The Powhatan Native Americans—A Historical Narrative

Jenny Huebner

Social Studies Curriculum & Instruction

4/9/08

http://jmhueb.people.wm.edu/

1 Jenny Huebner Historical narrative

Introduction

Native Americans, as their name implies were the first people to inhabit what is now the

United States. They peopled North America long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in

1492, and their origins have been contested in many myths alluding to the Ten Lost Tribes of

Israel and Atlantis. The Native American tribes were not unified, and their languages numbered over 300. One language family, Algonquian, was shared by the Powhatan. The Powhatan were a group of approximately 30 tribes that inhabited the Tidewater area of Virginia and Maryland in the late 16th and early 17th century. Their history is unique in that they were in existence for approximately 80 years. Around 1570, a chief known as Wahunsonacock united these tribes by force, but they disbanded circa 1650. The arrival of English settlers, which occurred in 1607, in addition to Chief Powhatan’s death in 1618, may have contributed to the disbanding the

Powhatan tribes (Feest 1990).

Although Native American tribes were abundant in the past, yet had no common organizational structure, they came to share a common pattern of mistreatment from the

Europeans who interacted with and dwelt among them. The Spanish came to America in the mid-16th century in search of a passage to China. Instead, they met various Algonquians with whom they traded and eventually came to view as a source of labor. In later years, French fur trappers saw the Native Americans simply as a way to acquire pelts, and missionaries viewed

Native Americans as a source of potential converts. The initial contact between the Europeans and those who would later be called the Powhatan began an antagonistic relationship between the two groups. In 1570, The Spanish kidnapped a son of a chief, baptized him, renamed him Don

Luis de Velasco, and took him to Spain. One year later, Don Luis returned to his people with

2 Spanish missionaries. The Algonquians accepted the introduction to metal objects and spun cloth the Spanish provided. The next year, however, Don Luis rejected his Spanish persona, returned to the mission of Jesuits with a party of war, and killed many. In retaliation, the

Spanish killed 30 of Don Luis’s people. When the English set out for North America in 1584, they hoped to have more amiable relations with the Native Americans, but were understandably met with hostilities. After the “lost colony” of Roanoke failed in 1590, many speculated that

Native Americans were to blame and had massacred the colonists (Feest 1990).

The English’s next attempt at colonization resulted in their first permanent settlement in what would become the United States. King James I granted a charter to establish a colony in

North America in 1606. The Virginia Company, a stock company hoping to capitalize on the silver and gold in Virginia, as well as find a transcontinental waterway to the Pacific Ocean, backed the expedition of the Godspeed, the Discovery, and the Susan Constant. The English were competing with the Spanish in the colonization of America, and scoffed at their rivals’ mistreatment of the Native Americans, believing that “’what the Spanyard got was chiefly the spoyle and pillage of those countrey people, and not the labors of their owne hands.’” Contrarily, the English planned to interact with the natives without “’storms of raging cruelties’” like those employed by the Spanish (from Robert Johnson’s “Note: The Indian Massacre of 1622” as quoted in Price, 2003, p.10). Rather than being outwardly kind, the Virginia Company advocated a policy of having “’great care not to offend the naturals’” and coexisting peacefully with the

Native Americans. (Instructions from the London Company to the First Settlers as quoted in

Price, p.31). While the English planned to avoid outwardly attacking the Indians, their referral to the Native Americans as “savages” (11) implies an air of superiority over these individuals.

3 The period from 1606, when the English first made contact with the Powhatan, to 1646, when the Powhatan Confederacy was on the brink of dissolution, is important for K-6 students to study because it addresses many major events in American history. The interactions between

British colonists and Powhatan tribe members undoubtedly influenced the course of American history, as over time the English government (and later, the United States government) faced the question of what course of action to take regarding the governing of these individuals who had inhabited the land long before the newly arrived colonists. An additional reason the Powhatan people merit study is the cultural appreciation students can acquire by studying their distinctive way of life. Finally, in learning about the often unjust treatment the early English and more modern American people inflicted on the Powhatan and other Native Americans, students should come to view Native Americans as individuals who deserve respect, just like any other group of human beings.

National and State Standards addressed in this unit delineate social studies skills as well as historical content that exhibits the diversity of and relations among the people living in

Virginia during the early 1600s. As a whole, the unit addresses the National Social Studies

Standards related to Time, Continuity, and Change; Individuals, Groups, and Institutions; and the

National Geography Standards related to The World in Spatial Terms. More specific Virginia state standards are addressed in each lesson. A primary lesson teaches map skills in the context of a Powhatan village (SOLs 1.4, 1.5), and another primary lesson uses two portrayals of

Pocahontas to teach historic comprehension by using the data presented in paintings (National

Standards for Art Education: Understanding and Applying Media, Techniques, and Processes c,

Understanding the Visual Arts in Relation to History and Cultures b) . An intermediate lesson giving a biographical account of John Smith teaches students about using artifacts and primary

4 and secondary sources to interpret the past, while also presenting the reasons for English colonization and the difficulties the settlers faced (VS1, VS2). The final lesson, which is inquiry based, demonstrates the relevance of issues facing descendants of the Powhatan tribes today. By thinking critically about the reasons for and against the NCAA’s decision to remove the feathers from the College of William and Mary’s logo, students will use this event to consider similar athletic practices and the consideration of Native Americans’ opinions throughout the country as a whole. This lesson calls upon students to relate past policies of Native American treatment to those of the present (USII.3b, USII.7d).

Key ideas and events

Because the Jamestown settlement, started in 1607, was England’s first permanent settlement and began a long legacy of interactions with Native Americans, it follows that this is a key event in the Powhatan’s history. Within days of coming ashore, the colonists were faced with suspicious natives, who retreated when they had fired all their arrows and the English had fired back at them with rifles. Shortly thereafter, Captain Christopher Newport and a group of men who had began exploring the bay area encountered the Kecoughtan tribe and were invited to dine with them. An ambiguous relationship with the Powhatan characterized by a series of friendly and hostile events ensued as natives habitually snuck into the colonists’ settlement to pilfer trinkets like beads and meat, while the leaders of both groups maintained an air of camaraderie in face-to-face meetings (Price 2003).

Captain John Smith was an English colonist who was instrumental in forming relations with the Powhatan and establishing order within the colony. As a soldier who had fought in many wars abroad, he had become skilled in communicating with foreigners and used this expertise to circumvent the language barrier between the English and the natives. His first

5 meeting with Wahunsonacock, or Chief Powhatan, as the colonists called him, came after a scuffle with the Pamunkey tribe. On his way up the Chickahominy River to search for the passageway to the Pacific, Smith’s boat encountered water that was too shallow to cross in their canoe. Smith went ahead with two of his men and to find native guides and told the remaining seven men to stay in the boat. The seven men had not seen women for over a year, as the

English had brought no female colonists with them. They defied Smith’s orders to approach a group of Chickahominy women who had come near the river with the intent of attracting the colonists so their tribe could learn of the men’s intentions. The tribe was suspicious of Smith’s claim that they came simply to hunt birds, and a group of warriors chased the men away. One colonist, George Cassen, was left behind. The warriors stripped Cassen and removed all of his joints with a mussel shell before skinning and burning him. The natives possibly saw him as the devil, or sought to avenge the English for trespassing on their territory.

Upon being captured and meeting Chief Powhatan, Smith again lied about why his men were in the area and touted the colonists’ impressive weapons in an attempt to intimidate Powhatan.

Powhatan also spoke highly of his people’s fighting prowess and proclivity for seeking revenge against those who wronged them, while both men spoke of maintaining peace between their people (Price 2003).

As the settlers learned that Powhatan was the most prominent leader among the

Powhatan, King James I sought to make Powhatan a tributary prince by ordering Christopher

Newport to ceremonially crown Powhatan as an English prince. This event foreshadowed tense relations between these groups, as the English essentially hoped to exert their power and influence over the Powhatan and his established empire, with or without his consent (Price). In

6 1646, a treaty was signed that officially put Powhatan under the rule of the English crown

(Boraas 2003).

Contrary to Powhatan’s initial promises of friendship with John Smith, he decided that

Smith was not to be trusted, and planned to have him executed. Smith’s execution introduced another individual with whom many people are familiar, as her relationship with Smith has frequently been romanticized in popular culture. Pocahontas, Chief Powhatan’s youngest daughter, supposedly intervened by placing her head over Smith as a tribesman was about to beat

Smith’s head with a club. Some claim that this event is fictitious, however, other sources, both past and present, attest to its accuracy. Smith wrote about the event in the journal he kept while in Jamestown, and the Reverend Samuel Purchas, a friend of Smith, believed and reprinted his account. Henry Wharton also included the story in his 1865 biography of John Smith. In 1992,

J.A. Leo Lemay wrote Did Pocahontas Save John Smith? detailing arguments for the veracity of the story. It is interesting to note that Smith came under much criticism for his documentation of this event during the Civil War: Henry Adams was an advocate of the North and wrote a piece in 1867 for the popular magazine North American Review which challenged Smith’s claim of having been saved by Pocahontas. Adams believed that by discrediting Smith, a strong symbol of the South, the position of the North would be strengthened.

After Smith claimed to have been saved, Powhatan accepted him as a friend at the urging of Pocahontas. Together, Smith and Pocahontas are credited for ensuring the survival of the

English settlement. When the colonists initially settled at Jamestown, much of their time was spent erecting palisades made from the limbs of trees around their fort to keep themselves protected from the natives and less vulnerable to the Spanish in the event of a surprise attack. As they had more encounters with the Powhatan tribes, the men realized that the natives sought

7 trinkets of theirs, particularly glass beads and copper buttons. Chief Powhatan especially sought muskets and cannons; however, Smith deemed it inadvisable to arm the natives when they could potentially turn against the English (Price 2003).

It soon became apparent that many of the gentlemen of Jamestown thought the mundane tasks of building houses and procuring food were beneath them, and chose to spend their time loafing about or searching for much desired gold. Smith instated a rule that those who did not work would not eat to make certain that all the colonists did their share to keep the settlement from disintegrating like the two earlier attempts at English settlement. Smith also used his diplomatic skills to pursue trading with the Powhatan. Pocahontas frequently visited the colonists and brought them gifts of food (Price 2003). As a result, she has been called a peacemaker among the Powhatan and the English (Nettleton 2004).

Smith was sent back to England in 1609 on misdemeanor charges, as many of the colony’s leaders felt that he was to blame for the deaths of colonists who were killed by natives during various expeditions made in search of food and the passage to the Pacific. What followed after Smith’s departure has been referred to as “the Starving Time.” During the winter of 1609-1610, 440 of the 500 colonists (who had come to Jamestown in 1607 or were sent in later months in an effort to maintain the population of the colony) died of starvation. Many men were preoccupied with the Virginia Company’s orders to find gold and wasted valuable time and effort searching for nonexistent riches when they should have been planting crops, or hunting.

Men were often reduced to eating rats, dogs, and at times, other colonists for sustenance. Some even dug their own graves and laid in them to wait for their death rather than practicing cannibalism (Price). The remaining men planned to desert Jamestown, and the colony might had failed had it not been for the arrival of the colony’s new governor, Lord De La War, who arrived

8 from England with fresh supplies and colonists as those still at Jamestown were about to leave

(APVA Preservation Virginia n.d.).

Nine years later, the first African Americans arrived in Jamestown on a Dutch man of war ship. The 20 Africans had been acquired from a Portuguese slave ship. Slavery as an institution developed in Jamestown gradually, and was preceded by the practice of indentured servitude. This practice allowed colonists to come from England to Jamestown at the expense of a wealthier benefactor, provided that the individual would labor for his sponsor for a given amount of time. At the time of the Africans’ arrival, indentured servants had begun planting and harvesting the labor intensive crop of tobacco that John Rolfe, a widowed English colonist who married Pocahontas, had introduced to the Jamestown settlement. The Africans arrived in

August when the tobacco season was in the harvesting phase, and they worked with indentured servants at the harvest. Records indicate that initially, Africans could earn their freedom like indentured servants after working for a certain amount of time (Price 2003). In 1640, a runaway indentured servant became the first documented slave for life, and by 1670, a law was in place that forbade Blacks from owning indentured servants, as they once were allowed to do (National

Park Service 2008). The implications of the arrival of slaves are numerous, and should be examined in detail in an additional or subsequent unit, as they are not studied in the current one.

Men, Women, Youth, and Children

Pocahontas had a singular role in Powhatan society higher in status than other women.

She was the daughter of a chief, especially the most prominent one of the tribe. It should be noted, however, that women did hold prominent positions in Powhatan society. Women both owned and built the yehakins, or longhouses, that were the common dwellings in a Powhatan village. These houses were made by erecting a frame made from saplings, then covering the

9 frame with mats made of plant fibers and reeds. The typical life of a female in Powhatan society involved planting and harvesting crops that were mainstays of their diet, including corn, beans, and squash, known as “The Three Sisters.” Women prepared meals, made pottery used for cooking, weaved mats and clothes from plant material, and also sewed clothing from the deerskins men brought back from hunting (Sjonger & Kalman 2005). John Smith noted that the women “love children verie dearly” and were “verie painfull and the men often idle” (Smith

1612). The coming of the English settlers undoubtedly affected Powhatan women largely, as the men had brought no English women with them to the settlement. Having had no contact with women for many months, Smith’s account of an evening spent eating and singing with a

Powhatan tribe “chastely ends” after the men were shown to their sleeping quarters: Chiefs customarily provided guests with bedmates, and it is assumed that the women also took this role with the English (Price 2003, 93). Over time, Native American women formed family unions with English settlers, the first of which was the wedding of John Rolfe and Pocahontas.

While woman prepared food and clothing acquired from hunting, it was the men who did the actual hunting and fishing. They also made canoes by cutting down one of the many abundant trees, sawing a log from the trunk, and hollowing a space in the log by either burning or cutting it. Fish were caught with spears made of animal bones or traps and nets made from plants. Children learned the skills they would need to be a productive adult at an early age. As soon as they could walk, children were expected to follow and keep up with their parents. They were exposed to rather than sheltered from difficulties which would make them stronger, such as being bathed in cold water. Their toys were models of the tools they would use as adults, and they began learning roles from their parents as they mimicked their behavior. Girls, for example, helped build houses, plant, and cook. They usually married and had their own families at the age

10 of thirteen. Boys watched their fathers hunt and make tools, and were encouraged to make their own hunting tools and gain practice shooting animals. Boys were made into men by the huskanaw ceremony, which isolated them from the village and subjected them to physical trials in order to prove themselves as men capable of making sure their tribe would survive for many generations (Kahlman & Sjonger 2005).

Powhatan society was matriarchal in that the title of chief, or werowance was passed in a matrilineal fashion from the werowance’s mother’s oldest son to the youngest. If there were no sons, the title went from the werowance’s mother’s oldest daughter to the youngest. Women could also be chiefs, and were called weronsquas. The chiefs were very wealthy, and acquired this wealth from tributes that tribesmen and women paid them. As a sign of their status, chiefs wore decorated robes and elaborate jewelry. Priests known as quiyoucosucks were the next in status after the werowances and were advisers to these chiefs. They were believed to have the power to control the weather, cure the sick, and converse with the most powerful god in the

Powhatan religion known as Okewas. (McDaniel 1996).

Closing and Legacy

As those of European descent continued to interact with Native Americans, the desires of the new colonists and the expanse of the nation directed both the course of interactions with the

Native Americans and the policies for governing them. As colonists continued to arrive from

England, the mentality was that Virginia offered a vast expanse of land for farming, and the land was the colonists’ for the taking, regardless of whether or not Native Americans were already established on it (Price 2003). Many settlers continued to hold the early European sentiment of superiority over Native Americans. This mentality was evident in actions taken by individuals as well as the federal government to remove Indians from their ancestral lands so that Americans

11 could settle and establish farms. The last major uprising before the American Revolution was

Bacon’s Rebellion of 1675, which aimed to destroy all Native American tribes. Nathaniel Bacon was a wealthy farmer who had settled in the backcountry of Virginia, and unlike Virginia’s governor William Berkeley, Bacon viewed all Native Americans as enemies to be eradicated.

He led an uprising of settlers as well as African American slaves against a friendly Powhatan tribe, the Occaneechees, and killed many. The rebellion had a profound impact on slaves, as

Berkeley and Bacon both recruited slaves for their cause of either fighting or advancing peace among the natives. Each man promised freedom to the slaves who joined his cause (PBS n.d.).

One result of the rebellion was a peace treaty that established a reservation for Chickahominy and Mattaponi tribes near the village of Passaunkack, which was removed from the

Chickahominy’s homeland on the Chickahominy River. During the 1700s, the Chickahominy returned to their ancestral land, and those who remained became the ancestors of who are known today as the Upper Mattaponi. In the 1700s and 1800s, many of the Upper Mattaponi people took the last name Adams, possibly because of the British interpreter James Adams who also lived in the area, and were referred to as the Adamstown Band. The Adamstown Band hunted and farmed like their ancestors. They were given few rights and could found it hard to make a living in the mid 19th century because of the air of racial superiority many Whites had, especially in the time leading up to the Civil War (Prince William Network/Virginia Department of

Education 2005).

In the years following the American Revolution, the federal government gradually began to adopt a policy aimed at integrating Native Americans into the American way of life not just in

Virginia, but throughout the nation as a whole. The General Allotment Act of 1887 made individual Native Americans landholders by distributing land in subdivided tracts, which could

12 not be sold. In this way, Native Americans were deprived of much of their land, as the surplus land that was not distributed to Native Americans could be settled by Whites. Beginning in the

1940s, the government began a policy of terminating tribes and relocating Native Americans to urban areas to expedite the process of Americanizing them (Feest 1990). Many members of the

Adamstown Band of Virginia, which officially changed its name to the Upper Mattaponi in the early 1900s, converted to Christianity. Many other Native American tribes also converted because the United States began jailing spiritual leaders for as many as 30 years, just for practicing rituals. This practice continued until the Freedom of Religion Act was passed in 1973.

Another way of assimilating Native Americans into the White American way of life was through the establishment of Indian boarding schools. These schools forced Native American youths to adopt American culture by forbidding them to speak their native languages at the schools, and used Euro-American standards to educate students. Non-reservation boarding schools also sought to Americanize Native Americans by giving students new uniforms, haircuts, and names, forcing them to renounce those names given to them by their tribe. Students were often given strict punishments and chores to complete at these schools, one of which was the Carlisle School in Carlisle, PA (Wikipedia 2008). In Virginia, the only high school education available for

Native Americans at times was Bacone College in Muskogee, OK (Jamestown-Yorktown

Foundation 2006).

In the 1960s, a resurgence of Native American pride occurred across the country, as well as in Virginia—there were over 1,250 descendants of Powhatan tribes at this time (Feest 1990).

Following the Civil War, only the Pamunkey tribe was recognized by Virginia as American

Indians. In the 1920s, the Mattaponi also gained recognition. The Powhatan Confederacy’s descendants live all across the nation, but are still largely present in Virginia where today several

13 tribes including the Rappahannock and Nansemond are officially recognized. Today, the

Powhatan tribesmen and women hope to share the importance of their heritage with non-Indians.

Powhatan peoples have built museums and art galleries on some reservations. The Pamunkey

Indian Reservation has a pottery school in which women make traditional pots. For a time, some members of the Pamunkey tribe began using modern techniques to make their pots as opposed to traditional coils, but they have since begun using traditional methods again. At these and other

Powhatan reservations, adults and children alike can visit to learn about Powhatan art, spiritual beliefs, and customs (Boraas 2003). The 400th Anniversary of Jamestown resulted in a renewed interest to study Native American history and culture. A conference there in October of 2006 featured speakers including the former president of the National Congress of American Indians, panel discussions, and a tour of the tribal lands of the Chickahominy, Mattaponi, Pamunkey,

Rappahannock, and Upper Mattaponi (Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation 2006).

Understanding the history of the Powhatan and their current daily life is significant for many reasons. The Powhatan were the first people to settle our nation, so it is consequently of essence to understand their past if one is to fully comprehend the history of the United States.

Created in the 1600s, the Pamunkey Reservation is the oldest Native American reservation in

America (Boraas 2003). According to Upper Mattaponi Chief Kenneth Adams, “The first laws concerning Indian tribes originated in Virginia. Those termination and reservation policies went on to affect Indians across America, and are not properly taught as part of Virginia or United

States history” (Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation 2006). The issue of Native American policy has arisen repeatedly throughout history, and continues to be an important question today. The policies delineating the rights, roles in state and local government and fair treatment of Native

14 Americans both in the past and present are complex. To be able to understand such policies, one must understand the people that they affect (Feest 1990).

At present, some Americans (who are not of Native American descent) are culturally biased and sometimes insensitive in their views of Native Americans as the “’noble savages’” or

“’wild Indians’” who were resistant to America’s expansion into the western frontier (Feest

1990, 7). Prejudice toward a cultural or ethnic group is often the result of ignorance or a misunderstanding of that group’s heritage. In order to understand others and to further a sentiment of appreciation for the diversity of others in our children, it is necessary to study the

Powhatan from an unbiased and untainted standpoint. In so doing, we will come to know these people as the unique individuals they were and continue to be today.

15 Resources

APVA Preservation Virginia (n.d.). Historic Jamestowne: History. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www.historicjamestowne.org/history/

Boraas, T. (2003). The Powhatan: A Confederacy of Native American Tribes. Mankato: Bridgestone Books.

Feest, C.F. & Porter, F.W. (1990). The Powhatan Tribes. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation (2006). Virginia Indians Discuss 400 Years of Survival. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www.jamestown2007.org/pdfdocs/400_years_of_survival_FINAL.pdf

Kalman, B. & Sjonger, R. (2005). Life of the Powhatan. Canada: Crabtree Publishing Company.

McDaniel, M. (1996). The Powhatan Indians. Mexico: Chelsea House Publishers.

National Park Service (2008). Historic Jamestowne: African Americans at Jamestown. Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/african- americans-at-jamestown.htm

Nettleton, P.H. (2004). Pocahontas: Peacemaker and Friend to the Colonists. Minneapolis: Picture Window Books.

PBS Online (n.d.). Africans in America: Bacon’s Rebellion. Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p274.html

Price, D.A. (2003). Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books.

Prince William Network/Virginia Department of Education (2005). Virginia’s First People—Past and Present—Virginia Indians Today. Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://virginiaindians.pwnet.org/today/upper_mattaponi.php

Smith, J. (1612) A Map of Virginia, Oxford: Joseph Barnes. Retrieved April 4, 2008, from http://www.vahistorical.org/sva2003/jsdp.htm

Wikipedia (2008). Americanization (Of Native Americans). Retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanization_(of_Native_Americans)#Indian removal

16 Lesson plan preparer: Jenny Huebner

Lesson #1- Villages of the Powhatan

Intended Audience: Students in Mrs. Henning’s 2008-2009 first grade class at D.J. Montague (approximately 20 students of varying abilities) Standards: National Geography Standard 3: The geographically informed person knows and understands how to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments on Earth’s surface. Virginia: 1.4: The student will develop map skills by a) recognizing basic map symbols, including references to land, water, cities, and roads b) using cardinal directions on maps 1.5: The student will construct a map of a familiar area, using basic map symbols in the map legend Materials, time, and space: -Classroom map; transparency of a Powhatan village; materials for student pairs to decorate a longhouse (pre-built longhouses made from 8 1/2” x 11’ paper, brown and green construction paper, scissors, glue, pretzel sticks); real/artificial vegetation; popsicle sticks/twigs; construction paper; labels of North, South, East, and West; pencils; markers; crayons; classroom space for whole-group, then paired instruction; one hour Lesson Description: Anticipatory Set: Gather students at the front of the classroom and explain that today, they will use the cardinal directions used yesterday in Minimeade to help find their way around a Powhatan village of long ago. Behavioral Objectives: 1) Students will decorate longhouses and create a classroom village. They then will draw a map of the classroom village and correctly label the cardinal directions on the map, using them to correctly indicate how to go from one place to another in the village according to teacher-posed scenarios. 2) Students will correctly answer three multiple choice questions related to cardinal directions and the structure of a Powhatan village. Input/modeling: Show a transparency of a Powhatan village (see attached illustration). Use the classroom map to show that these people lived in Jamestown. Show Jamestown relative to Williamsburg. Explain what life was like for the Powhatan in their town over 400 years ago, including what food they ate, and how they found and cooked it. Explain that the Powhatan lived in longhouses, which they called yehakins. Describe how longhouses were built (see background information). Show an example of a longhouse that has already been made and decorated. Tell students they will work with a partner to decorate a longhouse. Call attention to the defining features of a longhouse. After students finish decorating their longhouses, invite the class to set up a Powhatan village. Have students place the buildings appropriately (in a circle, with a fence around them, etc.). Use other materials, such as the palisade (fence) vegetation, and a “lake” to achieve the full effect. Leave the transparency of the Powhatan village on the overhead so the class can see the example village, and construct the class village accordingly. Check for understanding:

17 Observe as pairs decorate their longhouses to ensure accurate construction. Offer assistance or clarification as needed. Construct the village in a central location in the classroom. Place a sign at one end of the village labeled “North.” Call on students to place signs with the other cardinal directions around the village in their appropriate places. Ask individual students specific questions about the village as it related to the Powhatans’ daily lives, such as “What was the lake used for?” Guided Practice: Distribute paper for partners to draw a map of the class village. Draw an example map of the class village on the overhead projector. Write “North” on the top of the map. Instruct students to label their maps with the cardinal directions. Do so on the example map. Pose the directions: 1) Find the northern-most longhouse, or the one closest to the top of the map. 2) Pretend the father of that family is going fishing. Use a green crayon to draw his path from the longhouse to the river. Label the cardinal direction he traveled. Remember, sometimes he might go more than one direction. Independent Practice: Give the following instructions: 1) The father goes to the fire in the center of the village to cook the fish he caught. Draw his path in blue and label the direction. 2) After he cooks the fish, he shares some with his neighbor, who lives directly to the east of him. Draw his path in orange and label the direction. Closure: Call student pairs to the front of the classroom to share maps and routes. Distribute worksheets with multiple choice questions about cardinal directions and Powhatan villages. Read the directions aloud (see attached sheet). Collect when students finish. Evaluation: Formative: Students’ attentiveness during input/modeling, completion of longhouses/participation in construction of class village, performance during guided practice Summative: Paired completion of independent practice, individual performance on multiple choice assessment Background information: Students will analyze the spatial layout of people, places, and environments in the context of the Powhatan, an Algonquin Native American tribe that settled in Virginia, particularly around Jamestown. Student created maps will feature the Powhatans’ dwellings called longhouses (or yehakins) that were made of bent wooden poles. Once the structure of the house was completed, the poles were covered with grass or bark. Animal skins protected the roofs. A longhouse could be home to one or as many as five families, as indicated by the number of chimneys on the longhouse. Fires were built in the longhouses if the weather was cold. Palisades, or high fences, surrounded longhouse villages to keep out enemies. The Powhatan depended on water to a great extent for fishing and transportation (since there were no roads), so they built villages close to a source of water. Typically, men hunted and fished, while women planted staple crops of corn, beans, and squash. Children helped with chores around their home. The basic symbols in the map legend will feature the longhouses, palisades, water, and crops of the Powhatan. A legend illustrates what the map symbols represent. Students have a basic knowledge of cardinal directions. Vocabulary:

18 Powhatan, longhouse, yehakin (Powhatan term for “longhouse”), palisade (fences), cardinal directions (taught previously: North, South, East, West).

19 Resources:

Longhouse building activity modified from:

Evan-Moor Publishers (no date). Make a Longhouse. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/longhouseactivity.htm

Sources of information:

Garrett, N. (2004). Algonquian Language Group. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from http://mal.sbo.hampton.k12.va.us/fourth/socstudies/indianwebquest/algon.htm

LoDuca, G. (no date). Village Life. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from http://ab.mec.edu/jamestown/villagelife.html

McDaniel, M. (1996). The Powhatan Indians. Mexico: Chelsea House Publishers.

Scott, M. (no date). History of Virginia. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/History%20Page.htm

20 Cardinal Directions and Powhatan Villages

Look at the map. If you are at the statue of the wolf (number 2), what direction would you go to get to the library (number 7)?

a) North b) East c) South

Which is a picture of a longhouse?

a)

b)

c)

21 The fences around the Powhatan longhouses were called

a) palisades b) tomahawks c) moccasins

22 Powhatan Village

Source: http://northernblue.ca/canata/1_beginnings/1Bfirsteast.php

23 Make a Longhouse

Materials:

. 12" x 12" brown construction paper . 1 1/2" green construction paper strips . twigs and grasses . shoe box (for a base) . scissors, stapler, glue, tape . brown tempra paint

Directions:

1. Paint the shoebox brown. 2. Cut your piece of brown construction paper so that it matches the length of the shoebox. 3. Cut slits lengthwise in the brown paper 1 1/2" apart, leaving a 1" section uncut at each end. 4. Weave the green paper strips in and out through the slits in the brown paper. Secure each strip at the end with tape or paste. 5. Weave small twigs and grasses into the woven paper along with the green strips. Slip the sides of the woven paper inside the box. Glue in place. 6. Glue twigs to the outside of the shoebox. 7. Students may choose to add further detail to their longhouse. Be creative! 8. Create an Indian Village and display.

Source: http://scott.k12.va.us/martha2/longhouseactivity.htm

24

An example of what a student’s longhouse village map and the routes taken within it might look like

An example of the paper longhouse to be given to each student pair for decoration and placement in the class’s longhouse village

25 Lesson prepared by: Jenny Huebner

Lesson #2—The English and Powhatan Pocahontas

Intended Audience: Students in Mrs. Henning’s 2008-2009 first grade class at D.J. Montague (approximately 20 students of varying abilities) Standards: National Social Studies Standards—Time, Continuity, and Change a): Demonstrate an understanding that different people may describe the same event or situation in diverse ways, citing reasons for the differences in views The National History Standards: History for Grades K-4—Historical Comprehension G: Draw upon the visual data presented in photographs, paintings, cartoons, and architectural drawings Materials, time, and space: -It’s Me! by Eric Drachman, images of two Pocahontas paintings (see attached images), materials for self-portraits (construction paper, crayons, markers), classroom space for whole- group instruction/individual lesson activity, one hour Objectives: 1) After listening to a story about a girl playing dress-up, hearing about Pocahontas’s life, and seeing representations of Pocahontas in English and Native American attire, students will give examples of how her clothing differs among the two portraits, and infer reasons for the differences. 2) Students will create three self-portraits depicting different types of clothing they wear and write a sentence describing when they wear each type of clothing. Lesson Description: Introduction Gather students at the front of the classroom. Introduce the story It’s Me! Tell students they will hear about a girl who likes to dress up. After reading the story, emphasize that Patricia likes to dress up in different clothes, but is still the same person when she wears new outfits. Relate the story to previously lessons about the Powhatan by noting that Patricia could have chosen to be a Powhatan girl. Describe the differences between the Powhatans’ clothing and what we wear today (see background information). Display the picture, or portrait, of Pocahontas wearing Native American clothing. Explain that she was called an Indian princess. Give a brief history of her life, displaying the English portrait when describing her journey to England (see background information). Use the class map to show England relative to Jamestown and Williamsburg. Content Focus Key Questions: Objective: What kind of clothing is Pocahontas wearing in the first painting? What colors do you see? What do you notice about her hair? What is on her head? Where was she when this was painted? What kind of clothes is Pocahontas wearing in the second painting? How are her clothes different from the first painting? Would you expect to see people dressed in either of these outfits now? Why? Reflective: Have you ever worn clothes that are very different from each other? When? Do you have favorite clothes that you like to wear? What do they look like? How do you feel wearing them? Do you have clothes you do not like to wear? Why don’t you like wearing them? Interpretive: Why did Pocahontas wore such different clothes? How does she look in the painting wearing Powhatan clothes? In the one with English

26 clothes? Which clothes do you think she preferred? Why? Do you think Pocahontas acted the same way when she wore each kind of clothes? As students make observations about the two styles of clothing, mention the characteristics of Powhatan and English dress in the 17th century (see background information). Explain that people living in different countries do not dress the way we do, but though Pocahontas looked very different in her clothes, she was still the same person. Give an example, such as, “I am still Miss Huebner, whether I wear my teacher clothes or my pajamas.” Explain that students will create a “Many Portraits of (student name)” book. They will draw three self-portraits, or pictures of themselves, wearing different clothes. They will write a sentence telling when they wear each kind of clothing under their portraits. Have students begin work on their portraits, which will continue throughout the week. Closing Ask students what they learned about the two kinds of clothing Pocahontas wore and why she wore them. Have individual students share the kinds of outfits they drew in their self-portraits. Give students three multiple choice questions to answer about the lesson. Evaluation: Formative: Student participation during discussion of Pocahontas’s clothes Summative: Student created books, performance on multiple choice assessment Background information Pocahontas, named “Matoaka,” was born around 1596 to Chief Powhatan, leader of the Powhatan tribes in Jamestown. “Pocahontas” has been defined as “little capricious one” and “spoiled child.” She befriended Captain John Smith when English settlers arrived in Jamestown in 1607, often brought food to Smith and his men, and is called a peacekeeper among her people and the English. Tensions still arose between the Powhatan and the English. Pocahontas’s friendship with John Smith resulted in a story of her intervening as her father tried to kill him. This story is unlikely, as there is no record of it. At age 17, Pocahontas was kidnapped aboard an English ship. The colonists demanded food and guns as ransom. A widowed colonist John Rolfe fell in love with Pocahontas and took her to England to marry her. She was baptized “Rebecca” and had a son Thomas. John decided to go back to Virginia, but Pocahontas died of pneumonia before the voyage at age 22. Richard Norris Brooke was born in 1847 in Warrenton, VA and died there in 1920. He attended and taught at the Virginia Military Institute. His favorite subjects to paint were African Americans and landscapes. Thomas Scully, a contemporary of Brooke, was also an American painter. His works included “Washington Crossing the Delaware,” and a portrait of Patrick Henry. Powhatan wore little clothes in Jamestown’s warm climate. Girls wore nothing until adolescence; men wore loincloths. Powhatan rubbed oil and paint on themselves for warmth in the winter. The rich wore feather robes and leather robes decorated with beads. One’s amount of jewelry indicated his/her status, or importance. Girls wore hair short on the sides and long in the back, married women had short hair, and unmarried women wore a long braid. In 17th century England, women wore large hoops under the soft fabrics of their dresses to keep the dresses in place. Corsets made of animal bones flattened women’s waists. Starched lace ruffs were common dress collars. Vocabulary: Pocahontas, portrait, kidnapped, pneumonia, self-portrait, status, corsets, lace ruffs, starched

27 Resources

American Revolution.com (2005). A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the U.S. Constitution. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from http://www.americanrevolution.com/ConstitutionalConvention.htm

Deans, B. (2007). Mad About You. [Electronic version]. TIME, April 26, 2007. Retrieved February 13, 2008, from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1615189,00.html?promoid=googlep

Maginnis, T. (2008). The History of Fashion and Dress. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from http://www.costumes.org/classes/fashiondress/17thCent.htm

McDaniel, M. (1996). The Powhatan Indians. Mexico: Chelsea House Publishers.

Nettleton, P.H. (2004). Pocahontas: Peacemaker and Friend to the Colonists. Minneapolis: Picture Window Books.

Scripps Newspaper Group (2007). Memphis Memories. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2007/nov/10/mid-south-memories-all- american/

Smithsonian American Art Museum (no date). Richard Norris Brooke. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?ID=592

The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (2000). Pocahontas. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from http://apva.org/history/pocahont.html

Thomas, P.W. (2008). Early Corsetry: Fashion History. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from http://www.fashion-era.com/early_corsetry.htm

28

Richard Norris Brooke (American and Virginian), "Pocahontas," oil on canvas, c. 1905.

Taken from: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/POCA/POC_art.html

29

Thomas Scully (American), "Pocahontas," oil on canvas, 36 x 28 in., c. 1852.

Modified from: http://www.smithsoniansource.org/display/primarysource/viewdetails.aspx?PrimarySourceId=11 66

30 Pocahontas the Indian Princess

Read the questions about Pocahontas. Circle the right answer.

1) What is a portrait?

a) a picture of someone

b) a boat

c)

2) Remember the two paintings of Pocahontas from our lesson? Circle the one that shows her wearing a laced ruff. Draw an arrow pointing to the laced ruff.

31

3) Pocahontas was seen as a Native American Princess in which country? a) England b) France c) Spain

32 Lesson prepared by: Jenny Huebner

Lesson #3—The Many Escapes of John Smith

Intended Audience: A 4th grade, heterogeneous class in Virginia of approximately 20 students Standards: National Social Studies Standards—Time, Continuity, and Change a): Demonstrate an understanding that different people may describe the same event or situation in diverse ways, citing reasons for the differences in views The National History Standards: History for Grades K-4—Historical Comprehension E: Draw upon data in historical maps Historical Issues—Analysis and Decision Making B: Compare the interests and values of the various people involved. Virginia: VS1: The student will develop skills for historical and geographical analysis including the ability to a) identify and interpret artifacts and primary and secondary source documents to understand events in history; d) draw conclusions and make generalizations; g) interpret ideas and events from different historical perspectives VS2: The student will demonstrate knowledge of the first permanent settlement in America by a) explaining the reasons for English colonization; f) describing the hardships faced by settlers at Jamestown and the changes that took place to ensure survival; g) describing the interactions between the English settlers and the Powhatan people, including the contributions to the survival of the settlers Materials, time, and space: Parent volunteer to dress as and recount a biography of John Smith, class map of Virginia, class map of the world (or Europe), transcriptions of John Smith’s journal entries, images of objects related to John Smith’s exchanges with the Powhatan (beads, copper buttons), images of John Smith’s maps of Virginia and New England, space for whole-group instruction, paper, markers and/or crayons, one hour Objectives: After listening to a detailed description of John Smith’s life and viewing artifacts and primary sources associated with his predisposition for adventure, students will: 1) Identify ways in which John Smith successfully led the Jamestown colonists 2) Articulate how John Smith’s early life experiences prepared him to be a good leader 3) Use information from the narrative to complete a biocube activity online 4) Create a poster attracting people to a particular place they find appealing Lesson Description: Introduction Have a male parent or other volunteer enter the classroom dressed as John Smith (if there is not a volunteer for this role, the teacher may be John Smith) wearing an outfit typical of a 17th century English captain. Have a non-firing musket too, if possible. Introduce the class to John Smith, and explain that he has come to tell the class about his life and experiences in the military and as one of the main figures in the founding and early governing of Jamestown. Content Focus Have the person acting as John Smith give a detailed account of his life, first noting where his birthplace is in England, and what was happening there in 1580 when Smith was born. Emphasize how throughout Smith’s life, he was escaping dangerous situations and looking for

33 new adventures—as a teenager, he escaped his occupation as an apprentice by going to France and Austria to fight as a soldier, he escaped from being captured and sold into slavery in the Holy Roman Empire to go back home to England, he went to Jamestown to explore the land there and escaped many scuffles with the Powhatan Indians (most notably one involving Pocahontas), while in Jamestown, he made two trips to look for a passage to the Orient, and he was eager to travel to New England twice because of the possibilities it offered in terms of natural resources. On his voyages there, he also escaped capture aboard a pirate ship. As his life’s events are recounted, point out the locations of Smith’s adventures on the appropriate map. Show images of the goods Smith traded with the Indians as well as his journal entries and map of Virginia when beginning to mention his role in the establishment and success of Jamestown. Explain that the documents are primary sources because they were written or drawn by John Smith himself (explain how in the case of the journal entries, they have been transcribed, or copied into another format since photos of the actual documents could not be accessed online). Closing Following the narration, ask students if they have any further questions they would like to ask John Smith. Ask students to think about why he made maps of Virginia and New England— what did he hope to accomplish by showing them to so many people in England (getting people interested in going there/journeying back himself to make use of the natural resources there)? Distribute a biocube worksheet to each student and explain the activity that they will complete online (http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/) for which the worksheet will serve as a guide. If there is not enough time/computer availability for all students to complete the activity in the present class period, it may be extended into the next day’s lesson. As an extension for those who finish the biocube activity early, tell students to think of a place that is important to them. Why do they like going to this particular place? Distribute 8 ½” x 11” paper to students and instruct them to design a poster that would encourage people to come to the place they chose. Tell them to be sure to include features on their poster that make it obvious why people should want to come to this place. Model a sample poster that has been created. After the biocube worksheets, online activities, and possibly posters, have been completed, distribute the lesson assessment. Evaluation: Formative: Student attentiveness to narrative and posing of additional questions during lesson Summative: Quality of biocube worksheet, completion of online activity, quality of posters and responses on assessment Background information: See transcript of narration Vocabulary: Catholic, Protestant, Holy Roman Empire, Virginia Company, Orient, natural resources, artifacts, primary sources.

34 Transcript of John Smith’s narration

Hello, my name is John Smith, and I am glad to be here today. I was born in 1580 in Willoughby, England. At the time, England was flourishing—Queen Elizabeth ruled, Sir Francis Drake had just returned from a ship voyage around the world, and the great playwright William Shakespeare was a teenager and would be writing great works very soon. My parents were farmers, making me slightly above a peasant in status. I went to two schools in England when I was 6-15 years old, then I became an apprentice for a merchant doing bookkeeping work, which I hated. My father died in 1596, and after I sold the land and cattle he left me, I set of to see the world the following year. I had always wanted to be in the army, and I went to the Netherlands from 1597-1599 from the time I was 16 to when I was 19 to fight for the Dutch’s independence from Spain. The Dutch were Protestants and the Spanish were Catholic, which is one reason why the Dutch wanted their freedom. Next, I went to France and was on my way to Scotland to get a job in the royal court there when I was shipwrecked on the way. I didn’t get a job in Scotland, so I went back to England in 1600 and lived in the country to improve my skills as a soldier. The Turks were planning to take over the whole continent of Europe, and I wasn’t about to let that happen! I wanted to join the Austrian army and help fight against the Turks. On the way there, four men stole everything I had, so I had to sell my winter coat to get money for passage on a ship to France where I would join the army. Many of the people on the ship were Catholic and I had fought on the Protestant side in the war against Spain, so they threw mw overboard. Luckily, another French ship took me aboard. They were headed to Italy, and on the way, we met an Italian ship that fired on us so some sailors and I went aboard the ship and looted it for revenge. When we got to France, I was very rich. Next, I went to Italy when I was 21, and then the Holy Roman Empire (which is about where Germany is today) to fight. I taught my general how to send messages to the townspeople, and I invented a weapon called a “fiery dragon” that was a pot filled with explosives that we catapulted at the Turks. I was promoted to a captain in was in charge of 250 soldiers. Later, I wasn’t so lucky when enemy soldiers captured me and my men. Many were killed, but I was sold into slavery, and eventually wound up with a vicious master who beat and bound me. After killing him, I made it to Russia by horse, and boarded a French ship. From there, I went back home to England. When I made it back to England, a stock company called the Virginia Company was planning a voyage to Virginia, where earlier colonies had failed. They were looking for gold, and I was eager for an adventure, so I volunteered to go with 105 colonists and 39 crew members in 1606. Many of the men were gentlemen, or of high status, and I fought with Edward Maria Wingfield in particular. He was jealous of all my military expertise, and accused me of planning to take over as leader of the voyage. I was imprisoned when we stopped at an island in Central America. We made it to Virginia in April of 1607, and we saw some Indians there who wounded two of our men, but ran off when they were out of arrows. The Spanish had been exploring in North America before we got there, and had been cruel to the Indians. My view was to treat them kindly unless they gave us a reason not to do so. The Virginia Company even told us to treat the Indians with respect. Before we left, the Virginia Company also had put the names of people they wanted to lead Jamestown in a box. I was one of them, but I was still imprisoned. After 13 weeks, I was allowed to come ashore and work, but not to be a leader. My enemy Wingfield was the president of Jamestown. He decided not to let the Indians see our weapons,

35 which I thought was a mistake, because they would think we were weak and defenseless if we did not show our muskets. Sure enough, the Indians wounded many of our men. The gentlemen colonists thought working was beneath them, so they wasted time that could have been spent looking for or planting food, so many had died by the beginning of the summer. One of the goals of the Virginia Company was to find a passage across America to the Orient, where Asia is located, so I set out to look for that passage in December of 1607. On the way up the Chickahominy River, it became too shallow for our boat, so I told my men to stay put while two men and I went to look for food. They didn’t listen, and a group of Pamunkey Indians captured and killed one of them men. I was shot in the thigh with an arrow and fell into a creek, so I let myself be captured. To buy time and avoid being killed, I showed the chief Opechanacough my compass and used what little I knew of the tribe’s language to talk about how the earth was round. I was used to being in foreign territory as a soldier, so I knew how important it was to learn the languages of others to be able to talk to them! I didn’t know what would happen to me next. A few days later, I was taken to Chief Powhatan, who ruled 32 Powhatan tribes. He asked why my men were here, and I made up a story about encountering the Spanish, who were also exploring in America, and needing to recover damaged ships before we left. I tried to show off the English’s strength by telling Chief Powhatan we were on our way to seek revenge for the murder of one of our men that the Monacans, one of Powhatan’s enemies, had killed (this story was a lie, too). Powhatan was also a big talker, and tried to intimidate me with stories of how powerful his tribe was. The next day, it became clear that Powhatan had chosen not to believe my stories, and had decided to kill me. Just as tribesmen were about to club me, Powhatan’s youngest daughter put her head between mine and the clubs and saved my life. Some people don’t believe this story and think that the Powhatan put me through this experience as an adoption ceremony; however, historical accounts do not mention the use of clubs, so some scholars believe that Pocahontas really did save me. Powhatan declared me a friend, and sent me back to Jamestown with food, asking for some cannons in return. I knew if we gave up some cannons, the Powhatan would pose a threat to us, so I tricked Powhatan’s men by telling them they could have a cannon that weighed 300 pounds and was too heavy for them to carry. When I returned to Jamestown, I found that only 40 colonists were left because the gentlemen still were not working, and Wingfield was keeping all the food for himself. He was fired, but his replacement, John Radcliffe, was not much better. The colonists wanted to go back to England and I stopped them, which made them decide to have me killed. As I was about to be hanged, Christopher Newport arrived from England with more colonists and orders from the Virginia Company to send back gold. While the gentlemen of the colony searched for gold, I led an expedition to explore the Chesapeake Bay. I met some Nansemonds who ambushed us after they had promised to trade with us, and because we were desperate for food, my men and I burned their canoes, which had taken them a very long time to make. Afterwards, they agreed to give us 400 bushels of corn and promised to set aside one of their cornfields to grow corn just for us—my plan worked! In 1609, I became the president of Jamestown, but had to go back to England after I got injured when I fell asleep with a bag of gunpowder in my lap and it accidentally exploded. I had made maps of Virginia during my explorations of the land, and I was eager to go further north to see what lay there in terms of natural resources. In 1614, I went to New England looking for gold, copper, and whales. The whales were too hard to catch, and there was no gold or copper, but I found rich forests and furs there instead. I made detailed maps of the area to

36 show all of the wonderful resources there in the hopes that England would send me and others back there. My second voyage to New England in 1615 was delayed in leaving England because of a storm. We also encountered pirate ships three times! Then, a French ship captured us, and when they finally agreed to let us go free, I went on their ship to get back the supplies they had taken from my men’s ship. My crew was tired of dealing with bad weather and pirates, so while I was on the French ship, they lied and said they couldn’t send a lifeboat over to have me come back to my ship, so I was stranded! While on board, I wrote A Description of New England. The French continued to raid other ships and made me promise not to tell anyone about the acts of piracy they were committing to keep them put of trouble. I didn’t like this arrangement one bit, so I snuck off the ship in a lifeboat using nothing but a spear to row to a small island. After I escaped, a storm shipwrecked the French ship, and the crew drowned—it was a good thing I left when I did! I made it back to England, and although I never went back to New England as I had hoped (because the London Council said such a trip would be too expensive), I had gotten people interested in going there. The Pilgrims even took my maps with them when they sailed to Plymouth, Massachusetts on the Mayflower. So, in a way, my mission of settling New England and spreading the word about my discoveries in Virginia was accomplished.

Biocube Worksheet

37

Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/bio- cube_planning.pdf

38

Example of student poster as a possible extension activity

39 Resources

NCTE (2006). Bio-Cube. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from http://www.readwritethink.org/materials/bio_cube/

Price, D.A. (2003). Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books.

Schanzer, R. (2006). John Smith Escapes Again! Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Stanley, M. Z. (2000). John Smith. Glen Allen: Foxhound Publishing, LLC.

40 Assessment

Write 2-3 complete sentences to answer each question.

1) How did John Smith’s experiences in foreign countries prepare him to be a leader of the Jamestown colony? Hint: How did he communicate with the native people in France, Turkey, Italy, and then in Jamestown?

2) Why did John Smith decide it was important to make sure the Powhatan tribes saw the colonists’ weapons?

3) Do you think it was a good idea for John Smith to be so strict with the colonists by telling them that if they didn’t work, they wouldn’t eat? Why?

41 4) What is one thing John Smith traded with the Powhatan in return for food?

a) Copper b) Glass c) Hats d) Guns

5) Which of the following is not a natural resource John Smith wrote about finding in New England?

a) Whales b) Furs c) Corn d) Wood

42

Example of a John Smith costume

Picture retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.jamestownball.com/

Image of beads recovered from Jamestown that the Powhatan used for adornment, which likely came from Venice. It is possible that beads such as these were acquired through trading with the English settlers.

Image retrieved March 28, 2008, from: http://www.apva.org/exhibit/bead.html

43

Copper buttons, resembling those which the Powhatan would have sought from the English in exchange for food

Image taken from: http://www.vintagebuttonjewelry.com/images/btn_metals_sm.jpg

44 John Smith’s map of the Chesapeake Bay, showing Native American tribes and natural resources

John Smith (ca. 1580-1631). Virginia, Discovered and Discribed by Captayn John Smith, Sixth state. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm148.html

John Smith’s map of New England, which also shows natural resources

Map published in: Smith, John (1616). A Description of New England. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:John_Smith_1616_New_England_ma p.PNG

Examples of John Smith’s writings from his journal to present to students

45 The Accidents that hap’ned in the Discovery of the Bay of Chisapeack

The second of June 1608. Smith left the Fort to performe his Discovery with this Company.

Walter Russell, Doctor of Physicke.

Gentlemen. Ralfe Murton. Thomas Momford. William Cantrill. Richard Fetherston. James Burne. Michell Sicklemore.

Souldiers. Jonas Profit. Anas Todkill. Robert Small. James Watkins. John Powell. James Read. Richard Keale.

[THE MEN IMPORE SMITH TO TURN BACK, SMITH MAKES IMPASSIONED SPEECH]

When we first set sayle some of our Gallants doubted nothing but that our Captaine would make too much hast home, but having lien in this small barge not above 12. or 14. dayes, oft tyred at the Oares, our bread spoyled with wet so much that it was rotten (yet so good were their stomacks that they could disgest it) they did with continuall complaints so importune him now to returne, as caused him bespeake them in this manner.

Smiths speech to his souldiers: Gentlemen if you would remember the memorable history of Sir Ralph Layne, how his company importuned him to proceed in the discovery of Moratico, alleadging they had yet a dog, that being boyled with Saxafras leaves, would richly feede them in their returnes; then what a shame would it be for you (that have bin so suspitious of my tendernesse) to force me returne, with so much provision as we have, and scarce able to say where we have beene, nor yet heard of that we were sent to seeke? You cannot say but I have shared with you in the worst which is past; and for what is to come, of lodging, dyet, or whatsoever, I am contented you allot the worst part to my selfe. As for your feares that I will lose my selfe in these unknowne large waters, or be swallowed up in some stormie gust; abandon these childish feares, for worse then is past is not likely to happen: and there is as much danger to returne as to proceede. Regaine therefore your old spirits for returne I will not (if God please) till I have seene the Massawomeks, found Patawomek, or the head of this water you conceit to be endlesse.

[EXPLORATION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER]

Two or 3. dayes we expected winde & wether, whose adverse extremities added such discouragement, that three or foure fell sicke, whose pittifull complaints caused us to returne, leaving the bay some nine miles broad, at nine and ten fadome water.

Ambuscadoes of Salvages.

46 The 16. of June we fell with the river Patowomek (Potomac): feare being gone, and our men recovered, we were all content to take some paines, to know the name of that seven mile broad river: for thirtie myles sayle, we could see no inhabitants: then we were conducted by two Savages up a little bayed creeke, towards Onawmanient, where all the woods were layd with ambuscado's to the number of three or foure thousand Salvages, so strangely paynted, grimed and disguised, shouting, yelling and crying as so many spirits from hell could not have shewed more terrible. Many bravado's they made, but to appease their fury, our Captaine prepared with as seeming a willingnesse (as they) to incounter them. But the grazing of our bullets upon the water (many being shot on purpose they might see them) with the Ecco of the woods so amazed them, as downe went their bowes and arrowes; (and exchanging hostage) James Watkins was sent six myles up the woods to their Kings habitation. We were kindly used of those Salvages, of whom we understood, they were commanded to betray us, by the direction of Powhatan, and he so directed from the discontents at James towne, because our Captaine did cause them stay in their country against their wills.

[HIKING OVERLAND TO A “MINERAL MINE” ON THE POTOMAC RIVER]

A trecherous project.

The like incounters we found at Patowomek, Cecocawonee and divers other places: but at Moyaones, Nacotchtant and Toags the people did their best to content us. Having gone so high as we could with the bote, we met divers Salvages in Canowes, well loaden with the flesh of Beares, Deere and other beasts, whereof we had part, here we found mighty Rocks, growing in some places above the grownd as high as the shrubby trees, and divers other solid quarries of divers tinctures: and divers places where the waters had falne from the high mountaines they had left a tinctured sprangled skurfe, that made many bare places seeme as guilded. Digging the grownde above in the highest clifts of rocks, we saw it was a claie sand so mingled with yeallow spangles as if it had beene halfe pin-dust. In our returne inquiring still for this Matchqueon, the king of Patawomeke gave us guides to conduct us up a little river called Quiyough, up which we rowed so high as we could. Leaving the bote, with six shot, and divers Salvages, he marched seven or eight myle before they came to the mine: leading his hostages in a small chaine they were to have for their paines, being proud so richly to be adorned. The mine is a great Rocky mountaine like Antimony; wherein they digged a great hole with shells & hatchets: and hard by it, runneth a fayre brooke of Christal-like water, where they wash away the drosse and keepe the remainder, which they put in little baggs and sell it all over the country to paint there bodyes, faces, or Idols; which makes them looke like Blackmores dusted over with silver. With so much as we could carry we returned to our bote, kindly requiting this kinde king and all his kinde people.

[SMITH’S ACCOUNT OF THE BAY’S NATURAL RESOURCES]

The cause of this discovery was to search this mine, of which Newport did assure us that those small baggs (we had given him) in England he had tryed to hold halfe silver;

47 but all we got proved of no value: also to search what furrs, the best whereof is at Cuscarawaoke, where is made so much Rawranoke or white beads that occasion as much dissention among the Salvages, as gold and silver amongst Christians; and what other mineralls, rivers, rocks, nations, woods, fishings, fruites, victuall, and what other commodities the land afforded: and whether the bay were endlesse or how farre it extended: of mines we were all ignorant, but a few Bevers, Otters, Beares, Martins and minkes we found, and in divers places that aboundance of fish, lying so thicke with their heads above the water, as for want of nets (our barge driving amongst them) we attempted to catch them with a frying pan: but we found it a bad instrument to catch fish with: neither better fish, more plenty, nor more variety for smal fish, had any of us ever seene in any place so swimming in the water, but they are not to be caught with frying pans: some small codd also we did see swim close by the shore by Smiths Iles, and some as high as Riccards Clifts (Calvert Cliffs). And some we have found dead upon the shore.

[RELATIONS WITH THE NATIVES]

How to deale with the Salvages.

To express all our quarrels, trecheries and encounters amongst those Salvages I should be too tedious: but in breefe, at all times we so incountred them, and curbed their insolencies, that they concluded with presents to purchase peace; yet we lost not a man: at our first meeting our Captaine ever observed this order to demand their bowes and arrowes, swordes, mantells and furrs, with some childe or two for hostage, whereby we could quickly perceive, when they intended any villany.

[THE COLONISTS RETURN TO JAMESTOWN TO COMPLETE VOYAGE #1]

The Salvages affrighted with their owne suspition. Having neither Chirurgian, nor Chirurgery, but that preservative oyle we presently set sayles for James towne, passing the mouthes of the rivers of Payankatank (Piankatank), & Pamaunkee (Pamunkey), the next day we safely arrived at Kecougtan. The simple Salvages seeing our Captaine hurt, and an other bloudy by breaking his shinne, our numbers of bowes, arrowes, swords, mantles, and furrs, would needes imagine we had beene at warres (the truth of these accidents would not satisfie them) but impatiently importuned us to know with whom. Finding their aptnesse to beleeve we fayled not (as a great secret) to tell them any thing that might affright them, what spoyle we had got and made of the Massawomeks. This rumor went faster up the river then our Barge, that arrived at Waraskoyack the 20 of July; where trimming her with painted streamers, and such devises as we could, we made them at James towne jealous of a Spanish Frigot, where we all God be thanked safely arrived the 21 of July. There we found the last Supply were all sicke, the rest some lame, some bruised, all unable to doe any thing but complaine of the pride and unreasonable needlesse crueltie of the silly President, that had riotously consumed the store: and to fulfill his follies about building him an unnecessary building for his pleasure in the woods, had brought them all to that misery; that had we not arrived, they had as strangely tormented him with revenge: but the good newes of our Discovery, and the good hope we had by the Salvages

48 relation, that our Bay had stretched into the South Sea, or somewhat neare it, appeased their fury; but conditionally that Ratliffe should be deposed, and that Captaine Smith would take upon him the government, as by course it did belong. Their request being effected, he substituted Mr. Scrivener his deare friend in the Presidency, equally distributing those private provisions the other had ingrossed, appointing more honest officers to assist master Scrivener (who then lay exceeding sicke of a Callenture) and in regard of the weaknesse of the company, and heate of the yeare, they being unable to worke, he left them to live at ease, to recover their healths, but imbarked himselfe to finish his Discovery.

-Written by Walter Russell, Anas Todkill, and Thomas Momford.

Sultana Projects, Inc. (n.d.). John Smith Expeditions: Smith’s First Voyage. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.sultanaprojects.org/johnsmithjournal1.htm

49 Lesson prepared by: Jenny Huebner

Lesson #4—The Use of Native American Names and Symbols in Sports

Intended Audience: A heterogeneous sixth grade class of approximately 24 students Standards: National Standards for Social Studies—I. Culture: b) explain how information and experiences may be interpreted by people from diverse cultural perspectives and frames of reference; d) explain why individuals and groups respond differently to their physical and social environments and/or changes to them on the basis of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs IV. Individual Development and Identity: g) identify and interpret examples of stereotyping, conformity, and altruism; h) work independently and cooperatively to accomplish goals VI. Power, Authority, and Governance: a) examine persistent issues involving the rights, roles, and status of the individual in relation to the general welfare Virginia: Reshaping the Nation and the Emergence of Modern America: 1877 to the Early 1900s—USII.3 The student will demonstrate knowledge of how life changed after the Civil War by b) explaining the reasons for the increase in immigration, growth of cities, new inventions, and challenges arising from this expansion USII.5 The student will demonstrate knowledge of the social, economic, and technological changes of the early twentieth century by b) describing the social changes that took place, including prohibition, and the Great Migration north Materials, time, and space: Powerpoint presentation composed of videos and images of college and national teams using Native American names and mascots, projector and screen, recording sheets for each student, computers with internet access, space for six student groups of approximately four students each to conduct research; one week (composed of daily one-hour sessions for which students can conduct research in the classroom or computer lab and hold discussions in their groups). Objectives: 1) Given a collegiate or national sports team which uses a Native American name and mascot, students will work in one of five groups to describe changes in their assigned team’s name, mascot, and rituals (if any), and identify public opinion from multiple groups arguing for and against the use of the team’s name and mascot. 2) After conducting research, students will share their group’s findings with the class and discuss differences in how the teams portray Native Americans in their mascots, and how policies have impacted certain teams’ mascots over time. 3) Each group will present a decision to the rest of the class with reasons for changing their assigned team’s mascot or allowing it to remain in its present state. Following presentations, students will use information gained from class activities to respond to an essay asking them to devise a national policy for the use of Native American names and mascots in sports teams. The Lesson Proper—Introduction (Day 1): Show the Powerpoint of sports teams using Native American names and mascots to introduce the topic of study. As specific slides are shown, ask students appropriate questions, such as, “Why might someone consider this image/video offensive? Do you think it is? What individuals or groups would be offended? Why?” Responses will likely vary; each should be viewed as important and plausible. Tell students the issue of whether or not Native American names and mascots should be allowed in sports is controversial, or is one that people cannot easily agree on because there has been and continues to be a debate about this issue. State that opinions on the matter vary, and come from

50 many groups of people with different ideas about why the mascots and names should or should not be used. Share that in looking at the internet, the numbers of websites offering articles as well as opinions on this issue was astounding. Emphasize that the internet is a valuable tool that can be used to access these varying perspectives and help students form their own opinions about the use of Native American names and mascots in sports. Content focus: Explain that students will explore the issue of Native American team names and mascots more in depth during the next week. Distribute student record sheets (randomized in terms of the team to be researched), while reading statements against the use of Native American names and mascots taken from three different sources (see student record sheet). Ask students for their impressions of the statements. What could the speakers be using as the basis for their arguments? Do they offer convincing arguments (meaning, do the reasons behind their arguments make sense? Why/why not?)? What could Jon Saraceno be referencing when he says we took Native Americans’ “land, culture, and hope?” Discuss past Native American policies students will have studied previously, such as Andrew Jackson’s removal policy and the imprisonment of tribal spiritual leaders for practicing their rituals in the early 20th century. Define unfamiliar words in the statements, such as trivialized, patently, and mired. Clarify what his figurative language means when it is unclear to students. Note that Charlane Teter’s statement is obviously outdated and her goal of seeing Native American mascots gone by 2000 did not happen. Ask students if they think teams should be forced to change their name and mascot if they reference a Native American tribe. Go through the instructions of the record sheet with the students. As students meet in their groups and conduct research, circulate throughout the room to define terms and offer further assistance as needed. Essential Questions: What reasons have been offered for and against changing the names and mascots of teams using Native American names and symbols? What groups/organizations have offered these reasons? Closing: Reconvene students to share what their group learned about the team they researched. Describe the NCAA’s policy for the removal of “hostile and abusive mascots, nicknames, and imagery.” Ask students to consider reasons for the differences among collegiate mascots and logos—why were the feathers on William and Mary’s logo deemed offensive, while the Florida State Seminoles’ ritual of throwing a flaming spear at games was not? Why did the Atlanta Braves change their mascot from the Brave to Homer the baseball, while the Cleveland Indians still use Chief Wahoo? Discuss the teams’ game rituals, and how they could be considered offensive when viewed in the grand scheme of how people usually behave at sporting events (sometimes painting their stomachs, yelling like maniacs and arguing with other fans and officials) and the kinds of associations people generally make with mascots (funny, entertaining characters that dance, stumble around the field or fight with the other team’s mascots). Tell students that over the next week they will meet in their groups and use the information they found to decide upon a new, less controversial and offensive name and/or mascot for their team, or reasons for leaving the name and mascot the way they are. Depending on how much time students need to meet with their groups, groups will present their team’s proposed new name and mascot, or reasons for leaving them unchanged at the end of the week or sooner. If there is time at the end of the week, students can individually research additional questions or topics that arose during the initial research done in their groups. After each group’s presentation, the class will vote as to whether or not they agree with each group’s decision. Ask students if now, after conducting research and hearing from other groups, they agree with their original opinion about the use of Native American team names and mascots indicated at the beginning of the lesson. If

51 any changed their opinion, what were their reasons? Following presentations, students will write a response to the essay prompt (see assessment). Evaluation: Formative: Students’ participation in conducting group research, completion and accuracy of record sheet, participation in class/group discussion following research Summative: Students’ participation in group presentations to the class, attentiveness while other groups present, individual responses to essay prompt. Background information: The issue of using Native American names, mascots, and images in sports teams has been widely contested and ongoing for quite some time. Many sports teams at the high school, collegiate, and professional levels contain references to Native Americans. These references vary in their degree of offensiveness to Native Americans, and have been addressed rather inconsistently. The Atlanta Braves, for example, used to use a Native American named Chief Nocahoma who danced in a tipi in the stands whenever the team scored a homerun, until the team recently adopted a baseball named Homer as the new mascot. Fans continue to do the signature tomahawk chop during games, however, and Turner field has venues called the “Chophouse” and “Top of the Chop” for hosting events. The Cleveland Indians have continued to use their mascot, Chief Wahoo, which continues to be a sign of blatant disrespect for many local Native Americans. Many Native Americans hold protests outside the Indians’ home games. At the collegiate level, the NCAA adopted a policy in 2005 which banned colleges using “hostile and abusive” images, mascots, or nicknames from hosting an NCAA championship competition, effective February 1, 2006. This policy mandated that The College of William and Mary remove the feathers from its logo and ended the reign of the University of Illinois’ mascot, Chief Illiniwek, while the Florida State University Seminoles were allowed to maintain the practice of their mascot Chief Osceola throwing a flaming spear down the football field at the start of games. Native Americans and non-Native Americans alike have varying opinions on the issue of Native American team names and mascots. Individuals from both groups have expressed indifference, shock and disgust at the disrespectfulness of making light of a people’s heritage, as well as satisfaction that a people’s culture is being honored and respected through the use of Native American references in sports teams. The diverse range of opinions on this issue and varying degrees of specific teams’ references to Native Americans make the study of and implementation of policy regarding this issue very complex. Vocabulary: controversial, trivialize (to make light of something, or consider it unimportant), patently (unmistakably, obviously), mired (stuck in a swamp)

52 Assessment

Imagine you have been given the task of creating a set of guidelines for using Native American names and mascots in national sports teams. Describe your policy in detail, and give reasons for why you chose it (50 pts.). Will your policy affect all sports teams equally (meaning, will all teams either be forbidden from or allowed to use Native American names and mascots? Think about how the NCAA’s policy affected the three colleges we mentioned differently). Include arguments from both Native Americans and non-Native Americans that have been made for and against the use of Native American team names and mascots (30 pts.). Discuss how your policy will affect people on both sides of the argument that we mentioned in class—is there a chance that your policy will disappoint some, while satisfying, offending, or even angering others (10 pts.)? Which individuals or groups would feel these emotions (10 pts.)?

53 Resources:

American Indian Movement (n.d.). National Coalition on Racism in Sports and Media. Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.aimovement.org/ncrsm/index.html

Fisher, M. (2006, May 18). Knock Me Over with a Feather: The Politics of Indian Team Names. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from http://blog.washingtonpost.com/rawfisher/2006/05/knock_me_over_with_a_feath er_t.html

This website would be given to students researching The College of William and Mary. It features an article from the Washington Post that Marc Fisher wrote in May 2006, shortly after the removal of the feathers from William and Mary’s logo took effect. He references the NCAA’s conclusion that the feathers are considered “hostile and abusive,” while sharing his opinion that this decision is foolish. Fisher references members of local Native American tribes who did not find the logo offensive to support his claim, including William Miles who states that the issue is minor relative to other problems his tribe faces, such as poverty and insufficient healthcare. Opinions from visitors to the website have been posted at the bottom of the website to offer multiple opinions from the general public on the issue.

Indian Country Today (2001). AMERICAN INDIAN OPINION LEADERS: American Indian Mascots. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=43

National Collegiate Athletic Association (5 August 2005). NCAA Executive Committee Issues Guidelines for Use of Native American Mascots at Championship Events. Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/legacysiteviewer?C ONTENT_URL=http://www .ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/press_room/2005/august/20050805_exec_com m_rls.html

This article states the NCAA’s policy of banning teams from displaying “hostile and abusive” names, mascots, and images at NCAA championships. Students researching collegiate teams (Florida State University, The College of William and Mary, and the University of Illinois) would be referred to this site, as the policy affected the three teams differently.

O’Connor, J. (26 April 2005). VA. Indians O.K. with W&M Name; Pamunkey Leader Cites More Pressing Issues, Such as Crime, Poverty. Richmond Times-Dispatch. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://forum.dvdtalk.com/showthread.php?t=420132

This source, which would be given to students researching The College of William and Mary, was no longer available on the Richmond-Times Dispatch website, but had been posted on the given blog page. Because the page where it was found contained opinion posts from individuals which used inappropriate language, the article would be copied into a blank document and distributed to students. It was written four months before the NCAA’s policy which ruled that

54 the College had to remove the “hostile and abusive” feathers from its logo. The article states that the William and Mary reviewed its use of the name “Tribe,” and put took the position that the NCAA probably would not require the College to change later in the year. Reasons included that local Native American tribes did not deem it offensive, and that fan behaviors at games do not include offensive mockeries of Native American rituals.

Saraceno, J. (9 August 2005). Some colleges have lot to learn about racism. USA Today. Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/saraceno/2005-08-09-saraceno- mascots_x.htm

The Associated Press (2006). NCAA: William & Mary restricted from using mascot. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2447740

Students researching The College of William and Mary would be given this article, written shortly after the NCAA’s ruling that William and Mary remove the feathers from its logo, and references the NCAA’s statement that the name “Tribe” wasn’t offensive, but the feathers paired with the logo advanced a stereotypical view of Native Americans. The article also includes two statements from a college spokesperson criticizing the NCAA’s decision regarding the logo.

55 Sixth Grade Social Studies Name:______

Native American mascots and logos

There has been an ongoing debate about whether or not sports teams should use Native American names and mascots. The statements below are examples of some of the arguments that have been made for and against using Native American team names, and come from both Native and non-Native Americans. You and your group members will research a sports team and tell what the team’s mascot is. Next, you will look for opinions for and against using your team’s name and mascot like the examples that are shown, and the reasons each person or group gives for his/their opinion. Finally, you will describe how rules have changed your team’s name and mascot in recent years.

“For Native leadership and allies working on the mascot issue, the call nationwide is to work towards the elimination of the misrepresentation and abuses of Indian images, names and spiritual way of life by the year 2000. And the rallying call is, American Indians are a People, Not Mascots for Americas fun and games. We are human beings.”

--Charlane Teters, Spokane tribe

“Haven't Native Americans, one of the most brutalized and exploited groups to inhabit our soil, had enough of Caucasian tormentors? We took their land, culture and hope. Apparently, we must also trivialize their sacred rituals and possess their souls… Oklahoma long ago put an end to its patently racist "Little Red" mascot. Marquette retired its "Willie Wampum" logo. Other visionary schools, including Stanford, Dartmouth and Syracuse, discontinued Indian mascots. FSU remains mired in the mucky swamp of racism.”

--Jon Saraceno, USA Today columnist

"It is my opinion that mascot and other uses of Native American tribe names, terms, etc causes the world to acknowledge and respect us. The use of these Native American names for our weapons systems, mascots, and products brings honor and recognition to Native Americans."

56 --Mark Thornton, Cherokee tribe

See Miss Huebner for a list of websites you can use to research your group’s team. Your team is: *The William and Mary Tribe

Team: The William and Mary Tribe Mascot: None currently

Game rituals (For example, are there special cheers fans say during the game? Does the mascot do something special right before, during the game, or at half- time?)

There is no mascot, so there aren’t any mascot rituals. William and Mary fans cheer just like any other team’s fans, but don’t have any cheers that are just theirs.

Has the team’s name and mascot changed at all over time? Yes

Have game rituals changed over time? Yes

57 If the team name and/or mascot have changed, why did it happen (What person or group said that the name/mascot had to be changed, and what was the reason)?

As of February 1, 2006, William and Mary had to remove the feathers from its logo because of the new NCAA policy that considered them hostile and offensive to Native Americans. The name “Tribe” wasn’t considered offensive, but the feathers paired with the logo was considered a stereotypical reference to Native Americans. The College got a new logo in December of 2007, but is still looking for a new mascot. Until 2005, the College’s unofficial mascot was a green blob in a tri-corner hat named Colonel Ebirt, which is “tribe” spelled backwards.

If game rituals (actions fans and/or the mascot perform during the games) have changed over the years, explain how.

William and Mary used to be called “the Indians.” They had a boy student named “Tribe guy” dress up in buckskin pants and run on the football field with a girl student named the “squaw.” The team name was later changed to “the Tribe” and the two student mascots were discontinued in 1991.

58

Opinions and reasons for using the team Opinions and reasons against using the name/mascot (Try to give at least 3. Don’t forget team name/mascot (Try to give at least 3. Don’t to give the person or organization’s name!) forget to give the person or organization’s name!) Representatives from the College of The NCAA said William and Mary’s use of William and Mary said in a statement that Native American imagery “creates an the name “Tribe” “is designed to environment over which an institution may communicate ennobling sentiments of not have full control.” commitment, shared idealism, community and common cause" The NCAA wrote in a letter to William and Mary’s president that their logo with two A historian for the Mattaponi tribe named feathers is a “stereotypical reference to Gertrude Minnie-Ha-Ha Custalow said “It's Native Americans.” a tribe. We root for those,” and “I've never heard of any other tribes who think it's improper.” An anonymous poster on a discussion board following Marc Fisher’s article in The Washington Post thinks the NCAA William Miles, a member of the Pamunkey made the right decision to make William tribe, said, “I speak for my tribe in saying and Mary drop the feathers from their logo. that there is no perception whatsoever that He said he gets offended when his Florida William and Mary uses the term "Tribe" in State friends dress up as Indians and a negative way. We're worried about perform Indian parodies during games, and poverty, homelessness, health care and the he isn’t even an Indian, so he can imagine like for our people. Not the use of the name how Native Americans would feel. Tribe.”

Questions I have about this team, or other topics I became interested in after our class discussion: What happened to Colonel Ebirt? Was he considered offensive, too? Why are feathers on a logo bad (stereotypical), but Chief Wahoo of the Cleveland Indians is o.k.?

Information based on research to my question: (Responses may vary depending on time for additional research; they may be based on the discovery that national sports teams are private organizations that consequently are not subject to the same rules and regulations that the public universities in the NCAA are.)

59

*Record sheet has been completed using sentence structures, phrasing, etc. characteristic of a sixth grader. Other teams to be researched are the Atlanta Braves, the Cleveland Indians, the Florida State Seminoles, and the University of Illinois Fighting Illini.

Websites for other student groups

The following websites contain histories of specific team names, mascots, game rituals, and/or public opinion on their use and alteration, where relevant.

The Atlanta Braves: http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/atl/ballpark/facility.jsp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Noc-A-Homa http://www.njsbf.com/njsbf/student/respect/winter03-1.cfm

The Cleveland Indians: http://www.sportslogos.net/logo.php?id=738 http://www.cleveland.com/mlb/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/sports/1207400113268140.xml&coll =2 http://www.helium.com/debates/107143-should-baseballs-cleveland-indians/side_by_side

The University of Illinois Illini: http://chiefilliniwek.blogspot.com/ http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096414556 http://www.uillinois.edu/trustees/dialogue/report_files/IV.html

The Florida State Seminoles: http://seminoles.cstv.com/trads/fsu-trads-seminoles.html http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2125735 http://www.bluecorncomics.com/seminole.htm

60 Student activities created by: Jenny Huebner

Artifact 1--Powhatan's mantle

Deerskin, with shell decoration, 235 x 160 cm. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://www.ashmolean.org/collections/?type=highlights&id=39&department=1

Leaders of Powhatan tribes were called werowances (or wereonsquas if they were women). They ate plentiful meals and were paid tributes, or gifts, of copper, corn, and animal skins. Only certain chiefs were allowed to wear copper. Shells were very important as well; they were offered to the gods to appease them, or make them happy. The most powerful leader of the Powhatan tribes was Wahunsanacock, whom the English settlers referred to as Chief Powhatan. Powhatan had inherited and conquered over 20 Powhatan tribes in the early 1600s. He had many robes, including one made of raccoon skin. Powhatan is said to have worn the above mantle, although some say it was for decorative purposes. It and other Powhatan artifacts make up the Tradescant Collection, which was acquired in the early 1600s. The mantle dates to circa 1608. The Tradescants left the mantle to The Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology in Oxford, England. The mantle is said to have come to England through John Smith—historical records indicate that Chief Powhatan gave a raccoon skin mantle to Christopher Newport in exchange for his adornment in new English clothing, so this mantle may have been acquired in a similar fashion.

61 The clothing the Powhatan wore in the warm climate of Jamestown was limited, and included deer and bear skins than men had acquired while hunting, and women had made into clothes. Children wore nothing until they were teenagers. Men wore breechcloths, or rectangular animal skins gathered between the legs and attached to a cord belt. In the winter and when hunting, men also wore deerskin leggings. Women wore plain deerskin skirts or dresses with cord belts like those the men wore. Men and women wore beaded headbands for important ceremonies. Powhatan resisted wearing additional clothing in the winter by applying oil and paint to their bodies for warmth.

62

Primary activity Background Information: The Powhatan wore very little clothing. When it got very cold, they wore fur robes. The rich wore shiny robes made of woven feathers, as well as leather robes decorated with shells or beads. Those high in status, or importance, wore mantles, which were robes with no arms. Powhatan’s mantle is made of deerskin and shells that were attached using thread and a sinew, or a needle made from animal bone. Many are not sure what the animals on the mantle are, but one scholar Gregory Waselkov suggested the animal on the right is a deer, given its big ears and short tail, while the one on the left is a wolf or mountain lion because of its claws and long tail. Whole Group Activity: Explain the differences between the kinds of clothing Powhatan wore based on their gender and their status, or importance. Describe the importance of jewelry (particularly shells and copper) to the wealthy, or rich and important tribesmen and women. Show examples of Powhatan clothing and jewelry. Discuss the colors of the beads, who the woman in the second picture is, what she is wearing, why is she wearing these things, who might be standing next to her, and what do you think he/she is holding in his/her hands. Discuss who the blue beads belonged to and what they were used for. Small Group Activity: Place students in pairs or groups of 3-4. Give each group a blank copy of Powhatan’s mantle and say it is a robe a chief wore. Instruct students to color the robe together as they think it might have looked. After they finish, display the picture of Powhatan’s mantle and explain its history and what the animals on it may be. Individual Activity: Give each student a brown paper grocery bag that has been split up the front and has armholes (resembling a vest) for them to create their own mantle. Distribute beads and/or an assortment of beans (black, kidney, lima, etc.) to students. Encourage them to make pictures and designs on their mantles that are important to them.

Intermediate activity Background Information: The Powhatan wore little clothing. When it was very cold, they wore fur robes. The rich wore shiny robes made of woven feathers, as well as leather robes decorated with shells or beads. Those high in status, or importance, wore mantles, which were robes with no arms. Powhatan’s mantle is made of deerskin and shells that were attached using thread and a sinew, or a needle made from animal bone. Many are not sure what the animals on the mantle are, but one scholar Gregory Waselkov suggested the animal on the right is a deer, given its big ears and short tail, while the one on the left is a wolf or mountain lion because of its claws and long tail. Whole Group Activity: Explain the differences in clothing for various members of the Powhatan tribes. Emphasize how the clothing of the rich and important tribe members contrasted with that of common tribe members. Introduce Chief Powhatan. Display paintings of Powhatan Native Americans, asking who the chief is in the painting and why, how he/she looks different from the other members of the tribe, what students notice about Chief Powhatan in the paintings he is in, what he is wearing, and how his clothes distinguish him from people in his tribe. Small Group Activity: Show the picture of Powhatan’s mantle. Explain how it was made with shells, a sinew, and thread, and its significance given the importance of shells in the Powhatan culture. Explain how people are not sure what the animals on the mantle are. Have students work in pairs or groups of 3-4 to list what the animals on the mantle could be, and reasons Chief Powhatan included these animals. Have students infer what the patterns on the mantle are and their meaning. Individual Activity: Instruct students to make their own mantles using designs and patterns that have meaning to them. Distribute pieces of brown felt or other cloth, needles, thread, and beads/seashells (with holes in them) to each student. Students could use a hot glue gun to affix beads and/or shells to their mantles instead of sewing.

63 Primary Images

Taken from page 63 of:

Bial, R. (2002). The Powhatan. New York: Benchmark Books.

Theodor de Bry (after John White). 1590. “A Cheiff Ladye of Pomeiooc.” Retrieved February 29, 2008, from

64

Image of beads recovered from Jamestown that the Powhatan used for adornment, which likely came from Venice.

Image from: http://www.apva.org/exhibit/bead.html

65

Blank mantle to be used as small group activity, taken from:

She-philosopher.com (2007). Powhatan’s Deerskin Mantle with Shell Map, ca. 1608. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.shephilosopher.com/gallery/powhatan- map.html

66 Intermediate Images

Victor Nehlig (1870). "Pocahontas and John Smith.” Copyright Museum of Art, Brigham Young University, North Campus Dr, Provo, UT 84602-1400. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/khapp.php?Min=59

67

Peter Dennis (n.d.). “Chief Powhatan gave them food: American Indians giving English settlers basket of corn.” (c) Dorling Kindersley. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.dkimages.com/discover/Home/History/North-America/United-States/Colonial- Era/Pocahontas-and-John-Smith/Pocahontas-and-John-Smi- 09.html

68

“Chief Powhatan” (detail of map published by John Smith (1612). Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Powhatan

69

Charles Banse (n.d.). “Chief Powhatan”. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.powhatan.org/chief_powhatan.html

Harriott, Thomas. (1590). A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, with engravings after John White. Published by Theodore de Bry. Frankfurt-am- Main. Courtesy The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.charlescity.org/natives/topic-fishing.php

70

Harriott, Thomas. A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, with engravings after John White. Published by Theodore de Bry. Frankfurt-am- Main, 1590. Courtesy The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, VA. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.charlescity.org/natives/topic-fishing.php

71 Examples of individual student projects

Primary

A vest made from a grocery bag and felt, feathers, and lima beans (front)

The back of the vest

72 Intermediate

A vest made from faux suede and felt, lima beans, and glass beads (front)

The back of the vest

73 74 Primary Assessment

1) Circle the picture that shows what a Powhatan chief would wear around his or her neck.

a) b) c)

2) What was the chief’s name who wore the mantle we saw? a) Sitting Bull b) Powhatan c) Mohawk

3) Circle what Chief Powhatan used to decorate his mantle.

a) b) c)

Beaded necklace image from: http://www.thefurtrapper.com/trade_beads.htm

Collar image from: http://www.leathersmithdesigns.com/personalized-leather-dog-collars.htm

Locket image from: http://www.lindaclifford.com/SaleLocket.html

Coin image from: http://www.dkimages.com/discover/Home/Business/Money/Coins/Coins-04.html

Seashell image from: http://www.seashells.com/assortseashells.htm

Black pearl image from: http://www.alibaba.com/catalog/11157263/Loose_Black_Pearls_Wholesale_From_Lombok_Indonesia.htm l

75 Intermediate Assessment

1) Circle the picture that shows Chief Powhatan.

a) b) c) d)

2) Name one kind of robe Powhatan chiefs or wealthy tribe members wore in the winter.

Feather or leather

3) Name the two animals that some people think Chief Powhatan put on his mantle. What kinds of designs did you choose to put on your mantle, and why?

A deer and a wolf (or mountain lion); answers will vary based on individual mantle designs.

Sitting Bull image from: http://www.sonofthesouth.net/union-generals/sitting-bull.htm

Black Hawk image from: http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Portrait-of-Black-Hawk-Indian-Chief- Posters_i1734119_.htm

Theyebdabegea ("Joseph Brant") image from: http://www.mohawktribe.com/theyebdabegea.htm

76 Resources:

Kalman, B. & Sjonger, R. (2005). Life of the Powhatan. Canada: Crabtree Publishing Company.

McDaniel, M. (1996). The Powhatan Indians. Mexico: Chelsea House Publishers.

Rosinsky, N.M. (2005). We the People: The Powhatan and Their History. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books.

She-philosopher.com (2007). Powhatan’s Deerskin Mantle with Shell Map, ca. 1608. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.shephilosopher.com/gallery/powhatan- map.html

University of Oxford - Ashmolean Museum Design & Technology (2005). Collections: Powhatan’s Mantle. Retrieved February 29, 2008, from http://www.ashmolean.org/collections/?type=highlights&id=39&department=1

77 Activities created by: Jenny Huebner

Artifact 2—Powhatan mortar and pestle for grinding corn

Merchant, C. (photographer, no date). Wooden mortar and pestle for grinding meal. Jamestown settlement, Jamestown. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from http://nature.berkeley.edu/departments/espm/env- hist/espm160/assignments/jamestownall/jamestown_photos.htm

The above mortar and pestle is a replica of the tools Powhatan women used to grind corn in the 1600s. In Powhatan society, women were responsible for all of the planting; the season for which spanned from April-June. The Powhatan had an efficient planting system that ensured the soil was not deprived of vital nutrients: Different plants were planted in each of the village’s fields, and one field always remained unused so that its nutrients could be replenished. Women used a long tool to dig holes in the ground for planting seeds. In addition to planting crops, women were also responsible for fashioning the mortars and pestles used for grinding corn from logs. To make the mortar, they burned and scraped the end of a log, forming a hole that was 10”-14” deep. The pestle was made by scraping a hickory log to the desired smoothness. Corn was ground for flour and hominy with the mortar and pestle, although sometimes women ground corn between stones. Notes:

78 Before the activities for the intermediate and the primary students, plan a field trip to Jamestown so that students can see and touch the actual mortar and pestle shown. If such a trip is not possible, bring one or more small-scale replica(s) of the mortar and pestle into the classroom (one made of bamboo is available from target.com for about $20; other stores or a parent may have one as well) and compare it to an image of the Jamestown version. Show students tangible examples of the different kinds of corn the Powhatan harvested; if the varieties of corn cannot be readily acquired, show the attached images using a document camera or powerpoint. As primary students examine the ingredients in groceries, finish making the corncakes they will have ground the corn to make (see attached recipe). For the intermediate activity, prepare corn for hominy (see attached recipe) up to step 6 prior to introducing the artifact. When students begin their research, finish making it using a hotplate or available kitchen facilities. Variations in class size may necessitate having two groups research the same area of corn production (fuel, foods, and plastics). To ensure that students have reliable sources on hand to conduct research, guide students to the references listed at the end of each explanation if they are able to use the internet. If internet use by all groups is not possible, print out enough copies of the resources to distribute to the student groups.

79 Primary activity Background Information: The Powhatan got much for their food from farming. They mainly ate corn, beans, and squash, known as “the three sisters.” Women planted these crops together. Corn and bean seeds went in the same hole. Squash seeds were put in holes in between those with the corn and bean seeds. The corn’s stalk supported the beans that grew up it. Squash grew along the ground, lessening the growth of weeds. Corn was a staple crop (one that the Powhatan ate every day). Besides eating the corn on the cob, the Powhatan used it to make hominy (a mushy cereal), and meal (a ground-up powder for soups and bread). Corn and beans were added to soups with oysters or other kinds of meat. The Powhatan grew many kinds of corn, including flint corn (which has a hard outer shell and red or white kernels), and a type of popcorn with stalks that were three or four feet tall. Large Group Activity: Explain to the class how important corn was to the Powhatan. Pour corn kernels into the mortar. Demonstrate how corn was ground to make corncakes. Allow each student to have a turn grinding the corn. Instruct students to grind a rhythmic pattern with the pestle that others can clap as they wait for their turn to pound. Small Group Activity: Tell students to think about what they eat each day and if we eat corn every day like the Powhatan. Distribute groceries (see attached list) for students to look at with neighbors to see if the word “corn” is in the ingredients. Individual activity: Have students share which groceries contained corn (all of them). Emphasize that we too, might eat corn every day. Have students write sentences with the following structure: “I knew that______had corn in it. I was surprised that ______had corn in it. Something I eat every day that has corn in it is______.”

Intermediate activity Background Information: The Powhatan farmed for much of their food. They mainly ate corn, beans, and squash, known as “the three sisters.” Women planted these crops together. The Powhatan ate corn on the cob and made meal (a ground-up powder to make soups and bread) from corn. They grew many kinds of corn, including flint corn (which has a hard outer shell and red or white kernels), and a type of popcorn with stalks that were three or four feet tall. Corn could be preserved for the winter. It was also used to make hominy (a mushy cereal), which is very complicated to make—corn kernels are cleaned by seeping them in lye water for a day, then they are boiled, and their tips are removed. The Powhatan ate this cereal very regularly. They were resourceful in how they used corn, because they ate it in many ways. They also used its husks to make dolls, masks, and mats, and they used husks to make a kind of fuel. Large Group Activity: Explain how important corn was to the Powhatan. Define what hominy is and show images of it. Have students pound the previously prepared corn to make hominy. Show the painting of the Powhatan eating. State that they may have been eating hominy. Show images of hominy making to illustrate the process. Show the Powhatan’ resourcefulness with pictures of moccasins, mats, and corn husk dolls. Small Group Activity: Ask students to think about how the Powhatan used corn, and if we still rely on corn as much as they did. Assign groups of 4-5 a topic to research corn use in fuel, food, or plastics. Individual activity: Have groups share what they learned about corn in each context. Explain how corn syrup, ethanol, and some plastics are made from corn. Have students think of a food we eat often, as much as the Powhatan ate corn. Have them write a few sentences describing how we use or prepare the food they chose. Model an example like, “My favorite food is applesauce. People don’t eat it every day, but lots of people eat apples, apple pie, or drink apple juice.”

80

Primary and Intermediate images—Types of Powhatan corn

White corn (often used for hominy)

Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/cereals/anson.asp

Blue corn (often used for hominy)

81

Red corn (often used for hominy)

Red and blue images both retrieved March 19, 2008 from http://www.southernexposure.com/Merchant2/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Category_Code= DCORN

Yellow corn (often preserved during winter and/or used for hominy, cornbread, corncakes, and stews)

Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Ca-De/Corn-or-Maize- Based-Diets.html

82

Bamboo mortar and pestle which could be used to make corncakes/hominy with students ($20 from Target.com) Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://www.target.com/gp/detail.html/601-4511718- 3859345?ASIN=B000QJ3TL2&AFID=Froogle&LNM=B000QJ3TL2|Bamboo_Mortar_and_Pes tle&ci_src=14110944&ci_sku=B000QJ3TL2&ref=tgt_adv_XSG10001

83 Intermediate Images—Different uses for corn and the importance of hominy

An image showing the distinct corn kernels among sweet corn, field corn, and popcorn

Image retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Popcorn.html

84

Powhatan sharing a meal, which is likely hominy

Hariot, T. (1590). Image from A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia. Frankfurt, 1590. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.folger.edu/html/folger_institute/jamestown/c_appelbaum.htm

85

Victoria Rumble, employing traditional utensils and methods of making hominy in Florence, AL

Images retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.thistledewbooks.com/Photo_Gallery/index.html

A modern mat made from corn husks, marketed as an edible product for small pets

Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.leithpetwerks.com/prodpage.cfm?prod_code=FLT140

86

A Chinese meditation mat made from corn husks

Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://142.179.193.231/Daqingshan%20in%20the%20summer/Forms/DispForm.aspx?ID=75

Examples of moccasins made from corn husks (Iroquois)

Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www.galenfrysinger.com/oneida_nation_wisconsin.htm

87

Examples of corn husk dolls (Iroquois)

Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://www.galenfrysinger.com/oneida_nation_wisconsin.htm

88 Corn cake recipe (Primary)

Grind dried corn until all the kernels are crushed. Fine grain will yield a better consistency and taste. Add enough water to cover the cornmeal and stir, allowing the tougher husks to rise and float on the water. Pour the husks off with the excess water. Mix the wet cornmeal with about 1 tbsp honey until it holds together. Form a patty and cook on a hot griddle, turning once. The corn cake will taste like caramel corn as the honey caramelizes to hold the corn cake together.

Adapted from:

Parrella, D. (1995). Project Seasons: Hands-on activities for discovering the wonders of the world. Burlington: Shelburne Farms.

Groceries to give student groups that contain some form of corn

-Canned corn

-Popcorn

-White bread

-Bubblegum

-Juice boxes

-Corn flakes

-Marshmallows

-Jelly

-Pudding

-Salad dressing

-Cornbread mix

-Ketchup

-Corn chips

-Dog food

-Bologna

-Instant grits

89 -Starburst candy

-Jello (snack cups or powder)

-Cake mix

-Frosting

Ideas for list retrieved on March 23, 2008, from http://homepage.mac.com/changcy/allergy/allergy-corn.pdf

90 Hominy Recipe (intermediate)

Retrieved March 21, 2008, from http://www.recipezaar.com/38585

Ingredients

2 quarts dry field corn 8 quarts water 2 ounces lye salt

Directions 1) Place corn in an enameled pan; add water and lye. 2) Boil vigorously for 30 minutes. 3) Let stand for 20 minutes. 4) Rinse off lye with several hot water rinses. 5) Follow with cold water rinses to cool for handling. 6) Work hominy with hands until dark tips of kernels are removed. This may take awhile. 7) Separate the tips from the corn by floating them off. 8) Add water to cover hominy about 1 inch and boil 5 minutes; change water. 9) Repeat this step 4 times. 10) Add water and cook until kernels are soft (30 to 45 minutes) and drain; saving this hot water you drain off. 11) Pack hominy into sterile jars about 1/2 full. 12) Add 1 teaspoon salt to each quart jar. 13) Fill to within 1/2 inch of top of jar with water in which the corn was last cooked in or boiling water. 14) Put on cap, screw band firmly tight. 15) Process: using 10 pounds of pressure. -Pints for 60 minutes, quarts for 70 minutes. I used quart jars and only filled them half full with the hominy, because during the processing, the hominy will expand.

91 Descriptions of how corn products are made/used in foods

Corn syrup is a thick liquid that sweetens many products such as marshmallows and ketchup, thickens products like soup, and is also used as a preservative to help foods like bread stay fresh longer. Making corn syrup is a long process. First, the corn has to be cleaned by soaking it for 20-40 hours until it is soft in a process called steeping. Next, corn oil is removed from it. Other parts of the corn called starch, protein, and fiber are left after the corn oil is taken out. The fiber, or bran, is removed next to use for animal food and cereal. The protein, called gluten, is also removed. Gluten is used for animal food, too. Now all that is left is corn starch, which is sometimes used in other food products like puddings and instant mixes. The corn starch that isn’t used can be used to make ethanol (which will be mentioned later), or goes through acid hydrolysis to make corn syrup. In acid hydrolysis, a kind of acid called hydrochloric acid is added to the corn starch and turns the starch into sugar. When the corn starch turns to sugar, it is called corn syrup. To make the corn syrup thicker, some water is evaporated, or taken away, from it. High fructose corn syrup is a different kind of corn syrup that is used in foods like pastries, cereal, and sodas. It has a kind of sugar in it called fructose that makes it different from regular corn syrup. With all of these products that are added to food for different reasons, it is no wonder that it would be hard to go a day without eating corn! Besides its uses for food, corn is also used to make adhesives for products like bandages and envelopes. It is also used to make inks, some liquid medicines, cardboard, and aspirin.

Answers.com (2007). How corn syrup is made. Retrieved March 21, 2008, from http://www.answers.com/topic/corn-syrup?cat=technology

Iowa Corn Growers Association (2008). Corn Use & Education: Primary Products from Corn. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.iowacorn.org/cornuse/cornuse_6.html

Description of the benefits of plastics made from corn

We use plastics every day and they make our lives more convenient—they package our food, and are used to make things we use every day, like binders and coat hangers, to name two. Plastics are wonderful and are all around us, but making them uses up a lot of petroleum, or oil, products, which we already depend on a lot to run our cars. When plastics are thrown away, they leave behind hazardous wastes because of the chemicals that are used to make them. Plastics cause environmental problems because after they are thrown away, the chemicals in them can travel from landfills into our groundwater supply that we use for drinking water. They also take a very long time to decompose, or break down in landfills and can stay there for many years—so even if it took us five minutes to eat our mini pack of Pringles chips, the container could be in the landfill for years. Scientists are studying one way to solve the problems these plastics cause. New plastics made from corn do not produce hazardous wastes. They are also biodegradable, or able to break down naturally in the environment. Corn plastics will nearly fully decompose after about one month. They even begin to break down at about 135 degrees. When people who buy food stored in plastic containers made from corn, they have to be careful not to heat the food in the microwave since the container may start to deteriorate! Ohio has recently started to use plastics made from corn. These plastics are not very strong, though, so researchers in Iowa have begun to use nanoclays, which are very tiny pieces of clay, to reinforce the corn plastic, or make

92 it stronger. We will see how these kinds of plastics are used in the future. In Iowa, researchers plan to use the plastics for food packaging, wraps for bales of hay, and pots for plants. They are also planning to use these plastics for hog feeders, too. One reason is the corn (and soybean oils) used to make the new plastics are a lot cheaper than petrochemicals, which are chemicals that are made from petroleum or natural gas, and are used to make plastics. As gas prices keep going up, corn and soybean oils will continue to be great alternatives for making plastics. Iowa produces the most corn, soybeans and pork of any state, so it makes sense that they are thinking of ways to use plastics made of corn, and soy, too!

Iowa State University (2006, November 2). Researchers Improving Plastics Made From Corn And Soy Proteins. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061030122045.htm

Iowa State University (2007, January 23). Corn, Soy Plastics To Be Made Into Hog Feeders. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 24, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/070122122337.htm

Nicholson, S. (Broadcaster). (2004, January 21). Plastic Made of Corn? New plastic product not manufactured but grown [Radio broadcast episode]. In J. St. Clair (Producer). Science & Technology. Kent, OH: National Public Radio. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.wksu.org/news/story/17067

Description of how ethanol fuel helps the environment

We rely on gasoline tremendously—every day our parents drive to work, we come to school in cars or on the bus, and we use cars powered by gasoline to get groceries and go to soccer practice. In going all of these places, we add to the 141.6 billion gallons of gasoline in Americans use each year—and that was just in 2005! Because oil is a non-renewable resource, it is important for us to try to conserve, or save it. It will not be around forever, so we will need ways to run our cars when the oil supply is used up. Scientists have been experimenting with a kind of fuel called ethanol, which is made from corn. Some cars can run on 85% ethanol and 15% regular gasoline. If more of these kinds of cars are manufactured, or made, we would not have to depend on countries so much for oil. Gas is very expensive, so using ethanol in combination with oil would help Americans save money. Many vehicles, especially buses and other vehicles that run on diesel fuel (gas that contains lead) cause pollution. Ethanol is a very environmental-friendly product that does not pollute the air, so scientists are hoping to produce a kind of ethanol that can power diesel-fueled vehicles. Aside from fuel, the process involved in making ethanol results in other byproducts we can use, like grains, gluten feed, carbon dioxide, sweeteners. Another benefit of ethanol is that the amount of energy you can use from ethanol is bigger than the amount of energy it takes to make ethanol. To make this idea clearer, think about blowing bubbles with liquid bubbles and bubblegum—with very little effort, you can make a lot of soap bubbles. But, using the same amount of air (and effort), you would only be able to make one bubble gum bubble. Aside from being good for the environment and relatively inexpensive to make, making ethanol requires little energy to make relative to the amount of energy it produces.

93

Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Inc. (2007). Gasoline and the American People 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www2.cera.com/gasoline/summary/

National Corn Growers Association (2005). Ethanol, America’s Clean Renewable Fuel. Retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.ncga.com/ethanol/main/energy.htm

94 Examples of Primary and Intermediate student work:

Primary:

95

Intermediate:

96 97 98

99 100 Primary Assessment

1) Circle the picture of a mortar and pestle.

2) Corn, beans, and squash were called The Three

a) Brothers b) Sisters c) Friends

3) The Powhatan liked to add corn to which of these foods?

Sandwiches Soups Pies

Needle and thread image retrieved March 22, 2008, from http://www.logosportswear.com/embroiderydesigns/Sewing

Ball and cup image retrieved March 22, 2008, from: http://www.smartstart- toys.co.uk/product_info.php?products_id=294

101 Intermediate Assessment

1) Besides eating it, name one way the Indians used corn:______

Answers may include corn husk dolls, masks, mats, moccasins, and fuel.

2) What were The Three Sisters?

Corn, beans, and squash

3) Name two reasons ethanol is a better choice of fuel than oil. 1)______2)______

Answers may include: it is easy to produce, it is a renewable resource, it does not pollute the air, it is cheaper than gas, it will reduce American dependency on oil, and making ethanol results in other byproducts.

4) What does it mean if something is biodegradable?

a) It will melt when heated at high temperatures. b) It takes a long time to produce. c) It is a natural resource. d) It breaks down naturally in the environment.

5) Imagine that the Powhatan had eaten corn just off the cob. How would our lives be different today if they had not experimented with corn to find new foods they could make from it? What foods might not exist?

If the Powhatan only ate corn on the cob, they would not have had cornbread, hominy, or popcorn. They also might not have made mats, dolls, or masks made from other parts of the corn plant if they only ate corn. Today, we might not have popcorn, cornbread, or grits/hominy, either. Many of the groceries that have corn in them like chips and cereal, and even groceries that have corn syrup in them might not exist. There might be no ethanol or plastics made from corn if the Powhatan had not started to think of other uses for corn.

102 Resources (not cited earlier):

Bial, R. (2002). The Powhatan. New York: Benchmark Books.

Chief Ray Crazy Horse (n.d.). Corn and the Powhatan. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from http://www.relist.net/indian/corn.html

Sjonger, R. & Kahlman, B. (2005). Life of the Powhatan. Canada: Crabtree Publishing Company.

The Family Farm Project (1997). Types of Corn. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www2.kenyon.edu/projects/farmschool/food/corntyp.htm

The Mariners’ Museum (2002). Native Americans Pre-Contact. Retrieved March 17, 2008, from http://www.mariner.org/chesapeakebay/native/nam005.html

103 Expense List*

Material Location Price 2 packages kidney beans Wal-Mart (or other grocery $0.99/bag store) 2 packages lima beans Wal-Mart (or other grocery $1.25/bag store) 2 packages pinto beans Wal-Mart (or other grocery $0.99/bag store) 3 packages glass beads Wal-Mart (or craft store) $2.50/bag (~300 beads/bag) Material for intermediate Wal-Mart (or fabric store) $2.00/yard vests (~1 yard/student) Feathers for primary vests Wal-Mart (or craft store) $1.50/bag Mortar and pestle (if one Target.com $20.00 cannot be borrowed) Corn kernels for hominy or Wal-Mart (or other grocery $2.50/bag corn cake making store)

*Specific quantities needed will vary depending on class size. Figures given are approximate.

104 Jenny Huebner

Culture Kit Assessment—Primary Pre/Post Test

1) Look at the map. If you are at the statue of the wolf (number 2), what direction would you go to get to the library (number 7)?

d) North e) East f) South

2) Which is a picture of a longhouse?

a)

b)

c)

105 3)The fences around the Powhatan longhouses were called

d) palisades e) tomahawks f) moccasins

4) What is a portrait?

d) a picture of someone

e) a boat

f)

5) Look at the two paintings of Pocahontas. Circle the one that shows her wearing a laced ruff. Draw an arrow pointing to the laced ruff.

106

6) Pocahontas was seen as a Native American Princess in which country? a) England b) France c) Spain

7) Circle the picture that shows what a Powhatan chief would wear around his or her neck.

a) b) c)

8) Who wore the mantle we saw? a) Sitting Bull b) Chief Powhatan c) Chief Mohawk

107 9) Circle what Chief Powhatan used to decorate his mantle.

a) b) c)

10) Circle the picture of a mortar and pestle.

11) Corn, beans, and squash were called The Three

a) Brothers b) Sisters c) Friends

12) The Powhatan liked to add corn to which of these foods?

Sandwiches Soups Pies

108 Culture Kit Assessment—Intermediate Pre/Post Test

1) What country came to America before the English? Spain

2) What year did the English settlers land in Jamestown? 1607

3) How many ships did the colonists arrive on? What were their names? 3; Godspeed, Susan Constant, and Discovery

4) What were two things the Virginia Company hoped to find in America? Gold and a waterway to the Pacific Ocean

5) Who was Chief Powhatan’s daughter? Pocahontas

6) Who did she marry? John Rolfe

7) What did the Powhatan call the longhouses they lived in? Yehakins

8) Name 2 things Powhatan women did in their villages. Made baskets, planted crops, wove baskets, took care of children, cooked food

9) Name 2 things Powhatan men did in their villages. Hunted, built longhouses and fences, built canoes, fished

Write 2-3 complete sentences to answer each question.

10) How did John Smith’s experiences in foreign countries prepare him to be a leader of the Jamestown colony? Hint: How did he communicate with the native people in France, Turkey, Italy, and then in Jamestown?

As a soldier in many armies abroad, John Smith communicated with foreigners using sign language. He also learned the native languages of the countries he was fighting in. When he came to Virginia, he used these techniques to communicate with the Powhatan as well—first he used signs, then he gradually learned some words in their languages.

11) Why did John Smith decide it was important to make sure the Powhatan tribes saw the colonists’ weapons?

John Smith wanted the Powhatan tribes to see the English colonists’ weapons so they would think the English were fierce and powerful. If the tribes thought that the colonists could harm

109 them with their weapons, then they would be less likely to fight with or steal from the colonists for fear of what their weapons could do to their tribes.

12) How did John Smith make sure all the colonists at Jamestown worked to find food and build houses?

John Smith made a rule of “He who does not work does not eat” to make sure all of the colonists

13) What is one thing John Smith traded with the Powhatan in return for food?

a) Copper b) Glass c) Hats d) Guns

14) Which of the following is not a natural resource John Smith wrote about finding in New England?

a) Whales b) Furs c) Corn d) Wood

15) Besides eating it, name one way the Indians used corn:______

Answers may include corn husk dolls, masks, mats, moccasins, and fuel.

16) What were The Three Sisters?

Corn, beans, and squash

17) Name two reasons ethanol is a better choice of fuel than oil. 1)______2)______

Answers may include: it is easy to produce, it is a renewable resource, it does not pollute the air, it is cheaper than gas, it will reduce American dependency on oil, and making ethanol results in other byproducts.

18) What does it mean if something is biodegradable?

e) It will melt when heated at high temperatures. f) It takes a long time to produce.

110 g) It is a natural resource. h) It breaks down naturally in the environment.

19) Imagine that the Powhatan had eaten corn just off the cob. How would our lives be different today if they had not experimented with corn to find new foods they could make from it? What foods might not exist?

If the Powhatan only ate corn on the cob, they would not have had cornbread, hominy, or popcorn. They also might not have made mats, dolls, or masks made from other parts of the corn plant if they only ate corn. Today, we might not have popcorn, cornbread, or grits/hominy, either. Many of the groceries that have corn in them like chips and cereal, and even groceries that have corn syrup in them might not exist. There might be no ethanol or plastics made from corn if the Powhatan had not started to think of other uses for corn.

20) Circle the picture that shows Chief Powhatan.

a) b) c) d)

21) Name one kind of robe Powhatan chiefs or wealthy tribe members wore in the winter.

Feather or leather

22) Name the two animals that some people think Chief Powhatan put on his mantle. (To be asked in the post-test: What kinds of designs did you choose to put on your mantle, and why?)

A deer and a wolf (or mountain lion); answers will vary based on individual mantle designs.

111 23) Name 2 of the Powhatan tribes.

Answers could include: Pamunkey, Mattaponi, Upper Mattaponi, Chickahominy, Nansemond, Rappahannock, Paspahegh, Warascoyak, Kecougtan, and Chesapeake

Inquiry lesson essay:

Imagine you have been given the task of creating a set of guidelines for using Native American names and mascots in national sports teams. Describe your policy in detail, and give reasons for why you chose it (50 pts.). Will your policy affect all sports teams equally (meaning, will all teams either be forbidden from or allowed to use Native American names and mascots? Think about how the NCAA’s policy affected the three colleges we mentioned differently). Include arguments from both Native Americans and non-Native Americans that have been made for and against the use of Native American team names and mascots (30 pts.). Discuss how your policy will affect people on both sides of the argument that we mentioned in class—is there a chance that your policy will disappoint some, while satisfying, offending, or even angering others (10 pts.)? Which individuals or groups would feel these emotions (10 pts.)?

112 Bibliography

American Indian Movement (n.d.). National Coalition on Racism in Sports and Media. Retrieved April 6, 2008, from http://www.aimovement.org/ncrsm/index.html

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