“To bury the dead and to feed the living” Allied Military Government in Sicily, 1943
Cindy Brown
“It was also obvious, to the early planners, that many strategic and tactical events and conditions could not possibly be anticipated – a situation which made all phases of CA/MG more difficult to estimate, operate and maintain.”1
n the 70 years since Allied soldiers Unprecedented in scope and its Abstract: This article examines the landed on the island of Sicily multi-national nature,3 AMG was I little-known Allied effort to provide many accounts have been published for the needs of the Sicilian civilian a complex organization intended about the genesis and conduct of the population during Operation Husky. to restore peace and stability to a campaign. Few, however, consider Allied Military Government (AMG) population ravaged by war and the effect the intense military was created in January 1943 to twenty years of Fascism. The cost of support the strategic aim of knocking operations had on the Sicilian Italy out of the war by creating the planning and execution of Allied people and the measures taken by and maintaining a benevolent Military Government in Sicily was the Allies to reduce the impact on atmosphere on the island. The duty significant, drawing on the already civilians. In fact, the few references to of civil affairs officers was to relieve limited resources available for the Allied Military Government (AMG) the fighting troops from the challenge secondary effort in the Mediterranean. of delivering humanitarian aid or highlight the role the Allies played dealing with a hostile population. It was also a dangerous assignment in re-introducing known mafiosi Despite some mishaps and missteps for the civil affairs officers who often back into the Sicilian social and on the part of planners, civil affairs worked close to the front lines. In political landscape after Mussolini made a significant contribution to the the end, the effort devoted to AMG was reportedly successful in his success of Operation Husky. paid off. Although Allied Armies campaign to rid the country of the were entering enemy territory, the crime organization.2 It is true that civil problem of delivering humanitarian population accepted Allied soldiers as affairs officers were forced, due to a aid or dealing with a possibly hostile liberators. This was fortunate for civil lack of resources, to rely on existing, population. These measures, despite affairs officers as the implementation anti-Fascist administrators which mishaps and some underestimations, of military government in Sicily was opened the door for certain unsavory made a significant contribution to a trial run for the organization that individuals to seize opportunities the success of Operation Husky. For would soon have to be developed in and positions of power. The scenario the longer term, AMG allowed for France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. emerged out of necessity, however, the rehabilitation of the apparatus of Many lessons learned in Sicily were and should not discount the impact the Sicilian government, and other integrated into plans for future AMG had on the health and welfare infrastructure essential to deliver the operations. of the civilian population during basic necessities of day to day life; This article looks at the planning, and after the Sicilian campaign. these underpinnings of civil society application, and then briefly considers The elaborate AMG administrative had been degraded by decades of the follow on operations and lessons structure was designed to facilitate Fascist mismanagement even before learned from the Sicily operation. Allied operations on the island by the severe damage resulting from the Allied Military Government in relieving fighting troops from the military operations. Sicily was predominantly staffed
© Canadian Military History, Volume 22, Number 3, Summer 2013, pp.35-48. 35 by American and British soldiers. combat troops from “the necessity of force, seven reinforced divisions and Although the Canadian Army providing for civil administration.” elements of two airborne divisions, only played an ad hoc role in the The second objective was “to restore would be welcomed as liberators by military governance of Sicily, the law and order and normal conditions the Sicilians. The German presence function carried out by civil affairs among the civil population as soon as throughout Italy meant the German officers was still required in their possible.”4 All of this was in support army could seize control of factories area of operations, as the article will of the overall Allied goal of knocking and workers and disarm soldiers at demonstrate. In the absence of civil Italy out of the war. There were a the first sign of an Allied invasion.6 affairs contingents in the Canadian number of indications that the Italian This fact weighed heavily on the sector, Canadian regiments were people were tiring of the Fascist-led minds of Allied planners who required to fulfill the role. war and Allied planners believed that understood that the threat posed by The plan for Allied Military the population would be “responsive the well-placed and strong German Government of Sicily was born to a just, efficient, and disinterested forces could deter Italian cooperation. at the Casablanca conference in administration.” Planners thought Much of the planning for AMG was mid-January when the decision that the best course of action was to based on the best available evidence was made to return to German- inform Sicilians that the Allied attack and a great number of assumptions occupied Europe via the Italian was intended to deliver them from about what a campaign on the island island, leaving less than six months the Fascist regime and “to restore of Sicily might bring. to define the organization and recruit Italy as a free nation.”5 In spite Despite the uncertainty about the and train personnel. The objective of intelligence that indicated that Sicilian reaction, the Allies planned for the military governance of Sicily Italians were tired of war, planners for the best case scenario. Although was first and foremost to relieve could not be certain that Allied the debate at Casablanca wavered
Officers of the London Metropolitan Police were recruited to mentor the Italian Carabinieri in occupied Sicily. Italian Carabinieri worked with civil affairs officers to maintain peace in the towns and villages of Sicily. Canadian War Museum 19890223-135 Canadian War
36 Library and Archives Canada e000945235 Library and Archives
Sicilian children.
between the choices of direct or experience in military government or of their civil affairs officers from the indirect Allied control in Sicily, the with the military in general. large Italian-American population, lack of personnel necessitated plans The planned structure for military many of whom still had connections for a system of indirect control. Under governance in Sicily included six to Italy. Italian-Americans of recent this system, civil affairs officers administrative divisions. These origin had language skills and were appointed to oversee and divisions, legal, finance, civilian knowledge of Italian culture which advise on the administration of large supply, public health, public safety, proved infinitely valuable.11 In June territories. Civil affairs officers were and enemy property, accounted for and July 1943 approximately 300 responsible for determining if existing all facets of civilian life. Providing the soldiers participated in training administrators, including mayors, expertise for this diverse organization programs but the learning curve prefects, and even teachers, were was no small feat. Once the decision was steep as very few had prior suitable to remain in their posts. It was made to invade Sicily, the military experience. Two-week civil was expected that the majority of the Allies had less than six months to affairs courses were held in North existing Italian administration would recruit and train enough civil affairs Africa to provide personnel with remain intact. When possible, willing officers to staff AMG. From the instruction in the Italian language, anti-fascists would be appointed to outset, AMG was a fully integrated a basic understanding of military positions of authority in the provincial multinational Allied effort9 which government with particular emphasis administration.7 The decision to allowed for both the British and the on the situation in Sicily and Italy, implement indirect rule still had a Americans to draw on their own specific knowledge related to the heavy personnel requirement: the experience and expertise.10 The divisions of expertise, and physical operation required 400 civil affairs British had a number of personnel training.12 The two-week training officers, approximately one for every who had prior military government program was designed to be 10,000 Sicilians.8 Many of these civil experience in North Africa while comprehensive, but such a short affairs officers had little to no prior the Americans recruited a number course could hardly prepare these
37 civil affairs officers to enter hostile government and describing how it force, the Carabinieri, technically territory and assume control of civil worked; they created military courts part of the Italian Armed forces but administration. to try war crimes and ensured existing traditionally loyal to the monarchy The structure created for military civilian courts functioned properly.13 and not the Fascist head of state.15 governance in Sicily was based on The finance division administered To solve this problem, AMG formed detailed assessments, including but all matters relating to currency and a special detachment of the London not limited to how much food should exchange. As a temporary emergency Metropolitan Police designated as be available from local agriculture in measure, the first task of the Finance Civil Affairs Police Officers (CAPOs) the summer period, what proportion Civil Affairs Officer upon entering a who acted as mentors and liaisons of the Italian administration could town or city was to close the banks with the Carabinieri, a role which be continued, and, as we have seen, to prevent mass withdrawals which foreshadowed the recent use of Police estimates about how well Allied could lead to financial collapse. Once Operational Mentor and Liaison troops and military government the situation was deemed stable, the Teams (POMLTs) in Afghanistan.16 might be received. The reality of the Italian banks were to be permitted In the course of operations, the work situation proved much different from to re-open, under appropriate Allied of the London Metropolitan Police in the projections in important instances. supervision. The finance division their mentoring role had the added On the ground, the structure of the also instituted an Allied currency effect of restoring faith in the national six divisions and their operations for procuring supplies which, in police force.17 evolved on the basis of practical day the event, had the effect of causing The public health and civilian to day experience. To understand rampant inflation both on Sicily and supply divisions were both concerned how events unfolded it is useful to the mainland.14 with the health and welfare of the look at the specific responsibilities One of the main tasks of AMG Italian population. The timing of of the six administrative divisions. was to ensure that the occupied the Sicily operation, planned for the The breadth of these responsibilities populations would remain peaceful height of summer, had its advantages shows that Allied planners intended and orderly. This was partly achieved and disadvantages. Casualties were to provide comprehensive support by the legal and finance divisions expected from Allied bombing aimed to restore Italy to its pre-fascist which mitigated the risk of chaos operations throughout the spring state. by ensuring the legal components and summer of 1943 and the dead The legal division was responsible of civil life continued and by the trapped beneath crumbled buildings for ensuring commanders worked temporary closure of banks. The threatened the health of the survivors within the limits of international law public safety division, responsible for in the hot and humid Sicilian summer including the Hague Conventions civil police matters, provided the final sun. Public health was responsible for during the administration of military deterrent to crime and chaos. The ensuring those bodies were recovered government. In addition, CAOs of the lack of personnel, however, meant and properly buried to prevent legal division issued proclamations that AMG personnel were forced to widespread disease. In addition, declaring the authority of military rely on the existing national police public health was responsible for all issues associated with the welfare of civilians, including mass relief, disease prevention (including venereal disease) and ensuring civilian hospitals were assessed and, when possible, opened and staffed by Italian doctors and nurses. Feeding the population and providing other necessary commodities was the role of the civilian supply division. Intelligence indicated that Sicily Canadian War Museum 19890223-117 Canadian War
The lack of personnel and resources meant that civil affairs officers had to rely on the labour of local civilians to repair battle damage in villages.
38 was self-sufficient in wheat and the intended to treat the Italians in landings would happen around the a benevolent manner despite the harvest time. In spite of this, the fact that the Italian nation was civilian supply division was expected both Fascist and enemy in July to organize a 90-day emergency store 1943.19 From the outset, the plan and to control rationing.18 As will be was to encourage the Sicilians seen, even these essential tasks were and Italians to cooperate by hindered by the shortage of resources insisting that Mussolini was and organizational issues. the enemy, not the Italian The final division, enemy people. The assaulting troops property, at first sight seems carried with them a message Library of Congress LC-USW3-039847-E somewhat outside the scope of from General Eisenhower that AMG. It would prove, especially stated that Allied troops were as the campaign in Italy progressed occupying Italian territory, to the mainland and the Italian not as enemies of the Italian nation became co-belligerents in the people, but to overturn the fight, very important in maintaining German and Italian tyranny, good relations with the Italian and restore the traditional laws populace. The main task of enemy and traditions of the Italian property was to restore goods to people.20 A further message the rightful owners. In addition, from President Roosevelt and the division was responsible for the Prime Minister Churchill was protection and conservation of Italian drafted to be broadcast to the property. Within the enemy property Italian people after the Allies division was an educational advisor, had gained a foothold on the responsible for assessing local schools island and could be reasonably and curriculum and an advisor on sure of the success of the mission. fine arts and monuments. The latter Roosevelt and Churchill placed Library of Congress LC-USW3-040000-E was given the task of assessing and the onus on the Italian people: protecting sites, monuments, and archives of cultural, religious, and The time has now come for you, historical importance as far as it the Italian people to consult your was militarily feasible. The Allies own self-respect and your own intended to distinguish themselves interests and your own desire for Allied trucks deliver flour to the from the Germans through their a restoration of national dignity, main piazza in Catania, Sicily. efforts to protect Italy’s historical and security and peace. The time has cultural treasures. come for you to decide whether Limited resources and personnel, Italians shall die for Mussolini and requirement for civil affairs officers minimum training, and the diverse Hitler – or live for Italy and for to advance with the fighting troops. responsibilities of the six divisions civilization.21 As the fighting troops penetrated into meant that the use of existing Italian the island they encountered Sicilian institutions became an important Fortunately, the gamble paid off populations who were sometimes, solution for the successful operation and the Sicilian population regarded but not always, enthusiastic and of Allied Military Government in the Allies as liberators. The troops and receptive but at other times a threat Sicily. Although initially a pragmatic civil affairs officers were welcomed to the advance. Civil affairs officers decision due to lack of resources for the most part with enthusiasm were hindered from the beginning and personnel, the use of existing and, in some cases, wine.22 The because of the lack of integration Italian institutions had the effect critical lack of resources, Allied with the fighting forces. In the initial of rehabilitating the civic nature bombardments, and the inexperience landings on 10 July 1943, only a of Italian society and restoring the of many of the civil affairs officers minimal number of AMG personnel faith of the people in an Italian- could have led to disaster had the were permitted to land on the run administration. Moreover, the population not been so receptive. beaches with the first waves of nature of the divisions and their One of the most important lessons assault troops.23 These CAOs were assigned tasks proved the Allies learned in the first few days was the expected to assess the local situation
39 Library of Congress LC-USW3-039917-E Library of Congress LC-USW3-039889-E
Top: Although language was a barrier, Allied soldiers found a way to communicate with local civilians. Here French Canadian troops speak with an Italian soldier (middle) in French. That Italian soldier was later recruited by civil affairs to serve on a local firefighting crew. Above: To avoid financial chaos, civil affairs closed all banks as soon as they entered a city. With the cooperation of local civilians and the Carabinieri, the banks were re-opened when the situation in a particular city was deemed stable. By September 1943, all banks on the island of Sicily were re-opened.
and begin the process of forming to oversee military administration report. He met with the town mayor the provincial administration in the of the city of Catania. Sitting at and the local prefect and determined area of occupation.24 These CAOs the eastern base of Mount Etna, that only 25 percent of the populace were often left with few resources Catania had a population of remained in the city. Food and to accomplish their task. Lieutenant- approximately 250,000 inhabitants electricity were non-existent and Colonel Gerald Wellesley, the Duke of in 1943. Wellesley’s experience in the water supply was cut by the Wellington, was part of the first wave Catania offers an example of what Germans in their retreat. The other of civil affairs officers that landed civil affairs in Sicily looked like significant problem encountered in with the assault forces on D-Day. and insight into the type of lessons Catania was the massive number of Wellesley and his fellow civil affairs learned. The Germans put up stiff unburied dead. Although a problem officers came ashore about ten miles resistance at Catania and for three in many parts of Italy throughout south of Syracuse. Their landing was weeks the city was subject to Allied the war, the situation in Catania was virtually unopposed and the only bombardment from the air and the particularly acute because the town casualties were the result of mines. sea. On 5 August, parts of the city cemetery was located next to the port Wellesley’s instructions were to wait were liberated. Wellesley arrived to and the train station, the location of until Syracuse was liberated and set up military administration and the heaviest Allied bombardment. then assume control of the military make his initial assessments. Three Conditions were too dangerous to administration of the town until his weeks of bombardment and heavy approach the area and the dead piled successor arrived. The critical lack fighting in and around Catania up during the weeks of bombing. To of transport left no vehicles for civil caused unprecedented damage; make matters worse, nearly half of affairs detachments and Wellesley telephone and tram wires were the remaining population was living was instructed to hitch-hike the lying on top of the rubble of blown in air raid shelters and subjected to ten miles into the city.25 Wellesley’s out houses; tram cars were stopped unsanitary conditions.28 The dead situation was typical for the civil in streets blocked with rubble, and needed to be buried and the living affairs officer in Sicily who, once on great amounts of waste paper littered properly fed and housed in order to the beach, was left “abandoned to the streets from blown out office avoid an outbreak of disease. The dire fend for himself” with “no food, pay, buildings.27 situation in Catania caused Wellesley mail, batman, or transport.”26 Wellesley’s first task was to to proclaim that the primary task of Wellesley’s mission in Syracuse contact what remained of the local civil affairs in Italy was “to bury the was temporary; his primary task was administration to get a situation dead and to feed the living.”29 The
40 phrase would become the mantra AMG transported grain by sea on to regular bombardment, would of civil affairs as the campaign tank landing craft (LCTs) and small require more supplementary food progressed through Italy. Italian craft from Palermo.33 Back in and supplies in order to maintain Feeding the living and burying Catania, Wellesley was able to meet a minimum standard.36 The smaller the dead was a complicated task that immediate needs only because of the towns and rural villages were required a great deal of organization reduced population. As more locals expected “to live off their own fat and labour on the part of civil affairs returned to the city, he could not find and off the surrounding country.”37 detachments. Finding transport sufficient grain to feed everyone. In This philosophy, in addition to the to remove dead bodies or to bring addition to the immediate needs of rapid movement of the campaign in in grain to feed the living was a food and the removal of the dead, some sectors, the minimal amount of challenge for Wellesley and his fellow civil affairs organized sapper teams resources, and the lack of integration civil affairs officers. When civil affairs to remove mines and repair water of civil affairs with the troops meant detachments were able to scrounge mains and signalmen to restore that, in some cases, the fighting forces transport, it was quickly seized by electricity. It took two to three weeks had to deal with problems that were the troops.30 In Catania, Wellesley to restore water and electricity in normally the responsibility of civil was able to bring in grain enough Catania. While the engineer and affairs. Inland of the Pachino landing grain from nearby Lentini using signals units took care of restoring beaches, Canadian troops found an military trucks to meet immediate water and electricity, Wellesley abundance of fruit trees and olive needs. But finding food was only recruited local labour to clear the orchards but were immediately half the battle. The mill in Catania streets of rubble to allow for military struck by the local squalor and was still under German fire and traffic.34 Wellesley was pleased with “the hordes of natives (who) were Wellesley could not risk sending the efforts of the locals, commenting returning from further inland by foot military trucks loaded with grain. that the streets were cleared within and donkey wagon which added very To solve the problem, Wellesley 24 hours.35 considerably to the already heavy organized labour to remove the grain Wellesley’s efforts in Catania road congestion.”38 Organizing and from the trucks, transfer it to carts meant that the army commanders screening refugees kept civil affairs and take it to the mill where it was could focus on their main task of detachments busy throughout Sicily ground, then transported back to the waging war against the Germans. and Italy. The abundance of local bakery where it was made into bread Catania was among the largest agricultural products meant these before it was distributed to the local Sicilian cities and planners expected refugees, for a time at least, would population.31 The problem of feeding the cities, especially those subject be able to feed themselves until the population only worsened as the campaign continued. On 21 August, Wellesley needed 27 tons of wheat to feed the population. Three weeks later, the requirement was closer to 100 tons.32 Transportation issues plagued civil affairs officers throughout Sicily. In Licata, on the southwest coast, AMG officers were forced to use a hearse to transport grain to the local mill, only to find out that the mill
was run by electricity, which was Museum 19890223-122 Canadian War not functioning. The grain had to be loaded back onto the hearse and taken to a nearby town which had a steam-powered mill. When Messina was finally liberated in August,
The damage to Sicilian towns was extensive
41 military governance was organized barbed wire fields. The groundworks Many of the towns suffered in the sparsely-populated area of on approaches to the town are damage to their infrastructure due southeastern Sicily. good but artillery and tanks have to both the construction of Italian After debarking at Pachino, completely ruined them. The town is and German defensive works and Canadian troops advanced into the old world, with a population of about Allied bombing. The repair fell to Sicilian interior. The towns, such 2000 souls. It is built on the stepped- civil affairs. The lack of transport and as Ispica, Modica, and Rosolini,39 up terraces well up on the crest of organization meant that civil affairs had been targeted by air and naval the rocky cliff. Towering above all is officers were not always immediately bombardment to soften German and the town church in the early Italian available to assume control of a Italian defences. By all accounts, Renaissance style of architecture. It town. The job of civil affairs was to Allied attempts were successful: is unfortunate that this town had to ensure “there is no interference with have a baptism of the effectiveness of the military operations and with The town of SPACCAFORNO the Allied Air Forces and deadliness the fighting forces by the civilian (ISPICA) is built on a rock cliff of their efficiency is clearly seen populations because of disease, or towering sheer to a height of 150 feet [sic].40 want, or hunger.”41 In the absence of and heavily defended by extensive a civil affairs detachment, the fighting forces did not ignore the requirement to care for the most urgent needs of the civilian population. When C Company of the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada entered Pozzallo, on the southeast coast of Ispica on 11 July, they discovered that the inhabitants were starving. The Fascist mayor
Left: Approximately 2,000 civilians took refuge in the catacombs in Syracuse in
Library of Congress LC-USW3-039898-E July and August 1943. Below left: Extensive war damage forced some Sicilians to find makeshift shelter. Here a family lives in a Roman amphitheatre. Below right: Many civilians fled the cities. Civil affairs had to organize the refugees as they returned home. Library of Congress LC-USW3-040014-E Library of Congress LC-USW3-040007-E
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Left: Italian and British soldiers work together restore electricity to the towns. Right: The cities suffered extensive damage from Allied bombings and German destruction.
had fled at the first sign of invasion Italian soldiers and civilians who as a result of sniping when they and abandoned the town.42 With the were desperate to surrender the entered the town on 15 July. Thirty help of a priest and the postmaster, town lest it be subjected to another Corps headquarters sent an officer to the Seaforths located the granary, bombardment. The corporal took the town “with instructions to mark broke into it and distributed its a representative with him back to down 6 or 12 hostages who will be contents to the people to alleviate the divisional headquarters. Later that shot if this happens again.”47 A civil situation.43 Such a feat in the middle same morning, small detachments affairs detachment, if present, would of an advance took time and effort to from the Royal Canadian Regiment have organized local administration organize by the Seaforths, whose time and from the Seaforths again and security upon entering the town, would be better spent in continuing entered the town, believing it to be relieving the troops to go about their the fight or resting and recovering cleared. They were ambushed in the task of fighting the Germans and for the next phase. In spite of this, main piazza. The FOO ordered an Italians. To his credit, Lieutenant- their actions received the approval artillery bombardment, after which General Leese recognized the error of the corps commander, Lieutenant- the Seaforths and RCR cleared the of not including civil affairs officers General Sir Oliver Leese.44 surrounding houses, taking more in early loading schedules.48 The absence of a civil affairs than 80 prisoners and capturing Incidents in Ragusa, Modica, and detachment embedded with the several enemy guns. The Edmonton Ispica, like those described above, advanced troops meant that there regiment placed a platoon in the led 1st Canadian Division to make was a lack of security in occupied town to maintain security.45 After arrangements for civil affairs. On 14 towns. In a few cases, the fighting the town was cleared, C Company July, orders came down to station a troops encountered snipers and of the Seaforths “…had established platoon of reinforcements in each of had to clear and re-clear the towns a flour mill, opened up a bread line, the three towns for garrison duties.49 and villages before they could elected a new town council, and Between 16 July and 3 August, continue operations. After an artillery had collected, with civilian help, Lieutenant Syd Frost was the town bombardment the Princess Patricia’s a large dump of captured enemy major for Ispica. His experiences, Canadian Light Infantry accepted the equipment” all within hours. On 14 about which he writes in his memoirs, surrender of the occupying troops July, arrangements were made for reveal the suffering of local civilians, in the town of Modica in the early the company to rejoin the Seaforth the delicate job of a civil affairs hours of 12 July. A few hours later, a Regiment.46 officer, and the welcome Canadian corporal from the Seaforths entered In Ragusa, the Edmonton soldiers received in the towns of the town and was surrounded by Regiment suffered seven casualties south-eastern Sicily.50 Frost, unlike
43 Library of Congress LC-USW3-039942-E Library of Congress LC-USW3-039929-E
Left: Upon entering a town, the civil affairs officer in charge posted a series of proclamations in Italian and English outlining the terms of military government. Right: Carabinieri on duty in Sicily.
the American and British officers from handling grenades by their own they had found new confidence and working in Sicily in July and August soldiers. One person had both hands hope for the future.53 1943 to deliver aid and keep the peace blown off; another an arm; another in the rear was not trained in matters a foot. We did what we could with The town of Ispica was only one of civil affairs. Frost’s reflections our inadequate medical supplies. Sicilian town impacted by the war. As show how lonely but rewarding the From early morning until late at the months progressed, more Italian job of civil affairs was. He writes: night (even though I had imposed a towns and villages faced war. The curfew) a constant stream of Sicilians job of civil affairs was not finished At the ripe old age of 21, I had taken begged our help.52 and the state of Italian towns only over the administration of a town worsened as the war became more of more than 13,000 inhabitants, On 26 July, Frost was visited bitter after July and August 1943. without any real authority from my by an American civil affairs officer It took a little bit of good luck, superior officer or from anyone else. assigned to take over duties in the but overall military government During the new two weeks I ran the town. A week later Frost rejoined was a success in Sicily.54 Many town with hardly any outside help, the Patricias but only after a heartfelt important lessons were learned from not even from the headquarters of goodbye to the townspeople. He and the execution of civil affairs and my own 4 Battalion, still 15 miles his platoon made a significant impact implemented on the Italian mainland away in Pachino, near the beaches. and it seems clear from his memoirs and later in other theatres of war. The But I thoroughly enjoyed every that the people of Ispica were sad first and foremost outcome of the minute and concluded that perhaps to see him go. In Ispica, Frost had Sicily campaign was the realization a benevolent dictatorship was not, a unique experience as a Canadian that it was necessary to convince after all, a bad thing!51 soldier; he had the fortune of seeing lower formations of the need for the people, impacted by twenty years civil affairs detachments. This led His cheery outlook in some of Fascism and three years of war, the Civil Affairs Staff Centre to begin passages was balanced by his restored: a campaign that sold civil affairs recognition of the dire situation that and what it could do to the troops.55 faced the Sicilian people: In only a few weeks I had seen the There was little time to promote the people of Ispica shake off the terrible organization between January and Soon the people started to return yoke of Fascism and make a fresh July 1943 prior to the Sicily operation. from their caves in the cliffs. First to start on the road to democracy. They With only six months to plan, there appear were the ones who had been had worked hard to rebuild their was not much time to integrate civil wounded from our bombardment or town and their Sicilian way of life; affairs officers with the assault force
44 units before D-Day or convince the Italian armistice of September 1943 the organization, even with limited troops of the need for civil affairs changed Italy’s status from enemy resources, went above and beyond in support. For follow-on operations in to co-belligerent. As a result of its efforts to restore Sicily, and later Italy, a permanent group of officers the armistice, the Allies agreed to Italy, to its pre-Fascist state. Although was attached to 5th and 8th Armies gradually restore liberated territory suspicions that Sicilians were not and they advanced with combat in the south, including Sicily, to the particularly enamoured to Fascism troops. These civil affairs officers Italian government. In addition, civil were found to be true, AMG went worked to install military government affairs in Italy transformed from an to great lengths to ensure the Fascist immediately behind the front lines.56 organization of military government problem was truly resolved. In the This eliminated problems of the type to an advising body in the Allied end, AMG arrested and interned experienced in Modica where three Control Commission, in all areas only 1,500 Fascists and most were different Canadian regiments had to except those immediately behind the soon released. One of the major clear and re-clear the town wasting front lines. problems faced in expunging Fascism valuable time and resources and Despite more severe from Sicily was the degree to which suffering (and inflicting) unnecessary circumstances on the mainland, welfare organizations “had become casualties as a result. The second largely due to the stagnation of inextricably intertwined in the web lesson learned was that civil affairs the fighting south of Rome and an of Fascist measures.”61 Many of these needed more resources. No longer evolving German scorched earth welfare organizations, including would the civil affairs officers be policy, efforts to put Sicily back the Italian Red Cross, needed to be left abandoned with no support as together again after the 38-day land purged of their Fascist influences Wellesley was south of Syracuse. The campaign continued well into 1944. before they could effectively work need was recognized for additional Civil affairs officers worked to restore with AMG to deliver aid in Sicily enlisted clerks, drivers, and transport the Italian public health and education and Italy. The education system, at for civil affairs detachments on the systems, and the civil administration least on the surface, had also been mainland.57 infrastructure. Much of this work influenced by Fascism and new, The assessment of military was facilitated by cooperation and suitable textbooks were required government in Sicily in advance of assistance by the Sicilians themselves. before education programs were the Allied landings on the mainland For example, local doctors and nurses re-commenced. In addition, many at Reggio Calabria, Taranto, and were instrumental in preventing the of the schools had been damaged, Salerno in September 1943 did not widespread outbreak of disease.59 The some beyond repair, by Allied mean the end of military government/ finance division reopened all Sicilian bombings. In November 1943, AMG civil affairs in Sicily. Much work banks by 18 September despite issues was working to determine the state was done after September 1943 with inflation and the black market. of schools and plan for their repair, even as the Allies advanced further Many of the problems dealt with by find replacement textbooks, and into southern Italy, extending the civil affairs were symptomatic of screen available teachers but no territory for which civil affairs was the broken civil society caused by determinations could be made for responsible and stretching resources 20 years of Fascism and the overall when schools might be reopened in and available personnel further. war rather than specifically by the Sicily.62 Military government ended in Although the success in Sicily was the Allied invasion. Inflation and the early 1944, when Sicily and a number result of good fortune and the positive rising cost of living exacerbated the of the southern Italian provinces reception and cooperation on the part food and commodity supply issue were restored to the administration of the Sicilian people, the experience and was accompanied by a rise in of the Italian government. While prepared Allied civil affairs for cases of venereal disease as Sicilian the battle for Sicily lasted a mere 38 the more desperate problems they women became desperate to feed days, the battle to restore Italian civil would face on the mainland of Italy. their families. Despite projections administration and Sicilian society In Naples, the Germans completely that Sicily was self-sufficient in lasted seven months. destroyed and booby trapped the wheat, the 1943 harvest was poor and The stability mattered greatly town before leaving, having learned by October, AMG was dealing with to the Canadian Army. In late 1943, the lesson in Sicily that the Allies food riots in Palermo and Catania eastern Sicily became the staging and would expend significant time and provinces.60 base area for the newly arriving 1st resources providing humanitarian Civil affairs was established Canadian Corps troops.63 aid.58 In addition to continued as a military necessity to relieve Allied Military Government in work in Sicily and more severe combat troops from dealing with Sicily did not work perfectly. It is circumstances on the mainland, the the needs of the population, but true that civil affairs officers recruited
45 US Air Force Photo 67111 AC 67111 Photo US Air Force
Under the supervision of American soldiers, Sicilian civilians unload 75 mm Howitzer ammunition and stack it at a supply dump near Gela, Sicily. some anti-fascist Mafiosi and placed Despite its flaws AMG was a useful intricate nature and vast organization them in positions of power. But attempt at a multi-national civil of Allied Military Government in a AMG was not responsible for the affairs model that would be used, campaign already taxed for resources. restoration of the mafia in Sicily. What and adapted, throughout the latter the critics of AMG do not mention part of the Second World War. The is that Mussolini’s battle against reception accorded to the Allies by Notes the mafia was not as successful as the Sicilian, and later Italian people, the dictator claimed. In fact, the facilitated this model of civil affairs, 1. “Education and training of Allied officers campaign against the mafia ended enabling civil affairs officers to adapt for duty with Civil Affairs Section - Part I: Introduction on military government,” in 1929 with the declaration that the and improve their ability to provide p.3, undated and unattributed, The problem had been solved; the mafia the needed support. To date, most National Archives (UK) [TNA], WO was defeated. The Fascist-controlled historians have ignored the role 219/3790. 2. Carlo D’Este, Bitter Victory: The Battle for press was ordered to follow the of civil affairs in Sicily and Italy. Sicily, 1943 (New York: Harper Perennial, party line and avoid mentioning the Even this cursory glance65 at AMG 2008), pp.622-633. D’Este devotes an mafia at all. Continued incidents in Sicily reveals a great deal about entire section to how the Allies consulted 66 known gangsters like “Lucky” Luciano of crime, violence, and lawlessness Allied policy toward the Italians, the for intelligence and recruitment purposes went unreported. Many of those weak hold Fascism had on Sicilians, in what D’Este called a “strange union.” gangsters jailed in the four year the need to consider the civilian AMG, according to D’Este relied on local anti-fascists, many of whom D’Este claims campaign were released and the population when waging war, the were Mafiosi, who took advantage of mafia problem became worse in utility of taking a benevolent attitude the opportunity for their own insidious the 1930s.64 The main criticism of toward the civilian population, and criminal purposes. D’Este makes a big deal out of the role AMG took in restoring AMG in Sicily is unfounded in fact. the difficulties presented by the the mafia in Sicily. What he does not
46 understand is that Mussolini had not Harris, Allied Military Administration of Between Canadian Soldiers and German solved the mafia problem as he had Italy, p.10. Civilians, 1944-46,” (PhD dissertation, claimed. Mussolini declared the problem 10. The British were able to draw on University of Victoria, 2010). solved in the 1920s, allowing no further personnel who had previous experience 20. Italian text of Eisenhower’s message found conversation. Historian Christopher in military government in Africa while in Harris, Allied Military Administration of Duggan notes that the problem only got the Americans were able to recruit from Italy, p.30. worse in the 1930s. Christopher Duggan, an Italian-American population with 21. English text of Roosevelt and Churchill’s The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy since language skills and knowledge of Italian message to the Italian people, which 1796 (London: Penguin Books, 2007), culture and terrain. was actually broadcast on 16 July, pp.457-458. 11. The Americans were able to count on a 1943, found in Harris, Allied Military 3. Although the British had conducted civil sympathetic population in Sicily and Italy Administration of Italy, pp.31-32. It has also affairs operations in North Africa, the due to the large number of Italians who been reproduced elsewhere in this issue scale and multinational nature of military immigrated to the new world in the late of Canadian Military History. government in Sicily was unique and nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 22. At Ispica, the war diary of the Seaforths of informed later operations in Northwest 12. Three two week courses for training Canada reported that “the only difficulties Europe. American and British civil affairs in military government, specifically encountered were enthusiastic greetings was so successful in its integration that it pertaining to the Sicilian and Italian of the civilian population and the frantic is nearly impossible to talk about them theatres, ran in June and July 1943. Harris, endeavours of the military population separately. Such integration is unique Allied Military Administration of Italy, p.25. to surrender.” “Canadian Operations in in historiography of the Second World 13. 6-43 Op instruction 9 AMGOT “Plan for Sicily, July – August 1943. Part II: The War, which is usually written most Military Government of Horrified, Part Execution of the Operation by 1 Cdn Inf comprehensively from the American or I,” HQ Force 141, Operation Instruction Div. Section 1: The Assault and Initial British point of view. No. 9, AMGOT Plan, June 1943. Penetration Inland,” CMHQ Report 4. National Archives and Records 14. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, p.6. No.127, Historical Section, Canadian Administration (US) [NARA], Records 15. The Carabinieri is a branch the Italian Military Headquarters, 16 November of the War Department’s Operations Armed Forces. As a result, their combat 1944, p.15.
47 tactical and service officers what civil 39. Ispica and Rosolini were bombed on 58. Before abandoning Naples, the Germans affairs could do for them. the evening of 10 July and the morning blew up ships in the harbor to make it 27. Civil Affairs Staff Centre, 2nd Senior of 11 July by the Navy and Air Force unusable, destroyed the town aqueduct, Officers’ Corse, Civil Affairs in Catania, in preparation to the advance. CMHQ and set fire to the library at Naples Notes on extemporary talk by Lieut-Col. Report No.127, p.14. University, shooting Italian soldiers The Duke of Wellington, 27 November 40. War Diary, HQ Comd, 1 Cdn Div, who tried to stop them. One of the most 1943.” TNA WO 219/3687. RCASC, 13 July 1943, as quoted in CMHQ sinister acts was placing a delayed fuse 28. Civil Affairs Staff Centre, 2nd Senior Report No.127, p.15. bomb at the post office that was set to go Officers’ Corse, Civil Affairs in Catania, 41. “Civil Affairs Staff Centre, 2nd Senior off days after the Germans left the city. Notes on extemporary talk by Lieut- Officers’ Course, Item 9, Relations The blast claimed hundreds of victims, Col. The Duke of Wellington, 27 Between Civil Affairs and the Army in leaving many maimed and wounded or November 1943.” TNA WO 219/3687. Respect of: The Relief and Economic dead. TNA FO 371, R2854, 16 February Approximately 12,000 people were living Aspect,” lecture R.J. Spofford, 27 1944, Text of Debate from the House of in the air raid shelters with no waste November 1943, TNA WO 219/3687. Lords, p.828. removal provisions, no electricity, and 42. This was typical. Most of the ultra-Fascist 59. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, no running water. administrators abandoned their posts at pp.40, 56-57. The major concerns included 29. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, p.37. the first sign of the invasion. The majority tuberculosis, which was considered 30. In addition to plans to land only with of those who were left were deemed “distressingly high,” venereal disease assault scale vehicles, Harris, Allied suitable to remain in their posts. (which was a symptom of other issues Administration of Italy, p. civil affairs 43. CMHQ Report No.127, p.16. including the rising cost of living and officers used hearses, when they were 44. CMHQ Report No.127, p.16. inflation), and malaria. By October, not destroyed by the troops and even 45. CMHQ Report No.127, p.18. civil affairs organized more than 2,000 organized mule trains to transport grain 46. 1st Canadian Infantry Division - Assistant civilians who were working on anti- and supplies to the cities and towns of Adjutant and Quartermaster General, 13 malarial projects. Incidentally malaria Sicily. In some cases, even the mule trains July 1943, Library and Archives Canada and venereal disease were major issues were confiscated by the fighting troops [LAC], RG 24, R112-135-3-E, Vol 13738. for the troops. Malarial sickness casualties for their own use. 47. “Canadian Operations in Sicily, July – were more than double battle casualties. 31. Civil Affairs Staff Centre, 2nd Senior August 1943. Part II: The Execution of the 60. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, pp.45- Officers’ Corse, Civil Affairs in Catania, Operation by 1 Cdn Inf Div. Section 2: The 46. Notes on extemporary talk by Lieut-Col. Pursuit of the Germans from VIZZINI to 61. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, p.50. The Duke of Wellington, 27 November ADERNO 15 Jul – 6 Aug,” CMHQ Report 62. “Report on Present Status, Education,” 1 1943.” TNA WO 219/3687. No.135, Historical Section, Canadian November 1943, NARA, RG 84, Box 1. 32. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, p.39. Military Headquarters, 4 May 1945, p.7. 63. War Diary, 1st Canadian Corps, General 33. Harris, Allied Administration of Italy, pp.38-
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