usually complete and those that have taphonomic damage or evidence of pathology are removed from analysis. Under these stipulations the Republic Groves population would have been

removed from consideration, as it is both lacking in documentation and is commingled.

The absence of the complete individual in this analysis removes our ability to control for age and sex when assessing for behavior, something normally required by this methodology. The additional fragmentation and taphonomic damage to this collection remove the possibility of assessing each enthesis in coordination with another appearing on a single skeletal element. Moreover, the taphonomic damage at times eliminates the possibility of assessing the entire enthesis for changes. The resulting effect of these challenges is that there are no traditional variables to control for when assessing entheseal changes in this population.

The aim of this research is to first assess the degree of limitations these challenges posed by analyzing the Republic Groves population for entheseal changes using the newly developed Coimbra method. This method allows for flexibility when assessing each enthesis that other methods lack. To test this population, I decided to look for a behavior that would have been habitual and standard for the time. This movement needed to be associated with their subsistence pattern of hunting, gathering, and fishing. An atlatl was recovered with the skeletal remains; therefore, I assessed the entheseal changes found on the upper arm, specifically the humerus, radius, and ulna to see if they were consistent with throwing of an atlatl.

1.1 Entheses

Briefly, entheseal changes (EC), as defined by Jurmain and Villotte (2010), are described by Hawkey and Merbs (1995) as “a distinct skeletal mark that occurs where a muscle, tendon or ligament inserts onto the periosteum and into the underlying bone cortex” (p. 324). They are also known as muscle crests, enthesopathies, or

musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM). Hawkey and Merbs (1995) described the markers to include any hypertrophy (increase in volume of tissue) of bone that forms a crest, ridge, mount or exostosis, which may or may not include pitting or furrowing along the insertion site (White et al., 2012). In essence, entheses are a transitional bridge between the unfleshed skeletal remains and the once living fleshed body of the individual (Sofaer,

2006). Thus, when observing these entheseal changes in the archaeological record, researchers have taken to utilizing them as a proxy to speculate on the habitual activity, with the added understanding of the conflated issues regarding age, sex, and genetic predisposition, when assessing patterns of past populations through a biocultural framework.

1.2 Research Questions

There are two main objectives for this thesis. The primary objective is to address whether the Coimbra methodology is applicable for reconstructing activity patterns in a commingled skeletal sample.

1. Can entheseal data be utilized as a skeletal indicator of physical activity

patterns within the Republic Groves skeletal sample?

2. What affect does having commingled and fragmentary remains have on this

analysis? Is it appropriate to apply this method on such a population, and if

not, at what degree is it deemed inappropriate?

The secondary objective of this thesis is to address the issues of using entheses data in conjunction with archaeological material remains:

3. Can entheseal data demonstrate that the recovered skeletal remains of the

Middle to Late Archaic period were performing physical activity consistent

with a specific subsistence pattern? If so, is this consistent with what we know

of the cultures of that time and region?

This project has successfully answered these questions. My results demonstrate that the Coimbra method can be appropriate for commingled and fragmentary remains. It has provided invaluable information about the Republic Groves population, as well as an example for future researchers who are working with commingled remains and are seeking to analyze activity patterns.

This thesis is divided to address each stage of the project. Chapter 1 is the introduction and brief overview of the goals and features of the project. Chapter 2 explains entheseal changes and a complete explanation of the outline of the Coimbra methodology. Chapter 3 provides background information on Florida archaeology.

Chapter 4 outlines the materials and methods used in this research, including details of the collection. Chapter 5 depicts the results of my application of the Coimbra methods and the specific questions of the project. Chapter 6 discusses the meaningfulness of the results as well as suggestions for an approach to assessing commingled remains.

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND

The context needed to understand this project begins with a sound understanding of bone biology and entheses structure and function. This is needed to understand why entheses are being used as a proxy for reconstructing behavior in the Republic Groves population.

2.1 Entheseal Structure and Function

Entheses are the attachment site of tendons, ligaments, fascia, or joint capsules to bone (Benjamin and McGonagle, 2007; Slobodin et al., 2007). The function of the enthesis is to provide a strong and stable anchorage for the musculoskeletal system to promote joint movement and integrity, while also minimizing damage from mechanical loading (Shaw and Benjamin, 2007). This is achieved by the transfer of strain, or contractile forces, in either direction between hard and soft tissue through the muscle belly-tendon-bone or bone-ligament-bone, while also dissipating force away from the attachment site of the enthesis itself (Apostolakos et al., 2014; Benjamin and McGonagle,

2007). This force causes microdamage to the bone where the enthesis attaches. This presents as “fissuring at or near the hard tissue-soft tissue boundary” (Benjamin et al.,

2007, p. 226).

The overall presentation of the enthesis is shaped by this tendon and ligament attachment, which flares out to increase the surface area in which it attaches to the bone.

This, in combination with the blending of other overlapping entheses and fasciae, allows for a more efficient vector for the dispersal of biomechanical strain. As a result, the risk of avulsion fractures is reduced (Benjamin and McGonagle, 2001, p. 304). An avulsion fracture can occur wherever a tendon or ligament attaches to bone. It is caused by an area of bone being forcibly torn away due to the overloading of biomechanical strain (White et al., 2012). Despite the high levels of strain mechanical loading places in these regions, they are less prone to failure than other parts of the musculoskeletal system. These areas are also susceptible to overuse injuries as seen in Table 1, as well as pathological conditions as seen in Table 2.

Table 1: List of overuse injuries*

Overuse injuries Common name

Epicondyles Tennis and little league elbow

Proximal patellar tendinopathy Jumper’s knee

Achilles insertion disorders

Plantar fasciitis *Shaw and Benjamin (2007)

Table 2: Pathological conditions*

Rheumatic Disorders Metabolic & Endocrine Disorders Drug-Induced

Spondyloarthropathies Hyperparathyroidism Fluoride and fluoroquinolones

Rheumatoid arthritis Hypoparathyroidism Glucocorticosteroids

Chondrocalcinosis X-linked hypophosphatemia Retinoids

Osteoarthritis Acromegaly

DISH Hemochromatosis

SAPHO Ochronosis

Familial hypercholesterolemia

Diabetes mellitus

Chronic renal failure * Based on Table 1 from Slobodin et al. (2007).

Whether the pathological condition is metabolic, inflammatory, traumatic, or degenerative, the involvement of the entheses is referred to as enthesopathy; the actual inflammation of the enthesis is referred to as enthesitis (Henderson, 2008; Slobodin et al.,

2007).

2.2 Entheseal Types

Entheses are described in accordance to the type of tissue present at the skeletal attachment sites: either fibrous (FB) or fibrocartilaginous (FC) (Table 3) (Apostolakos et al., 2014). Fibrous entheses are again broken down into two additional categories reflecting their attachment zones: bony or periosteal. Fibrous entheses are characterized by fibers that flare out over a large surface area located either on the diaphysis or metaphysis of the skeletal element. It is here that a thick layer of cortical bone is found, especially along the diaphysis of long bones (Apostolakos et al., 2014; Havelokva et al.,

2010). This is to ensure the most efficient dispersal of strain across the enthesis. The medical literature does not support a clear definition of a “normal” fibrous entheses; however, it does suggest that a theoretical baseline is characterized by a smooth cortical surface (Villotte et al., 2016). They are associated with the strongest muscles of the body

(i.e., pectoralis major, deltoid, and the adductor magnus attached to the linea aspera of the femur). These are the most developed and visually identifiable of the entheseal changes

(Benjamin et al. 1986; Havelokva et al., 2010).

Fibrocartilaginous entheses, in contrast, are the most common type and are typically located at the epiphyses and apophyses of long bones and short bones, including the carpus/tarsus, the skull, and vertebrae (Benjamin et al., 1986; Benjamin &

McGonagle, 2001). The attachment site is largely cartilaginous except for the superficial aspect of the entheses, which is fibrous. This affects the dispersal of biomechanical strain across the footprint of the enthesis (Shaw and Benjamin, 2007, p. 305). According to researchers, the enthesis attachment does not affect the surface of the bone uniformly.

The insertion site is more pronounced at the edges where the layer of cartilage is thinnest

(Havelokva et al., 2010). The “normal” baseline is characterized as having a smooth surface that is devoid of vascular foramina and well circumscribed boundaries (Benjamin et al., 2002).

Table 3: Characteristics of entheses Fibrous Entheses Fibrocartilaginous Entheses Common Attachment Metaphyses and diaphyses of Epiphyses and apophyses long bones Angle of Insertion Insertion angle changes slightly Prone to overuse injuries as the during motions insertion angle changes are greater Examples Deltoid attachment to the Rotator cuff and Achilles humerus and adductor magnus tendons to the linea aspera of the femur, pronator teres. * Based from Table 1 in Apostolakos et al. (2014).

2.3 Primary Assumption

Studies of entheseal changes assume that the skeletal changes seen at entheses sites result from repeated microdamage related to habitual stress to the attachment site.

This is based on a series of theories regarding the bone's functional response to mechanical strain, which is widely accepted among paleoanthropologists and bioarchaeologists (Ruff et al., 2006). The first of these theories, Wolff’s Law, created by surgeon Julius Wolff, states that “form follows function,” that is, the internal architecture of the trabeculae bone will adapt in the most efficient manner to dispel the mechanical loads under which it has been placed (Benjamin et al., 2006; Ruff et al., 2006; Wolff,

1986). If a repetitive loading event or stress occurs to the bone, the internal skeletal structure will adapt to these forces by becoming stronger to resist the same strain in the future (Wolff, 1986). Most of Wolff’s original formula was strict in the mathematical sense and has since been discredited. However, it is often cited as the basis of methods for assessing entheseal changes. Ruff et al. (2006) states that Wolff’s law has often been misrepresented and frequently misunderstood in anthropological literature. Despite this, the “general version,” as in “form follows function,” holds true.

Orthopedist Harold Frost created the Mechanostat model which took our understanding of bone’s functional response a step further by bridging the gap between the bone’s organ-level macroscopic changes to the resulting cellular level changes of functional adaptation (Frost, 1996; Frost, 2003). Frost was a proponent of the idea that there was a peak voluntary mechanical load in which elastic bone deformation responded.

This loading event either stimulated bone growth (proliferation) or bone loss (resorption) response in what he called a “feedback control loop” (Frost, 1996; Frost, 2003). This loop is divided into four regions: disuse, adapted state, overload, and fracture, each of which can be in a remodeling or modeling state.

Bone biologist T.M. Skerry expanded Frost’s thought process by challenging the notion that a single individual had only one potential setting for the peak strain magnitude

(Skerry, 2006). Instead, he states:

there is no universal number to describe a tissue strain magnitude that underlies the Mechanostat’s setting. Furthermore, males and females have different responses to loading, and those responses change in response to many factors including genetic constitution, age, concomitant disease, nutrient availability, and exposure to drugs or biochemicals (p. 122).

This is an important contribution to the theory of bone functional adaptation because it critiques our interpretation from a single high-level strain event for eliciting the “feedback loop” and expands it to include several types of strain level events that can generate that type of response. Skerry also highlights the variables that could affect loading events that were later incorporated into the bioarchaeological literature as

“confounder variables.”

The primary assumption for bone functional adaptation for this thesis has been supported by experimental and observational data. It operates on our understanding that

biomechanical loading events, in this case actions performed by individuals, create microdamage to the bone which then subjects the bone to remodeling via osteocytes

(Hughes, 2010; Ruff et al., 2006). Osteoblasts are cells that are responsible for forming new bone on the trabecular (internal) and periosteal (external) surface of the bone. The rate of osteoblast activity is dependent upon the frequency, duration, and level of loading to bone by way of the entheses. An increase in activity is subjected to a “feedback loop” of growth and resorption, which is constantly under adjustment to reflect the habitual biomechanical strain (or the frequency of actions performed) applied to or by the individual (Frost, 2003; Hughes, 2010).

Maintaining the expression of an entheseal change to an area is dependent upon the repeated microdamage that the region experiences through repeated physical activity.

The Coimbra method, described in detail in Chapter 3, evaluates the different types of bone response. Bone formation (BF) is linked to the proliferation process, while erosion

(ER), fine porosity (FPO), macropores (MPO), and cavitation (CA), are linked to the resorption process. The changes seen at the enthesis evaluate the level of bone response to microdamage from a strain associated loading event. Osteoclasts remove dead cells from the microdamaged area, followed by osteoblasts moving to the area to form new cellular growth, which is then subjected to the “feed-back loop” process of growth and resorption. Repeated loading events trigger an “adaptive” phase of further growth or resorption that moves away from the ‘original’ non-reactive state of the enthesis; the degree of deviation (levels of BF or ER) is what is recorded for the Coimbra method.

When applying this knowledge, it is important to note that skeletal elements and corresponding entheses being examined are “temporally fluid” through their cellular

changes; they represent several “snapshots in time” of a single individual’s life. How living tissue remodels when faced with stress is tempered by the expression, overall size, and morphology of the attachment site. These elements are continually influenced by factors including sex, age, hormonal levels, disease state, genetic differences, and skeletal location site (Ruff et al., 2006; Wilczak, 1998). Therefore, when a researcher examines a single skeletal element from several individuals with the same enthesis, the changes being recorded might reflect different influences for remodeling. This can be due to individual factors that can either conflate or minimize cellular response to similar strain associated loading events. The effects of these factors, to which the literature refers to as

“confounder variables” (see Table 4 for a more complete list) has become an increasing concern for researchers and therefore has led to a critical revision of the activity marker hypothesis (Cardoso and Henderson, 2010; Mariotti et al., 2004, 2007, 2009; Milella,

2010, Milella et al., 2011; Niinimaki, 2011; Villotte, 2009; Villotte et al., 2010). It is important to note that the absence of skeletal changes to an enthesis is not an indicator that the individual did not participate in certain activities. The presence of skeletal changes also does not specify specific activities since there are a multitude of activity patterns that may result in a similar expression on the bone. Overall, the degrees of expression in skeletal changes do not accurately reflect the intensity of the activity.

Table 4: Confounder Variables

Age and Sex Enthesis morphology Subjectivity of methods used Indiscriminate application of entheses methodologies False positives Pathologies Oversimplification of statistical Body size analysis of MSM

2.4 Methods

The first examinations of entheseal changes in an anthropological context are in the research areas of paleontology, paleodemography, and more recently, it has been applied to forensic and bioarchaeological case studies (Kennedy, 1998). Early research ranged from squatting facets found on the skeletal remains of Neanderthals, to the spear throwing activities suggested by the presence of a supinator crest hypertrophy of the ulnae in the Mesolithic Gangetic hominids (Trinkaus, 1975; Kennedy, 1983; Kennedy,

1998). Entheses have also been examined to distinguish the effect of locomotor stresses on the pelvis and lower extremities of individuals, ranging from the ancient Greeks of the

Byzantine, to the freed black populations found buried in the Philadelphia (Angel, 1946;

Angel et al., 1987; Kelley and Angel, 1987). While Angel et al. (1987) were among the first to use the entheses on anatomically modern humans, Hawkey and Merbs’s (1995) methodhave been the most widely implemented. Table 5 arranges a summary of methods researchers have used to study entheseal changes.

Table 5: Summaries of Methodologies Name of Terminology Type of Scoring method Additional Notes Author EC description Angel et al. Muscle crests FB Scoring system that classified bone Non-metric observations; alterations in various stages from 'absent' to Absent, slight/trace, +, ++, +++, (1987) 'showing strong development'. Only used large, ++ and +++ are reserved the deltoid, pectoral, supinator, and for extraordinary cases, etc. adductor muscle crests for occupational analysis. Crubezy Enthesopathies FC Scoring system with four degrees of Dimension of the exostosis; (1988) severity based on the dimension of the comparison between exostosis at the entheses site. physiological and pathogenesis patterns of the lesion observed; utilized contextual archaeological and iconographical data to interpret findings. Evaluated ligamenta flava on the vertebral column. Hawkey Musculo- FB, FC Scoring system based on 3 categories per Scored from faint, moderate, or (1988); skeletal markers musculoskeletal marker. strong for each category. Hawkey and (MSM) Robusticity markers, stress Merbs (1995) lesions, and ossification exostoses. Mariotti et al. Enthesopathies FB, FC Divided into two forms of enthesopathies: Robusticity; presence or absence (2004, 2007) osteophytic (OF), and osteolytic (OL). of enthesopathies. Macroscopic observation scored by the Proliferation: OF: 1. Minimal degree of development for each form of exostosis (<1mm), 2. Clear enthesopathy: 23 entheses of the post- exostosis (1-4mm); 3. Substantial cranial skeleton were created. exostosis (>4mm) Erosive, osteolytic form OL: 1. Presence of fine porosity (holes 1

strong- Grade 3) and pathological expression(enthesopathy) -Grade 4, which could be further divided into Type A/Type B. Pathological expression defined by the presence of ossification exostosis and/ or lytic cortical lesion (pitting or furrow in the cortex). Henderson & Musculo- FC Method to measure shape variation to The entheses recorded were: Gallant (2007) skeletal stress determine the difference between normal supraspinatus and biceps brachii. markers; and abnormal entheses. 1st Enthesis is All abnormal entheses were entheses scored on a binary scale of normal or included. Roughness parameters abnormal, based on macroscopic were assessed by MATLAB. The appearance. Normal- had a smooth and parameters were divided into four well-defined surface. Abnormal- bone categories: amplitude, spacing spurs, woven bone, lytic lesions, or rough parameters (HSC, peak number, regions of bone. Then the 2D topography is peak frequency), hybrid measured with a profile gauge, which is parameters, and mean/ area pressed against the surface in two displacement parameters. intersecting planes: x and y, then the gauge was used to draw the curvature of the surface onto paper. The lines were then digitized with a scanner and graphics program Corel PhotoPaint11. This was then scanned by MATLAB (VR. 5.3). Villotte (2006, Enthesopathies, FC, FB Scored on a three-point scale for contour Recommended that activity 2009) enthesis and surface changes related studies should be based on FC entheses, because he found no correlation between the fibrous attachments and the presupposed intensity of the manual labor analyzed. Pany et al. Entheses FB 3D method to quantify the differences in Results reproducible, 3D data (2009) enthesis size, surface roughness as well as available in case of reburial, surface information content. A Breuckmann possibility of creating standards optotopometric scanner was used to scan. for quantification in the future. The model was converted into a. stl file, then the data was exported into Rapidform 2006 where a 3D digital casts was created. Wilczak Musculo- FC 3D evaluation of the surface nature of radial Focused on the radial tuberosity. (2009) skeletal stress tuberosity using a Next Engine 3D scanner. Placed value on the quantitative markers measurements in the controlling for confounder variables i.e., body size differences and age. Lopreno Entheses FB, FC Sequential recording system to Allows for differentiation (2009) differentiated between minor/major activity between minor (non-active) and markers on clavicular entheses. Consist of major(active) markers of activity independently observing a series of criteria in a bone sample from the linked to the location, shape or elevation of SIMON identified skeletal the morphology pertaining to each enthesis collection. and to formulate these descriptions of the criteria in such a way that systematically favors the test of exclusive propositions. Milella et al. Entheseal FB, FC For each enthesis, three variables were EF scored as absent or present on (2012, 2015) changes scored: proliferative enthesopathies (EF), a three-degree scale, OL- Grade 1 “osteolytic” enthesopathies, “Robusticity”. refers to fine, diffuse, and dese porosity’ few and dispersed holes are not considered. Grade 2 (porosity with holes bigger than 1 mm), Grade 3 extensive eroded areas; OL is presented by absence (0)/porosity (P-grade 1)/erosion (E-grades 2+3) Henderson et Entheseal FC Visual scoring system for different See breakdown on Table 6. al. (2013, changes types of changes for single enthesis: (BF, 2015, 2016) ER, FFO, MPO, CA); divided into 2 zones.

As with most methods in bioarchaeology, addressing and adjusting for each population’s variables has proven to be difficult. Present-day bioarchaeologists have become increasingly more critical of the validity of their methodological approaches.

New research continues to highlight the effects of confoundable variables in entheses development, as well as the now accepted multiple etiologies put forth from medical literature.

Recent studies have accounted for these variables by studying known skeletal populations with documented occupations; however, even these studies have often failed to establish a definitive relationship between entheseal changes and known occupations.

According to the anthropologist Christian Meyer and his colleagues, these studies have an “inadequate sample size, too far-reaching conclusions and neglect…other possible explanations” (Meyer et al., 2011, p. 202). While identified skeletal collections can control for age, sex, and profession, assumptions are being made that the activity is an indicator of a lifetime of activity and or profession. Further, researchers are often not acknowledging that mechanical strain can present itself similarly in different professions, and that the other confounder variables could be misconstruing the data that is being collected.

The main issue in the past was a lack of standardization in applied techniques and the large degree of subjectivity in interobserver assessment; this is partially due to the difficulty in their codification (Mariotti et al., 2007). Some researchers have tried to address this problem, with varying levels of success (Wilczak et al., 2017). The other issue associated with interpreting these methods are that entheseals are inherently linked with the confounder variables. Some studies have tried to assess to what degree each of

them impact the expression of the entheses, such as age (Cardoso and Henderson, 2010;

Mariotti et al., 2004, 2007, 2009; Robb, 1998; Villotte, 2009; Villotte et al., 2010), body size, sex, metabolic responses, genetic factors, pathologic factors (Weiss, 2003, 2004;

Wilczak, 1998), and anatomy of attachment sites (fibrocartilage vs. fibrous entheses)

(Cardoso and Henderson, 2010; Villotte, 2006, 2009; Villotte et al., 2010). Commingled populations have been used in the past, but typically entheses are scored as absent or present (Cope, 2007; Schrader, 2012, 2013).

The choice of the Coimbra method in this thesis is due to its flexible approach.

The Coimbra method focuses on recording changes to fibrocartilaginous entheses because of the limited clinical data on fibrous entheses (Henderson et. al., 2013). This method is unique in that it focuses on recording different types of entheseal changes for a single enthesis rather than recording a single score per enthesis. The different types of changes recorded include bone formation (BF), erosion (ER), fine porosity (FPO), macro- porosity (MPO) and cavitation (CA). Also, of interest was noting the fibrous nature of the margin of the enthesis.

As seen in Figure 1, two zones are delineated: Zone 1 is located on the contour of the enthesis where the fibers attached at an acute angle. For this zone BF and ER are scored; Zone 2 is the remaining surface area of the enthesis, as well the remaining margin. For this zone BF, ER, FPO, MPO, CA are scored. Each of the zones is scored based on the degree of expression; they are each interpreted independently (Table 6).

Figure 1: Extent of zone demarcations from Henderson et al. (2015). The application of the Coimbra methodology to the Republic Groves population was successful, at least in part. The fragmentary nature of the remains reduced the number of samples that were analyzed; however, the flexibility of the two-zone approach allowed for samples to be analyzed that other methods would have excluded because of taphonomic damage. Reconstructing specific behavior cannot be done with this type of methodology; however, entheseal changes can be compared to specific patterns of behavior for consistency. In this case I tested for the fibrocartilaginous entheses of the humerus, radius, and ulna, to see if the changes were consistent with the throwing of an atlatl. An atlatl was found with the human remains, and thus provided a suggestion of behavior for comparison. Even though the changes found from Republic Groves were consistent with the throwing of an atlatl, that does not mean that this is the only behavior that could have generated that kind of change.

Table 6: Reproduction of Table 1 of Henderson et al. (2015). Summary of the “New Coimbra method” Zone Feature Abbreviation Definition Degree of expression Zone Bone BF (Z1) See degrees of expression. 1= distinct sharp demarcated new bone 1 Formation Normal morphological smooth- formation along the margin or other rounded or mound-like (checked enthesophyte which does not meet the by touching) margins, even if the criteria for stage 2 in terms of size or margin is elevated, should be extent. scored as 0. 2= distinct sharp demarcated new bone formation along the margin or other enthesophyte ≥ 1 mm in elevation and ≥ 50% of margin affected by new bone formation

Erosion ER (Z1) Depressions or excavations of 1 = < 25% of margin any shape and involving 2 = ≥ 25% of margin discontinuity of the floor of the lesion greater in width than depth with irregular margins. Only erosions > 1 mm, where you can clearly see the floor, were recorded. This does not include pores (i.e. rounded margins). Score erosions if they occur on bone formation Zone Textural TC A non-smooth, diffuse granular 1 = covering > 50% of surface 2 change texture (with the appearance of fine grained sandpaper) Bone BF (Z2) Any bone production from 1 = distinct bone formation > 1 mm in Formation roughness of surface to true size in any direction and affecting < 50% exostoses (e.g. distinct bone if surface. projections of any form, like 2 = distinct bone formation > 1 mm in bony spurs, bony nodules, and size in any direction and affecting ≥ 50% amorphous bone formations). of surface Erosion ER (Z2) Depressions or excavations of 1 = < 25% of surface any shape (but no covered by the 2= ≥ 25% if surface definition of macro-porosity) and involving the discontinuity of the floor of the lesion greater in width than depth with irregular margins. Only erosions > 2 mm were recorded. MPO or FPO occurring within an erosion should not be recorded separately. Bone formation is only scored if it exceeds the height of the depression (do not score woven bone). Score erosions if they occur on bone formation. Fine FPO Small, round to oval perforations 1 = < 50 % of surface porosity with smooth, rounded margins < 2= ≥ 50 % of surface 1mm. These should be visible to the naked eye and be in a localized area. Do not score if they are at the base of an erosion or if they occur as part of woven bone.

Macro- MPO Small, round to oval perforations 1 = one or two pores porosity with smooth, rounded margins 2 = > 2 pores about 1 mm or larger in size with the appearance of a channel, but the internal aspect is rarely visible. Do not score if they are at the base of an erosion. Cavitation CA Subcortical cavity with a clear 1 = 1 cavitation floor which is not a channel. The 2= >1 cavitation opening should be > 2mm and the whole floor must be visible.

CHAPTER 3: FLORIDA ARCHAEOLOGY

This chapter details changes to the Florida landscape leading up to and following the time the individuals within the Republic Groves population were likely alive, followed by a more detailed account of the Republic Groves site and recovered artifacts, and concludes with details regarding contemporaneous sites and how future research would incorporate them.

3.1 Archaic Period in Florida

The transition from the Paleoindian (10,000 – 7,500 B.C.) to the Archaic period

(7,500 BC – 500 B.C.) in Florida saw a change from a colder and dryer climate with lower sea levels to increasingly warmer and wetter conditions and rising sea levels. These gradual changes continued throughout the Archaic period. By approximately 3,000 B.C, the beginning of the Late Archaic, modern environmental and climatic conditions were established (Milanich, 1994). Florida suffered an extinction of megafauna at the end of the Pleistocene (also the Paleoindian) that allowed for the proliferation of smaller mammals. The Archaic period, per Milanich (1994), is divided into three temporal divisions: Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, and Late Archaic. These delineations are based on artifact assemblages, settlement patterns, and environmental and climatic conditions

(Milanich, 1994, p. 61-62).

The Early Archaic lasted from 7,500 – 5000 B.C. and is known for being a transitional period between Pleistocene conditions and present-day environment, with

egalitarian hunters and gatherers that were noted for their stemmed and side-notched projectile points (Doran, 2002; Elgoff and Woodward, 2005). Evidence has suggested that these societies were comprised of small mobile groups that practiced seasonal sedentism. One Early Archaic period site is Windover Pond, which contained approximately 168 interments buried in peat deposits at the bottom of a pond, a type of wet cemetery site (Doran, 2002). The bodies were tethered to stakes below the surface of the water for burial (Doran, 2002; Milanich, 1994).

The Middle Archaic extends from 5,000 – 3,000 B.C. and is characterized by increasingly warmer and wetter conditions. The sea levels by this time had stabilized. As more and larger surface water sources became available, there was a shift in subsistence patterns to include a fishing-based economy. The hunting technology of the period carried on the stemmed and side-notched projectile points, but is further distinguished by the broad shaped blades of the projectile points. Overall the groups saw an increase in sedentism (Doran, 2002; Hutchinson, 2004; Milanich, 1994). Three wet cemetery sites of the Middle Archaic are Republic Groves, Bay West, and Little Salt Spring (Beriault et al.,

1981; Saunders, 1972; Wentz and Gifford, 2007).

The Late Archaic ranges from 3,000 B.C. to 500 B.C. By 3,000 B.C. modern environmental conditions were reached. Material culture had become more diverse to reflect the many cultural transitions of the time. The hunting technology of the period shows that the projectile points are stemmed but differentiated by a corner and basal notched appearance. Also, we see the first appearance of fiber-tempered pottery during this period, around 2,000 B.C (Milanich, 1994). By the end of the Late Archaic, circa 500

B.C. regional cultures began to emerge with populations practicing a number of

distinctive lifeways each adapting to a specific region in Florida (Doran, 2002;

Hutchinson, 2004; Milanich, 1994).

The overall Archaic period is known for a nonagricultural lifestyle where hunting, gathering, and fishing were commonly used subsistence patterns (McGoun, 1993).

Hunting has been confirmed by the presence of faunal remains including white-tailed deer, raccoon, and waterfowl (Hutchinson, 2004; Russo, 1993). There is evidence of fishing; however, current research suggests fishing practices varied across time and geographic region (Hutchinson, 2004; Russo, 1993). Sites per Hutchinson (2004) with evidence of fishing technology include Horr’s Island (McMichael, 1982; Russo et al.,

1991), Useppa Island (Milanich et al., 1984), and Meig’s Pasture (Curren et al., 1987).

Shellfish was also a popular resource but varied by region (Curren et al., 1987; 22). We have evidence of this type technology in use at Republic Groves in addition to several projectile points that suggest that this population was hunting local fauna. Collections of other animals from the recovered remains include snakes and turtles, while plants included hackberry, cabbage palm, hickory, acorns, and bottle gourd (Hutchinson, 2004;

Russo, 1993).

Fishing is an added subsistence pattern that differentiates this era from subsistence patterns in previous eras. This is due to the increasing wet conditions which allowed the native populations to subsist on a broader range of local resources. This further explains the change in stone tool technology; without the need for hunting megafauna, tools became more specialized for a different range in technology. The atlatl spear thrower was first used in the Paleoindian period, evidenced at Warm Mineral

Springs (see Milanich 1994, p. 52), though it was probably more widely used in the

Archaic Period (Hutchinson, 2004).

3.2 Impact

The environment that the Republic Groves population lived in had a direct impact on the types of behaviors they cultivated to aid in their survival. Florida’s landscape during this time transformed from a more arid climate into a wetter environment, allowing smaller mammals to populate the area. The native human populations in this region were likely to subsist on these animals. The archaeological record provides material evidence of the tools that aid in hunting activities. Understanding how these tools work and the corresponding muscle groups responsible for their use allows us to gauge if the population being evaluated used the same muscle groups consistently to have recordable entheseal changes to their skeletal remains.

3.3 Republic Groves

Republic Groves (8HR4) is considered a wet cemetery site with burial internments located in west-central Florida in Hardee County, approximately 9.6 km (6 miles) southeast of Zolfo Springs (Femley, 1991; Hutchinson, 2004; Hope, n.d; Saunders,

1972; Wharton et al., 1981). The area is described as having two elements, a bayhead cemetery and an adjacent upland habitation zone. The upland zone is 2-3 acres of terrain described as having a slight incline that flanks the bay head cemetery that is to the west, northeast, and east. Located within the center of the site are three springs, with a mineral branch adjacent to the site. Charlie Creek is also located approximately 1.6 km (1 mile) south of the site.

Archaeologist Barry Wharton and colleagues dated this site to the Middle to Late

Archaic Period, 4600 B.C. to 500 B.C, using four radiocarbon-dated wooden stakes

(Wharton et al., 1981). According to Milanich (1994), the last date of 500 B.C. is disputable, suggesting instead that the date range is from 4,530 to 3,750 B.C, which falls within the Middle Archaic period. Saunders (1972) also suggests that the research indicated the skeletal remains might have been from the Calusa culture, indigenous to the area from later historic accounts. However, that remains unconfirmed.

Understanding the environment that the Republic Groves population encountered, and their possible behavioral and cultural adaptions is essential to this project. The research describes the Florida peninsula as having been divided into several physiographic areas: Eastern Flatlands, Western Flatlands, the Big Cypress, Mangrove and Coastal Marsh, the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, and the Everglades (Brooks, 1981;

Craighead, 1971; Davis, 1943; Pepe, 1999; White, 1970). Republic Groves falls in the

Western Flatlands. According to John H. Davis (1943), the area south of the

Caloosahatchee River is described as marshy and swampy, due to the lack of drainage and low elevations. According to Hutchinson (2004), the area is rich in estuarine habitats, with expansive mangrove and sea grass biological communities.

Lorraine Saunders (1972) originally performed the osteological analysis for the

Republic Groves population in 1972. The site was revealed after the construction of drainage canals for local orange groves, exposing human remains on the sides of the canal. Mitchell E. Hope, a local avocational paleontologist, was called in to examine the site and was given verbal permission to excavate the site from Mr. Billy Lambert, the manager of Republic Groves, Inc. Though Hope was not formally trained, he did provide

ample notes to reconstruct the challenges he encountered. The precision recording needed to address the challenges of commingled remains was not recovered during the excavation. This, and the initial disturbance to the site, has created limitations for how this population can be analyzed.

Hope’s field notes and Saunders (1972) Master’s thesis provide the information summarized here regarding the excavation of the site. The datum point was placed in the southwest corner created by two intersecting canals. The area was organized into 10ft by

10ft squares. The excavation area extended 70 feet to the West, 30 feet to the North, and another 30 feet to the South. Surface collection was carried out in Area X. The areas of excavation were generally given letter designations A, B, C and Y, instead of the number of the square in which they were discovered. The following areas were excavated: 4R,

4R1S, 5R, 3R, and 3R1S, parts of 4R1N and 5R1S. These areas were divided into quadrants and numbered 1 – 4, staring in the southwest corner and moving counterclockwise. Hope excavated the site in two phases; phase one: August 22, 1968 through October 22, 1968 and phase two July 26, 1969 through October 24, 1970. The artifacts and human remains recovered were numbered in the sequence they were removed from the ground; no discerning numbering was given to distinguish between artifacts, human, and non-human remains. Fragments of human remains were given the same number if they “appeared” to be in associated with each other; letter designations were used to identify different skeletal elements.

Hope was in contact with Dr. William Sears, an archaeologist from Florida

Atlantic University, as a consultant on the artifacts found at the site and Dr. Audrey

Sublett, a physical anthropologist also from Florida Atlantic University, as a consultant for the skeletal remains.

The artifacts recovered include projectile points/knives, drills, flake scrape, knives, a flake chopper, flakes, a waller knife, a micro-core, a grinding/anvil stone, a honing stone, beads, wooden stakes (radiocarbon- dated), an atlatl hook, a grooved plummet, incised pendants and ornaments, bone awls, flesher, pins, knives, shark’s teeth, and faunal remains.

3.4 Human Remains Recovered

The human remains recovered were originally reported as having a minimum number of individuals (MNI) of 37, of which 31 were adults and 6 were juveniles. The burial types are described as primary flexed internments; however, that is only for the burials that could be identified with certainty (Wharton et al., 1981). There was a cluster of six burials laid out in a radiating pattern with the feet pointed towards the center.

Wharton et al. (1981) suggest that the individuals could have been related or a part of a deliberate group internment. In addition to this, only one completely articulated skeleton was identified (RG-239), while five other individuals were discerned due to the varying degrees of disturbance to the site; upon reanalysis of the collection only one of these individuals has the skeletal elements required for this analysis.

The skeletal collection is fragmented because of damage from the use of a backhoe in the area prior to the discovery of the remains. The remains are heavily commingled from both the use of backhoe and the type of Archaic burial practices of the native people. Despite the high level of fragmentation and commingling, taphonomic preservation is still very good. The skeletal remains have a notable black soil staining

throughout the entire collection; this is possibly influenced by the wet burial practices of the time. There is also the occasional evidence of burning but without signs of butchering or violence to the remains. One possible explanation is the wildfires that were recurrent in Florida’s past.

A recalculation of the MNI was performed with a more conservative methodology and resulted in an MNI of 24 for humeri, excluding subadults. That MNI is used in this thesis. After observing the entire skeletal collection, the population is overall very robust in nature, with the understood caveat that the “population” could be reflecting multiple populations due to the time range to which this population has been dated. Saunders also noted similar observations, reporting a stature range of 5’2” to 5’8” with “robust, strongly muscled individuals, as the long bones are fairly wide in diameter for their length, and all areas of muscle attachment such as the radial and deltoid tuberosities, linea aspera, and even the anterior temporal lines are extremely large and roughened” (p. 39). Saunders

(1972) also reported that there did not appear to be any great degree of sexual dimorphism but instead noticed that “there were several instances where femora were more gracile and the linea aspera was fairly smooth” (p. 39).

3.5 History of Previous Research on Republic Groves

The history of research on the Republic Groves population began with Lorraine

Saunders’s MA thesis on the osteological analysis of the populations. From this point, it has been utilized as a comparison for Archaic wet sites in other publications (Kyles,

2013; Wentz & Gifford, 2007; Winland, 1993). The crania have been utilized to measure biodistance in Maranda Kles’s PhD Dissertation from the University of Florida.

However, a comprehensive osteological analysis has not been reattempted due to the fragmentary nature of the collection.

3.6 Comparable Archaic sites

Additional Archaic wet cemetery sites include Windover Pond (8BR246), Bay

West (8CR200), and Little Salt Spring (8SO18). Windover Pond is an Early Archaic site found in Brevard County (Doran, 2002; Purdy, 1991). The MNI is 168 individuals. Bay

West is a Middle Archaic site located in Collier County. The MNI is 37 individuals; however, the remains were highly fragmentary and commingled (Purdy, 1991). Little Salt

Spring is a Middle Archaic site located in Sarasota County (Purdy, 1991). The MNI is 44 individuals (Purdy, 1991).

CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS

To address the effect of having commingled and fragmentary remains on the analysis of this population, the Republic Groves collection was first inventoried. All skeletal elements related to the upper limb were pulled and seriated, including fragmented bone. The MNI was repeated using the degrees of completion 1, 4, 6 to indicate the presence of a single individual (Owsley et al., 1995). A score of 1 indicated the long bone was complete; 4 indicated that only the distal 1/3 of the shaft was missing; and 6 indicated that only the middle 1/3 of the shaft was present. These were chosen so as not to accidentally duplicate individuals when working with partial elements. In addition, all evidence of pathology or other skeletal trauma was noted. As this was a commingled assemblage, sex and age were indeterminate. An alternative approach was used to grapple with this issue: the epiphyseal fusion was noted to identify adult or subadult, and the overall size of the element was used to classify the element into either two generalized categories, gracile or robust. Specifically, sex and gender were purposefully not inferred from this data due to the uncertainty of this population’s use of a binary or ternary gender dynamic (Geller, 2017).

This analysis consists of numerous fragmented elements, including 76 humeral fragments, 42 radial fragments, and 41 ulnar fragments. This number is further narrowed down to those that display at least 1 zone of the fibrocartilaginous enthesis, resulting in

25 humeral fragments, 28 radial fragments, and 34 ulnar fragments. Training for the

Coimbra methodology was arranged with one of the originators of the methods, Dr.

Cynthia Wilczak from San Francisco State University.

4.1 Summary of the Coimbra Methodology

During 2009, a group of key researchers gathered for the Workshop in

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): Limitations and achievements in the reconstruction of past activity patterns, in Coimbra, Portugal, to review the previously discussed methodologies. Three main issues were raised by this group: terminology, recording methods, and classifying occupation. Their resulting decisions laid the foundations for creating a new method that focused on recording changes to fibrocartilaginous entheses. They focused on fibrocartilaginous entheses specifically because there is limited clinical data on fibrous entheses. The methodology was aptly named the Coimbra Method (Henderson et al., 2013). They decided that their method would focus on recording different types of entheseal changes for a single enthesis, rather than recording a single score per enthesis, which is a departure from the norm. The different types of changes recorded include bone formation (BF), erosion (ER), fine porosity (FPO), macro-porosity (MPO) and cavitation (CA). The fibrous nature of the margin of the enthesis was also noted and each zone was delineated (Figure 1). Zone 1 is located on the contour of the enthesis where the fibers attached at an acute angle. For this zone BF and ER are scored. Zone 2 is the remaining surface area of the enthesis, as well the remaining margin. For Zone 2 BF, ER, FPO, MPO, CA are scored. Each of the zones

are scored in the degree of expression rather than the severity and are interpreted independently of each other (see Table 6).

Henderson et al. (2015) introduced a revision to the previous Coimbra method to address the causes of low repeatability. The source of error was identified mainly in the differences in observational conditions, clarification of definitions of enthesis features, the overall footprint of the enthesis, and the observer's experience level with other methods. To create a standard in observational conditions they recommended that the entheses should be held 20-30 cm from the eye, rotating the bone fully to observe all angles. Natural daylight or full spectrum lighting was preferred, if not possible, oblique lighting was an acceptable substitution. A summary of the method has been reproduced from Henderson et al. (2015) in Table 6.

The two zones are retained; however, a morphological variation of the individual enthesis was determined to be a source of error for identifying each zone’s location.

Therefore, agreement for each enthesis site was decided based on medical literature and was to be identified in future publications. For Zone 2 the criteria for bone formation

(BF) has been expanded to also include textural changes (TC). The actual definition for bone formation has been changed to emphasize the distinct demarcation between normal surface variation and abnormal example of exostoses (Henderson et al., 2015). The remaining expansion to definitions and changes to scoring are included in Table 6.

The overall repeatability score reported in Henderson et al. (2015) was 81.9%.

For the common extensor origin, it was 79.4%. The lowest score of 70% was for bone formation in Zone 1, which was a great improvement to the Henderson et al. (2013) score of 71.8%. The common extensor origin score was 75.4%, with a variable in agreement

for scoring other features (52.5- 92.1%). The author’s caution against direct inferences of activity patterns from these features, as there has yet to be a test on the impact of these variables on confounder variables such as age and sex. They also warn that one should not presume the same cause of the same feature at different entheses until a better understanding of the etiology has been advanced with additional research.

Henderson et al. (2016) released an update to the methodology that focused on the enthesis of the biceps brachii insertion and the footprint of the bicipitoradial bursa of the radial tuberosity. These two features are difficult to differentiate using visual macroscopic methods. Therefore, the original method for the extent of Zone 2 has been expanded to include the full radial tuberosity. Also, the definition for textural change has been changed to "a non-smooth, diffuse granular texture (with the appearance of fine- grained sandpaper) or a vertically aligned, striated surface” (Henderson et al., 2016, p. 1-

2).

4.2 Adapting the Coimbra Method to Republic Groves

Table 7 indicates the entheseals chosen in line with a throwing motion of the atlatl and focused exclusively on the humerus, radius, and ulna. Not all entheseal zones were delineated by the Coimbra method. In consultation with various medical and anatomy references, and with final approval from Dr. Wilczak, the zones, as seen in Figure 2, for the teres minor of the humerus, and the triceps brachii and brachialis for the ulna were estimated and applied to the Republic Groves collection. The Coimbra method was then used with the parameters set by Henderson et al. (2015) for each of the entheses observed. The scoring of the teres minor was omitted in the results due to the presence of only one, damaged entheseal.

Figure 2: Delineated entheses. Table 7: Entheses examined Element Entheses Code Attachment site Function M. subscapularis sub Lesser tubercle of humerus Arm rotation M. infraspinatus/ infra/supra Greater tubercle of humerus Arm abduction and rotation M. supraspinatus Arm rotation, adduction, M. teres minor tr. mi. Greater tubercle of humerus extension Humerus Forearm pronation; wrist Common Flexor Origin c.f.o Medial epicondyle of humerus flexion and abduction, finger flexion Wrist and finger abduction, Common Extensor Origin c.e.o Lateral epicondyle of humerus adduction, extension M. triceps brachii t.b. Olecranon process of ulna Forearm extension Ulna M. brachialis b. alis Coronoid process of ulna Elbow flexion Elbow flexion and Radius M. biceps brachii b.b. Radial tuberosity forearm supination

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The assessment of entheseal changes for the Republic Groves skeletal sample has proven to be a partial success. The method succeeded in increasing the number of entheseals that could be examined and otherwise would have been excluded using different methodologies. However, the commingling of the remains removed the possibility to control for traditional variables. This was the result of the fragmentary nature of the remains. At times only one zone of the enthesis was preserved on a single fragmented element. Other instances presented entire entheseals on an incomplete element. With no other identifying marks associated with the entheseals for age and sex, I was unable to control for any variables when processing the results. This produced a generalized snap shot of a population filled with individuals that are linked through space across a broad timeline. It did prove though that entheseal data could be collected in a commingled and fragmentary population.

The initial inventory allowed for sorting fragments into a group that displayed at least one of the entheseals being scored for that element. They were then further sorted into a sample that allowed for at least one of the zones to be scored (Tables 8 and 9).

Table 8: Inventory Entheses Number Frequency Scorable Skeletal Total Adjusted Present Absent Scorable Entheses Scorable Element/ R L number MNI (P) (A) present Fragments Humerus 30 46 76 24 30 44 25 39% 83% Ulna 21 20 41 14 35 6 34 85% 97% Radius 21 21 42 14 31 11 26 74% 90%

Table 9: Results of Entheses scorable Number Scorable Frequency % Skeletal Total number EC Element/ Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 2 scored Fragments Humerus 39 23 37 58.9% 94.8% Ulna 55 51 54 92.7% 98.1% Radius 26 26 26 100% 100%

These tables show that due to the fragmentary nature of the skeletal elements, the overall sample size is reduced. In some cases, the fragmentary nature of the remains in conjunction with taphonomic damage and the lack of control for other confounder variables forced me to effectively isolate the entheseal as a standalone unit. Sometimes, there was only one zone available for scoring; however, there is evidence of changes for these entheseals. The results of the Coimbra method are reported in Tables 10 -14. Each element is separated and further explained below.

As a reminder, the entheses are divided into two zones. Each of the zones is scored based on the degree of expression. They are each interpreted independently. Zone

1 is located on the contour of the enthesis where the fibers attached at an acute angle. For this zone BF and ER are scored. Each feature was given a score of 0, 1, or 2.

The score of 0 for BF indicates a normal morphology with a smooth-round or mound-like margin. The score 1 is given when the margin has taken on a distinctive sharp formation. Two is given when the BF reaches an elevation ≥ 1mm and is ≥ 50% of the margin. ER for Zone 1 is defined as any depressions or excavation of any shape that had a greater width than depth, erosion > 1 mm were recorded. A score of 1 indicates that

<25% of the margin was disrupted, while a score of 2 indicates that the margin was disrupted by ≥ 25%.

Zone 2 is the remaining surface area of the entheseal attachment, as well as the remaining margin. For this zone TC, BF, ER, FPO, MPO, and CA are scored. TC differs from a normal rounded appearance with a diffuse granular texture. The best way I found to detect the granular texture was to use the pads of my fingers. A score of 1 is given when it covers > 50% of the surface. BF can be described ranging from any bone production from the surface to a true exostosis (bony projection). I detected this by running my fingernail across the surface of Zone 2. A score of 1 for BF indicates a distinct bone formation >1mm in size and covering <50% of the surface. A score of 2 indicates a distinct bone formation of >1mm and affects ≥50 % of the surface. ER of

Zone 2 indicate a depression or excavation of the cortical bone of any shape. Only erosions of >2 mm were recorded. A score of 1 indicates a depression covering <25% of the surface. A score of 2 is ≥ 25 % of the surface. FPO is described as small, round to oval perforations with smooth rounded margins that are >1 mm. A score of 1 indicates that they cover <50 % of the surface, while a score of 2 indicates that they cover ≥ 50 % of the surface. MPO are small, round to oval perforation that have smooth rounded margins that are about 1mm or larger in size that also have the appearance of a channel into the cortical bone. Score 1 for this feature indicates one or two pores, while score 2 indicates >2 pores. Cavitations are described as a subcortical cavity with a clear floor that is not a channel. A score of 1 indicates 1 cavitation, a score of 2 is > 1 cavitation.

5.1 Humerus

The sample size for the humerus is 25. The distribution of changes to the humeri are demonstrated in Tables 10 and 11.

5.1.1 M. subscapularis

The first enthesis of the humeri scored was M. subscapularis. M. subscapularis aids in the rotation of the head of the humerus, as well as adducting it. There are two left elements that I was able to score for this enthesis. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the enthesis for ER (Z1)-100% for score 1, BF (Z2)-100% for score

1, ER (Z2)- 50% for score 2, and CA- 50% for score 1, both proliferation and resorption based cellular changes caused by microtrauma to the region (Tables 10 and 11). The frequency of these entheseal changes are skewed due to their small sample size.

5.1.2 M. infra/ M. supraspinatus

M. infra/M. supraspinatus is comprised of the M. infraspinatus and the M. supraspinatus. Both are attached to the greater tubercle of the humerus and function to abduct and rotate the arm. There are two left elements that were scored for this enthesis.

These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the enthesis for BF (Z1)-

100% for score 1, ER (Z2)-50% for score 1 & 2, and CA- 50% for score 1, both proliferation and resorption based cellular changes caused by microtrauma to the region

(Tables 10 and 11). The frequency for these entheses are also skewed due to their small sample size.

5.1.3 Common extensor origin

The common extensor origin is a tendon that attaches to the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. It serves as the upper attachment for the extensor carpi radialis, extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi, and the extensor carpi ulnaris. These muscles are used to abduct the wrist and fingers, while aiding in the adduction and extension of the wrist.

Repetitive strain injuries tend to cause inflammation to this region such as tennis elbow.

There are 10 enthesis scored for the right side. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the common extensor origin for the right side for BF (Z1)- 40% for score 1, TC- 20% for score 1, BF (Z2)- 40% for score 1, ER (Z2)- 30% for score 1, FPO-

10% for score 1, MPO- 20% for score 1 and 10% for score 2, and CA- 10% for score 1.

There were five enthesis scored for the left side. The left-sided elements saw changes for

BF (Z1)- 33% for score 1, ER (Z1)- 33% for score 1, BF (Z2)- 40% for score 1, ER (Z2)-

20% for score 1, FPO- 20% for score 1, and MPO- 20% for score 1, all evidence of a proliferation and resorption based cellular change based on microtrauma to the region.

5.1.4 Common flexor origin

The common flexor origin is a tendon that attaches at the medial epicondyle of the humerus and serves as the upper attachment point for the following muscles of the front of the forearm: pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis, and flexor carpi ulnaris. These participate to some extent in the forearm pronation, wrist flexion and abduction, and flinger flexion. There are 10 entheses that were scored on the right side. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the common flexor origin for the right side for BF(Z1)-33% for score 1, TC-10% for score 1, BF(Z2)- 40% for score 1, FPO- 10% for score 1, MPO- 10% for score 1, and

CA-10% for score 1. The left side had 9 scorable entheseals. The left sided entheses saw changes for BF(Z1), ER(Z1), ER(Z2)- 33% for score 1. This contributes evidence of proliferation and resorption based cellular change caused by microtrauma to the region.

5.1.5 Humerus overall

These results illustrate an overall low variability of scores with very few high scores of (2) present. The common extensor and flexor were the most reactive on the humerus, with the right side tending to have higher scores.

Table 10: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for the humeri Zone 1 Zone 2 Enthesis Enthesis Side Score BF ER TC BF ER FPO MPO CA NA ------0 ------Right 1 ------2 ------M. subscapularis NA 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 2 2 1 Left 1 0 1 0 2 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NA ------0 ------Right 1 ------M. infra & 2 ------supraspinatus NA 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 2 2 1 Left 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 NA 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 8 6 7 9 7 9 Right 1 2 0 2 4 3 1 2 1 Common extensor 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 origin NA 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 5 3 4 4 4 5 Left 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NA 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 9 6 10 9 9 9 Right 1 1 0 1 4 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Common flexor origin NA 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 9 9 6 9 9 9 Left 1 2 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 11: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the humeri N Min Max % Frequency Zone Character R L R L R L R L 0 1 2 0 1 2 BF - - - 100% 1 - 1 - - - 0 ER - 1 - - - 1 - - - 100% TC - 2 - 0 - 0 - - - 100% M. BF - 2 - 1 - 1 - - - 100% subscapularis ER - - - 50% 50% 2 - 2 - 0 - 2 FPO - 2 - 0 - 0 - - - 100% MPO - 2 - 0 - 0 - - - 100% CA - 2 - 0 - 1 - - - 50% 50% BF - - - 100% 1 - 1 - - - 2 ER - 1 - - - 0 - - - 100% TC - - - 100% M. infras/ - 2 - 0 - 0 BF - - - 100% M. - 2 - 0 - 0 ER - - - 50% 50% supraspinatus 2 - 2 - 1 - 2 FPO - 2 - 0 - 0 - - - 100% MPO - 2 - 0 - 0 - - - 100% CA - 2 - 0 - 1 - - - 50% 50% BF 60% 40% 67% 33% 1 5 3 - - 1 1 ER 5 3 - - 1 1 100% 67% 33% TC 10 5 0 0 1 0 80% 20% 100% Common BF 10 5 0 0 1 1 60% 40% 60% 40% extensor origin ER 70% 30% 80% 20% 2 10 5 0 0 1 1 FPO 10 5 0 0 1 1 90% 10% 80% 20% MPO 10 5 0 0 2 1 70% 20% 10% 80% 20% CA 10 5 0 0 1 0 90% 10% 100% 0% BF 67% 33% 50% 50% 1 3 4 - - 1 1 ER 3 4 - - 0 1 100% 75% 25% TC 10 9 0 0 1 0 90% 10% 100% Common flexor BF 10 9 0 0 1 0 60% 40% 100% origin ER 100% 67% 33% 2 10 9 0 0 0 1 FPO 10 9 0 0 1 0 90% 10% 100% MPO 10 9 0 0 1 0 90% 10% 100% CA 10 9 0 0 1 0 90% 10% 100%

5.2 Radius

The sample size for the radius is 26. The distribution of changes to the radii are demonstrated in Tables 12 and 13.

5.2.1 M. biceps brachii

The M. biceps brachii is a two-headed muscle that unites into one large muscle that attaches to the radial tuberosity. It functions to aid in elbow flexion and forearm supination. There are 12 entheses scored on the right side. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the biceps brachii. for the right side for BF (Z1)- 41.7% of this sample was scored 1 and 8.3% was scored 2; ER (Z1)- 16.7% of this sample was scored 1 and 16.7% was scored 2; TC- 66.7% was scored 1; BF (Z2)- 25% of this sample was scored 1; ER (Z2)- 16.7% of this sample was scored 1 and 8.3% was scored 2; FPO-

50% was scored 1; MPO- 8.3% was scored 1, all evidence of a proliferation and resorption based cellular change caused by microtrauma to the region (Table 12 & 13).

There are 14 entheses scored on the left side. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the biceps brachii the left side for BF (Z1)- 28.6% of the sample was scored 1; ER (Z2)- 28.6% was scored 1 & 2; TC- 57.1% of the sample was scored 1; BF (Z2)-28.6% of the sample was scored; ER (Z2)- 14.3% was scored 1 and

7.1% were scored 2; FPO- 28.6% was scored 1; MPO- 7.1% was scored 1. This contributes evidence of proliferation and resorption based cellular change caused by microtrauma to the region (Tables 12 and 13).

5.2.2 Radius overall

This assessment illustrates an overall low variability of scores with very few high scores of (2) present. The biceps brachii of the radius was the most scorable of all the

entheseals. The right element was overall the more reactive enthesis; however,

asymmetry cannot be assumed as only one individual could be matched during the

seriation process.

Table 12: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for the radii Zone 1 Zone 2 Enthesis Side Enthesis Score BF ER TC BF ER FPO MPO CA NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 8 4 9 9 6 11 12 Right 1 5 2 8 3 2 6 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 M. biceps brachii NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 6 6 10 11 10 13 14 Left 1 4 4 8 4 2 4 1 0 2 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0

Table 13: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the radii N Min Max % Frequency Zone R L R L R L R L 0 1 2 0 1 2 BF 12 14 0 0 2 1 50.0% 41.7% 8.3% 71.4% 28.6% 1 ER 12 14 0 0 2 2 66.7% 16.7% 16.7% 42.9% 28.6% 28.6% M. biceps brachii TC 12 14 0 0 1 1 33.3% 66.7% 42.9% 57.1% BF 12 14 0 0 1 1 75.0% 25.0% 71.4% 28.6% ER 12 14 0 0 2 2 75.0% 16.7% 8.3% 78.6% 14.3% 7.1% 2 FPO 12 14 0 0 1 1 50.0% 50.0% 71.4% 28.6% MPO 12 14 0 0 1 1 91.7% 8.3% 92.9% 7.1% CA 12 14 0 0 0 0 100% 100%

5.3 Ulna

The sample size for the ulna is 34. The distribution of changes to the ulnae are

demonstrated in Tables 14 and 15.

5.3.1 M. triceps brachii

The M. triceps brachii is a three-headed muscle that merge to form a single

muscle belly and tendon which attaches at the olecranon process of the ulna. The function

is to extend the forearm, the long head extends to adducts the arm and shoulder. There are

12 entheses for the right side. These results indicate that there were skeletal responses at

the triceps brachii the right side for BF (Z1)- 8.3% of score 1 and 8.3% of score 2; ER

(Z1)- 8.3% of score 1; TC- 7.7% of score 1; BF (Z2)- 23.1% of score 1; ER (Z2)- 15.4%

of score 1 and 7.7% of score 2; FPO- 15.4% of score 1; MPO- 23.1% of score 1; CA-

7.7% of score 1. There are 7 entheses for the left side. These results indicate that there

were skeletal responses at the triceps brachii the left side for BF (Z1)- 20% for score 1;

TC- 37.5% for score 1; BF (Z2)- 42.9% for score 1; ER (Z2)- 28.6% for score 1 and

14.3% for score 2; FPO-14.3% for score 1; MPO- 28.6% for score 1; CA-28.6% for score

5.3.2. M. brachialis

The M. brachialis is a muscle that attaches to the coronoid process of the ulna that

aids in elbow flexion. There are 17 entheses that were scored for the right side. These

results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the brachialis for the right side for

BF (Z1)- 52.9% of scored 1 and 11.8% of score 2; ER (Z1)- 5.9% of score 1; TC- 5.9%

of score 1; BF (Z2)- 70.6% of score 1 and 17.6% of score 2; FPO- 41.2% of score 1;

MPO- 5.9% of score 1. There are 17 enthesis that were scored for the left side. These

results indicate that there were skeletal responses at the brachialis for the left side for

BF(Z1)- 64.7% of score 1; BF (Z2)- 94.1% of score 1; ER (Z2)- 17.6% of score 1; FPO-

23.5% of score 1; MPO-5.9% of score 1.

5.3.3 Ulna overall

This illustrates an overall low variability of scores with very few high scores of

(2) present. The triceps brachii was difficult to score as the margins were often shifted on

the element. The left element overall was more reactive than the right for both entheses;

however, it should be noted that the sample size for the triceps brachii was smaller in the

left than the right. BF was particularly reactive for the M. brachialis in both Z1 and Z2

for both right and left, which might suggest that this method may not be appropriate for

all entheses. Further research with scoring the M. brachialis in comparable populations

would be needed to explore if the changes were significant to the method, population, or

the entheses itself.

Table 14: Descriptive statistics showing the variability of enthesis scores for the ulnae Zone 1 Zone 2 Enthesis Side Enthesis Score BF ER TC BF ER FPO MPO CA NA 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 11 12 10 10 11 10 12 Right 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 M. triceps brachii NA 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 4 5 4 4 4 6 5 5 Left 1 1 0 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 16 16 2 16 10 16 17 Right 1 9 1 1 12 1 7 1 0 M. 2 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 brachialis NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 17 17 1 14 13 16 17 Left 1 11 0 0 16 3 4 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 15: Sample size and descriptive statistics for the ulnae. N Min Max % Frequency Zone Character R L R L R L R L 0 1 2 0 1 2

BF 12 5 - - 2 1 75.0% 8.3% 8.3% 80.0% 20.0% 1 ER 12 5 - - 1 0 91.7% 8.3% 100%

TC 13 7 0 - 1 1 92.3% 7.7% 50.0% 37.5% M. triceps BF 13 7 0 - 1 1 76.9% 23.1% 57.1% 42.9% brachii ER 13 7 0 - 2 2 76.9% 15.4% 7.7% 57.1% 28.6% 14.3% 2 FPO 13 7 0 - 1 1 84.6% 15.4% 85.7% 14.3%

MPO 13 7 0 - 1 1 76.9% 23.1% 71.4% 28.6% CA 13 7 0 - 1 1 92.3% 7.7% 71.4% 28.6% BF 17 17 0 0 2 1 35.3% 52.9% 11.8% 35.3% 64.7% 1 ER 17 17 0 0 1 0 94.1% 5.9% 100%

TC 17 17 0 0 1 0 94.1% 5.9% 100% M. BF 17 17 0 0 2 1 11.8% 70.6% 17.6% 5.9% 94.1% brachialis ER 17 17 0 0 1 1 94.1% 5.9% 82.4% 17.6% 2 FPO 17 17 0 0 1 1 58.8% 41.2% 76.5% 23.5%

MPO 17 17 0 0 1 1 94.1% 5.9% 94.1% 5.9% CA 17 17 0 0 0 0 100% 100%

5.3.4 Interpretation Entheseal changes, as mentioned in Chapter 2, are multifactorial in their etiology, therefore the interpretations of these results are not straightforward (Henderson and

Nikita, 2015). The presence of any level of entheseal change is utilized by bioarchaeologists as a proxy for indicating activity, with the added understanding that it might also be used to explain disease, genetic variation, age, or hormonal changes. Each change to the entheses (BF, ER, TC, FPO, MPO, CA), whether in Zone 1 or 2, has not yet been linked to specific stressors. This is what future research utilizing entheseal changes hopes to address.

I have demonstrated that entheseal changes can be recorded from the Republic

Groves population. One of the questions this thesis explored is the appropriateness of utilizing this technique on such a population to reconstruct behavior. I believe it is appropriate, depending on the question trying to be answered. For questions that explore the influence of age and or sex on the development of entheseal changes, Republic

Groves would not be appropriate. The effect of their commingling, apart from one identified individual, removed the possibility of controlling for age, sex, and individual variation. Therefore, the use of statistical analysis to test the influence of each of these variables would not be possible. Consequently, a further critique would question whether researchers can suggest activity in the absence of these internal controls. In face of this uncertainty I would suggest that other lines of evidence be incorporated into the analysis.

This methodology is more appropriate for detecting change that is consistent with generalized patterns of behavior, such as a subsistence pattern.

For this thesis the subsistence pattern had to be narrowed down to a behavior that could be supported by the information we already had. The atlatl excavated in association with the skeletal remains supports a hypothesis of a throwing motion. The movements associated with the throwing of the atlatl determined the entheses assessed in this research. The limitations of the collections focused the project on the elbow joint. The results of these entheseal changes are consistent with overuse injuries and degenerative changes from extending and flexing of the elbow joint habitually. However, it is also important to note that the absence of changes would not have indicated that the behavior was not present, see argument regarding confounder variable influence.

The time it takes to make entheseal changes, coupled with the subsequent pain and inflammation, is not insignificant. The pain that would have accompanied the use of the atlatl, or other similar throwing behaviors, is comparable to what we classify today as tennis elbow. The associated skeletal changes happening to their elbow and other joints suggests long term wear and tear. However, it is important to be careful not to be deterministic in interpreting behavior from these changes. The changes to the entheses simply indicate that these muscles were in use. It is only the suggestion from the artifacts that leads us to propose that the stressors could have been from a specific activity.

In acknowledgement of the absence of traditional controls for analyzing this population, and others like it, I suggest opening the study to include additional evidence.

For example, during my analysis I noticed that the skeletal elements themselves manifested a degree of torsion. This torsion focused on the shafts of the radius and ulna, which suggested to me a different movement that may be associated with a heavy strain, perhaps lifting at a rotated angle. Further research would allow me to assess the degree of torsion and test whether it can be correlated to the development of the entheseal reactivity. Osteoarthritic and morphological changes are present along the joint capsule, suggesting a strenuous activity with repetitive flexion and extension of the elbow joint. In addition to the torsion, there is a degree of robusticity along the biceps brachii that was not associated with bone formation.

The subjectivity of this behavioral interpretation cannot be understated. It is only because of the associated artifacts that this behavior can be posited. Skeletal changes found during the initial inventory and during the analysis provide additional evidence that suggests a more diverse behavioral pattern, one that I would have missed if I was

focusing exclusively on comparing entheseal changes with those consistent with throwing an atlatl. The Coimbra method did assist in identifying changes that are consistent with a specific pattern; however, the nature of the methodology cannot indicate that a specific behavior is the only possibility that could have led to those changes. When approaching a population to identify or confirm a known behavior, this could create a selection bias leading to a myopic perspective towards interpreting the results; therefore, I suggest caution when interpreting behavior from this methodology and others like it.

Due to the commingled nature of the remains there is often an assumption that the individuals in the skeletal population share synchrony (common temporality) and sociability (degree of social coherence); however, the time range dated to this site spans from 4000 BC to 500 BC which would challenge the assumption of synchrony for this population (Novak, 2017). This critique for the idea of a continued sociality can be challenged in this case because the behavioral activities of the sample tested is for the known behavior of throwing an atlatl. This behavior would not be exclusive to a particular “culture” in this time or region.

Even the underlying assumptions of this population being connected as cohorts and/ or multiple generations that denote a bounded and unified culture can be critiqued when studying Archaic period in Florida. Evidence for distinct cultural development is mainly found in association with the end of the Late Archaic and beyond. Often the populations are assumed to shift from a seasonal sedentary lifestyle to a more permanent settlement. The individuals recovered from the site may not be from a single occupation group, indicating temporal variation. It is within the realm of possibility that the enculturation process of a subsistence pattern like behavior could create a theoretical

template of a “cultural body” that transcends a multi-generational “group” dynamic exploiting similar environments and from which the results of this project can be compared against.

This cultural body can be viewed as a result of the interaction between the individuals of a population and the environment in which they develop cultural adaptations. The process of enculturation for core behaviors that support life are inscribed on the cultural body, such as the creation and implementation of subsistence technologies. A multi-generational group thus creates a level of continuity that belies what we traditionally define as a “culture,” suggesting that while individual groups cannot be analyzed for particular behaviors that would set them apart, they can be analyzed for generalized behaviors that connect them by space and time.

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

Commingled remains should not be forgotten, destined to only collect dust in collection rooms. Unfortunately, this is too often the case due to the challenges such as those outlined in this project. Avoidance of these collections due to these inherent problems is often because we lack imagination to circumvent these issues. The implications of this thesis changes nothing of what we already know about the Republic

Groves population. We knew from material remains that they were hunting, gathering, and most likely fishing.

What we didn’t know is that we could analyze a commingled and fragmented population for activity patterns and that we could get interesting and compelling results.

Whereas previous studies utilized material culture to determine subsistence patterns, this research offers a new avenue to approach these same questions. The Coimbra method allowed me the chance to analyze a population that was in fact collecting dust in a collection room. The sample size was small, made all the smaller due to fragmentation.

Entheseal changes found on the remains are consistent with the use of an atlatl; however, other skeletal changes suggest that is only part of the story. I suggest the implementation of an approach that uses multiple lines of evidence and methods that are flexible enough to meet the demands each collection represents. Let the population itself make the

“categories” and let it tell you the questions that it can answer. The Republic Groves population, and others like it, have much to tell and it is time we started listening.

The next step in this project would be to utilize the Coimbra methodology on other Archaic sites to compare whether my results are consistent with other Archaic sites in different regions or if they were perhaps utilizing different subsistence strategies. I would also like to expand my methodology to include looking at the overall impact of behavioral changes throughout the entire skeleton.

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