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Wasta: Advancing a Holistic Model to Bridge the Micro-Macro Divide

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Wasta: Advancing a Holistic Model to Bridge the Micro-Macro Divide Wasta: Advancing a holistic model to bridge the micro-macro divide Item Type Article Authors Ali, Sa'ad; Weir, David Citation Ali, S. and Weir, D. (2020). 'Wasta: Advancing a holistic model to bridge the micro-macro divide'. Management and Organization Review, pp. 1-29. DOI 10.1017/mor.2020.27 Publisher Cambridge University Press Journal Management and Organization Review Download date 28/09/2021 19:27:59 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10545/624936 Wasta: Advancing a holistic model to bridge the micro-macro divide Sa’ad Ali and David Weir Abstract This paper offers a synthesis of understandings of Wasta, seen as a form of social network prevalent in the Arab Middle East. Whilst there has been increasing interest in this practice, research remains fragmented and has been criticised for its limited theoretical rigor. To address this issue, a systematic review of peer-reviewed journal articles exploring Wasta published between 1993 and 2019 was conducted. The authors analysed the identified papers according to the theoretical lens from which Wasta was viewed, creating a bridge between a theoretical focus on the macro aspect of Wasta and an alternative focus on its micro aspects, leading to the development of a holistic model of Wasta. The model also helps us to understand the complexity of Wasta, both as the network itself and as the social ties that exist among its members, and sheds light on the complex nature of the role and interactions of the Waseet. The findings respond to calls for more holistic and inclusive research to inform social networks research and bridge the micro–macro divide. The paper offers recommendations to future researchers to build on the holistic and emic approach to Wasta research adopted here. An identical version of this paper has been accepted by Management and Organization Review April 2020 1 Sensitivity: Internal 2 Sensitivity: Internal 1 Introduction The study of the impact of social networks and interpersonal relationships on business practices in different regions of the world has been important in international business research in the past decade (Velez-Calle, Robledo-Ardila, & Rodriguez-Rios., 2015). Researchers have used frameworks based on social networks, institutions, social capital and group identity to explore the role that an individual’s membership of networks and alliances plays in influencing their business decisions and practices (Coleman, 1988; Putnam, 1995; Granovetter, 2005; Li, 2007; Qi, 2013; Sato, 2010; Ledeneva, 2018). In Arab countries, Wasta describes networks rooted in family and kinship ties that individuals, acting through their connections, use to bypass formal bureaucratic procedures and to ease the process of achieving a goal (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993; Hutchings & Weir, 2006a, Hutchings & Weir, 2006b; Smith, Torres, Leong, Budhwar, Achoui, & Lebedeva, 2012a). Wasta is also known as Ma’arifa or Piston, which denote similar practices in North African nations such as Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Iles, Almhodie, & Baruch, 2012; Smith, Huang, Harb, & Torres, 2012b). The countries of the Arab Middle East hold substantial importance for the world, politically, geographically and economically (Hutchings &Weir, 2006a; Iles et al., 2012). As a result, scholars in economics have conducted substantial research on the countries of the Arab Middle East; however, management inquiry has been scarce and fragmented (Weir, 2000; Metcalfe, 2007; Iles et al., 2012; Khakhar & Rammal, 2013). Indeed, there is still much that western economies and other cultures can learn about the management practices of the countries of the Arab Middle East to inform the development of their own practices. Doing so will answer the call of researchers for more contextually embedded and context-specific research (Tsui, 2004) to complement and contextualise the management theories developed in the UK, the USA and the countries of western Europe (Hofstede, 2017). This paper aims to leverage our theoretical understanding of Wasta by organising the fragmented research on this practice through a systematic literature review that will enable us to understand the practice in a more holistic way. In conducting this review, the authors analysed the identified papers in terms of the theoretical lens according to which Wasta was viewed, so creating a bridge between a theoretical focus on the macro aspect of Wasta (Wasta viewed according to institutional theory) and an 3 Sensitivity: Internal alternative focus on its micro aspects (Wasta interpreted through social capital and social networks theories), thus leading to the development of a holistic model of Wasta. From a practical perspective, in the context of business and organisational management, Wasta exists where social networks are influential in organisational decision making. Understanding Wasta is therefore important not just for Arab business people, but also for international businesses that operate in the countries of the Arab Middle East. Moreover, understanding Wasta processes can help researchers better to understand the way in which social capital and other forms of social networks impact on businesses around the world. The paper starts by exploring different informal social networks around the world, thereby revealing the similarities between them but also stressing their differences and justifying the importance of studying Wasta. The paper then presents the methodology used for the systematic literature review. The importance of Wasta in the business context is then explored, followed by a discussion of gaps in research on Wasta. Next, the paper provides a detailed exploration of the different theoretical lenses used to explore Wasta: the use of Wasta as a substitute for weak formal institutions and as a form of social capital and social network. Based on this discussion, the paper then a holistic model of Wasta, thereby adding to our understanding of Wasta in terms of social capital in complex networks. A further section discusses the implications of this research for theory and advances suggestions for practitioners. The paper concludes by discussing the limitations of this study and providing suggestions for future research. 2 Informal social networks around the world Management scholars have moved from an initial focus on how the business approaches developed in the UK, USA and western Europe can be applied in different contexts towards what organisations can learn from business practices in emerging and developing economies (Weir, 2003; Hutchings & Weir, 2006a; Horak & Klein, 2016). Some have explored different forms of social networks, such as Guanxi in China (Hutchings and Weir, 2006a; Qi, 2013; Chen, Chen, & Huang, 2013) and its counterparts: Wasta in the Arab Middle East (Hutchings and Weir, 2006a; Metcalfe, 2007); Blat in former Soviet countries (Ledeneva, 2006; Onoshchenko & Williams, 4 Sensitivity: Internal 2014); Compadrazgo in Latin American countries (Velez-Calle et al., 2015); Yongo, Yonjul and Inmaek in South Korea (Horak, 2014; Horak & Taube, 2016), ‘pulling strings’ in the UK (Smith et al., 2012); and Yruzki in Bulgaria (Williams & Yang, 2017), so highlighting the important impact these social networks have on different aspects of business practices in all of these areas. These networks, although similar to the concepts of alumni or professional networks in the west in terms of the benefits they bring to their members (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a; Horak, 2014), have a key difference in that they are deeply embedded in the cultures of the countries in which they are practised (Hutchings & Weir, 2006; Ledeneva, 2006; Horak, 2014; Velez- Calle et al., 2015; Horak & Taube, 2016). This cultural embeddedness means that they also differ in the facts that they are far less accessible to, and more prescriptive towards, their members (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993; Horak & Taube, 2016). Despite the similarities of such networks in terms of structure and form, which has led to some researchers treating these practices as different faces of the same coin (e.g. Smith et al., 2012a; Smith et al., 2012b), other scholars researching these networks have used analytical frameworks from different theoretical perspectives to unpack the differences among them. For instance, Horak & Tuabe (2016) compared the networks of Guanxi in China and Yongo in Korea using social capital and institutional theory. They observed some similarities: both networks are society-spanning constructs; they are relatively closed to outsiders; and they are developed and maintained through reciprocal action that creates trust and trustworthiness, which serves as a major factor in network cohesion. Nevertheless, the two networks evince several fundamental differences, most significantly the fact that Guanxi can be characterised as utilitarian (purpose-based), whereas Yongo is, in principle, based on cause-based ties. Other researchers have focused on how differences in the origins of each practice lead to variations in how individuals interact and the processes and procedures they go through to achieve a goal in each of these practices. In the case of Wasta, its origin is in tribalism (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993); for Guanxi, in Confucianism (Hutchings & Weir, 2006b); and for Blat, in communism (Onoshchenko & Williams, 2013). For example, it is argued that patrons of Blat generally view it as a positive practice due to the historic reliance upon it in the countries in which it prevailed during the Soviet era (Onoshchenko & Williams, 2014). This is because, in the Soviet
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